Diamond

The slightly misshapen octahedral shape of this rough diamond crystal in matrix is typical of the

mineral. Its lustrous faces also indicate that this crystal is from a primary deposit.

General

Category Native Minerals

Chemical formula C

Strunz classification [Link].10a

Identification

Molar mass 12.01 g·mol-1

Color Typically yellow, brown or gray to colorless. Less often blue, green,

black, translucent white, pink, violet, orange, purple and red.

Crystal habit Octahedral

Crystal system Isometric-Hexoctahedral (Cubic)

Cleavage 111 (perfect in four directions)

Fracture Conchoidal (shell-like)

Mohs scalehardness 10

Luster Adamantine
 Streak Colorless

Diaphaneity Transparent to subtransparent to translucent

Specific gravity 3.52±0.01

Density 3.5–3.53 g/cm3

Polish luster Adamantine

Optical properties Isotropic

Refractive index 2.418 (at 500 nm)

Birefringence None

Pleochroism None

Dispersion 0.044

Melting point Pressure dependent

[1][2]
References

A Rock, by a simple definition, is a solid with more than

one component of a mineral or mineraloid. A
single crystal is not a rock; but two crystals that are joined
together, even if they are the same mineral, are technically
a rock. The minerals or mineraloids may be large enough
to be easily identified (such as in a pegmatitic granite),
barely distinctive grains (as in a schist), or in a mixture of
microscopic grains such as in aslate. A rock does not even
need to have crystals but may be in the form of a non-
crystalline solid state or glass, an amorphous mixture in
which the chemicals are not crystallized into minerals,
such as in obsidian. Generally rocks are considered to only
be natural objects, but sometimes man-made substances
are included as rocks.
There are three main classes of Rocks. They are classified
according to how they originated. Igneous rocks form from
cooling bodies of magma. Over time, various weathering
processes erode these rocks and the resulting particles or
chemicals settle into beds and are compressed and
cemented into sedimentary rocks. If these rocks are
buried, heated and highly compressed they will be made
into metamorphic rocks. If these rocks continue to be
heated and compressed to the point that they melt, then
the molten rock might eventually form another igneous
rock.  This is called the rock cycle.  It forms a complete
circle as one rock can be turned into another.  They can
even form different rocks of their own class.  A
sedimentary rock such as a sandstone can be weathered
and eroded and those fragments might eventually end up
as part of a shale, a different sedimentary rock.

There are well-known rocks on Earth that don't fit into

these classifications: primordial rocks, represented
by meteorites. These condensed in the vacuum of space
from the same solar nebula as the Sun and planets.

Understanding rocks, their origins and classifications, is

important to understanding the minerals that are found in
them, found on them or are a part of them. Below are the
major types of rocks:

IGNEOUS - Rocks formed from melted rock or magma

 PLUTONIC - Intrusive:
o ANORTHOSITE
o CARBONATITE
o DIORITE
o DUNITE
o GABBRO
o GRANITE
o KIMBERLITE
o LAMPROPHYRES
o MONZONITE
o PEGMATITE
 o PERIDOTITE
o PYROXENITE
o SYENITE
o TONOLITE

 VOLCANIC - Extrusive:
o ANDESITE
o BASALT
o CARBONATITE
o DACITE
o OBSIDIAN
o PUMICE
o RHYOLITE
o SCORIA

SEDIMENTARY - Rocks formed from the consolidation

of sediments

 BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

o BANDED IRON FORMATION (BIF)

o COAL
 BITUMINOUS
 ANTHRACITE
 LIGNITE
 JET
 PEAT
o CHALK
o CHERT OR FLINT
o COQUINA
o LIMESTONE
o PHOSPHORITE

 CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

o BRECCIA
o CLAYSTONE
o CONGLOMERATE
 o MUDSTONE
o SANDSTONE
o SHALE
o SILTSTONE
o TILLITE

 EVAPORATIVE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

o ANHYDRITE
o DOLOMITE OR DOLOSTONE
o GYPSUM
o HALITE

METAMORPHIC - Rocks formed from heat and pressure

 GNEISS
 MARBLE
 QUARTZITE
 PHYLLITE
 SCHIST
 SERPENTINITE
 SLATE
 SOAPSTONE

UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS
In addition to the hard things called "rocks", minerals are
sometimes found in loose collections of material called
"unconsolidated sediments". Here are some major
categories of these sediments, plus a couple of special
interest to mineral collectors:

 ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS
 LAHARS
 MINING TALUS PILES
 MORAINES
 ORES
 PEAT
  SANDS
 SOILS
 TEPHRA
 TILLS

PRIMORDIAL ROCKS
Before the Earth was formed, before igneous or
sedimentary or metamorphic was even possible, there
were rocks and minerals. In the early solar system they
condensed directly from the solar nebula, and are visible
today as asteroids and comets in space, and as meteorites
on Earth:

 COMETS
 ASTEROIDS
 METEORITES
 CHONDRITES
 CHONDRULES
 CAI's
 PRESOLAR GRAINS
 METEORIC MINERALS

In mineralogy, diamond (from the ancient Greek αδάμας – adámas "unbreakable") is an allotrope of carbon, where the

carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is less

stable thangraphite, but the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at ambient conditions. Diamond is renowned as a

material with superlative physical qualities, most of which originate from the strong covalent bonding between its atoms. In particular,

diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material. Those properties determine the major industrial

application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools.

Diamond has remarkable optical characteristics. Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminated by very few types of

impurities, such as boron and nitrogen. Combined with wide transparency, this results in the clear, colorless appearance of most natural

diamonds. Small amounts of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) color diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen),

brown (lattice defects), green, purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion(ability to disperse light of

different colors), which results in its characteristic luster. Excellent optical and mechanical properties, combined with efficient marketing,

make diamond the most popular gemstone.

Most natural diamonds are formed at high-pressure high-temperature conditions existing at depths of 140 to 190 kilometers (87 to 120

mi) in the Earth mantle. Carbon-containing minerals provide the carbon source, and the growth occurs over periods from 1 billion to

3.3 billion years (25% to 75% of the age of the Earth). Diamonds are brought close to the Earth surface through deep volcanic
eruptions by a magma, which cools into igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites. Diamonds can also be produced

synthetically in a high-pressure high-temperature process which approximately simulates the conditions in the Earth mantle. An

alternative, and completely different growth technique is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Several non-diamond materials, which

include cubic zirconia and silicon carbide and are often called diamond simulants, resemble diamond in appearance and many

properties. Special gemological techniques have been specially developed to distinguish natural and synthetic diamonds and diamond

simulants.

Contents

 [hide]

1 History

2 Material properties

o 2.1 Hardness

o 2.2 Electrical conductivity

o 2.3 Color

o 2.4 Identification

3 Natural history

o 3.1 Formation in cratons

o 3.2 Deposition in meteorite

impact craters

o 3.3 Transport from mantle

4 Production

o 4.1 Controversial sources

5 Commercial markets

o 5.1 Gemstones and their

distribution

 5.1.1 Marketing

 5.1.2 Cutting

o 5.2 Industrial uses

6 Synthetics, simulants, and

enhancements

o 6.1 Synthetics

o 6.2 Simulants

o 6.3 Enhancements

o 6.4 Identification

7 See also

8 References

9 Books
 10 External links

History
See also: Diamond (gemstone)

The name diamond is derived from the ancient Greek αδάμας (adámas), "proper", "unalterable", "unbreakable, untamed", from ἀ- (a-),

"un-" + δαμάω (damáō), "I overpower, I tame".[3] Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in India, where

significant alluvial deposits of the stone could be found many centuries ago along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. Diamonds

have been known in India for at least 3,000 years but most likely 6,000 years.[4]

Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage in engraving tools also

dates to early human history.[5][6] The popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19th century because of increased supply, improved

cutting and polishing techniques, growth in the world economy, and innovative and successful advertising campaigns.[7]

In 1772, Antoine Lavoisier used a lens to concentrate the rays of the sun on a diamond in an atmosphere of oxygen, and showed that

the only product of the combustion was carbon dioxide, proving that diamond is composed of carbon. Later in 1797, Smithson

Tennantrepeated and expanded that experiment. By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite releases the same amount of

gas he established the chemical equivalence of these substances.[8]

The most familiar use of diamonds today is as gemstones used for adornment, a use which dates back into antiquity. The dispersion of

white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology have

developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem.

Four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these

are carat,cut, color, and clarity.[9] A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon.

Material properties
Main articles: Material properties of diamond and Crystallographic defects in diamond

Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbon

Diamond and graphite are two allotropesof carbon: pure forms of the same element that differ in structure.

A diamond is a transparent crystal oftetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms (sp3) that crystallizes into the diamond lattice which is a variation

of the face centered cubic structure. Diamonds have been adapted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical

characteristics. Most notable are its extreme hardness and thermal conductivity (900–2,320 W·m−1·K−1),[10] as well as widebandgap and

high optical dispersion.[11]Above 1,700 °C (1,973 K / 3,583 °F) invacuum or oxygen-free atmosphere, diamond converts to graphite; in

air, transformation starts at ~700 °C.[12] Naturally occurring diamonds have a density ranging from 3.15–3.53 g/cm3, with pure diamond

close to 3.52 g/cm3.[1] The chemical bonds that hold the carbon atoms in diamonds together are weaker than those in graphite. In

diamonds, the bonds form an inflexible three-dimensional lattice, whereas in graphite, the atoms are tightly bonded into sheets, which

can slide easily over one another, making the overall structure weaker.[13]

Hardness

Diamond is the hardest natural material known, where hardness is defined as resistance to scratching and is graded between 1 (softest)

and 10 (hardest) using the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Diamond has a hardness of 10 (hardest) on this scale.[14]Diamond's

hardness has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name.

Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to

the <111> direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice).[15] Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some

diamonds with other materials, such as boron nitride, the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds

andnanocrystalline diamond aggregates.

The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as a gemstone. Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains

its polish extremely well. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching—perhaps

contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement or wedding rings, which are often worn every day.

The hardest natural diamonds mostly originate from the Copeton and Bingara fields located in the New England area in New South

Wales, Australia. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra, and are used to polish other diamonds. Their

hardness is associated with the crystal growth form, which is single-stage crystal growth. Most other diamonds show more evidence of

multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws, and defect planes in the crystal lattice, all of which affect their hardness. It is

possible to treat regular diamonds under a combination of high pressure and high temperature to produce diamonds that are harder

than the diamonds used in hardness gauges.[16]

Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property toughness, which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful

impact. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 7.5–10 MPa·m1/2.[17][18] This value is good compared to other

gemstones, but poor compared to most engineering materials. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond

contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than

[Link] cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones, prior to faceting.[19]

Electrical conductivity

Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as semiconductors: some blue diamonds are natural

semiconductors, in contrast to most diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators.[20] The conductivity and blue color originate from

boron impurity. Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in the diamond lattice, donating a hole into the valence band.[20]

Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally undoped diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition. This conductivity is

associated with hydrogen-related species adsorbed at the surface, and it can be removed by annealing or other surface treatments.[21][22]

Color
Main article: Diamond color

Brown diamonds at the National Museum of Natural Historyin Washington, D.C

Diamond has a wide bandgap of 5.5 eV corresponding to the deepultraviolet wavelength of 225 nanometers. This means pure diamond

should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities. The

diamond crystal lattice is exceptionally strong and only atoms of nitrogen, boron and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during

the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents). Transition metals Ni and Co, which are commonly used for growth of

synthetic diamond by high-pressure high-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the maximum

concentration is 0.01% for Ni[23] and even much less for Co. Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation.[24]

Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds and is responsible for the yellow and brown color in diamonds.

Boron is responsible for the blue color.[11] Color in diamond has two additional sources: irradiation (usually by alpha particles), that

causes the color in green diamonds; and plastic deformation of the diamond crystal lattice. Plastic deformation is the cause of color in

some brown[25] and perhaps pink and red diamonds.[26] In order of rarity, yellow diamond is followed by brown, colorless, then by blue,

green, black, pink, orange, purple, and red.[19] "Black", or Carbonado, diamonds are not truly black, but rather contain numerous dark

inclusions that give the gems their dark appearance. Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration,

while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless. Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystal lattice,

known as a carbon flaw. The most common impurity, nitrogen, causes a slight to intense yellow coloration depending upon the type and

concentration of nitrogen present.[19] The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as
diamonds in the normal color range, and applies a grading scale from "D" (colorless) to "Z" (light yellow). Diamonds of a different color,

such as blue, are called fancy colored diamonds, and fall under a different grading scale.[19]

In 2008, the Wittelsbach Diamond, a 35.56-carat (7.11 g) blue diamond once belonging to the King of Spain, fetched overUS$24 million

at a Christie's auction.[27] In May 2009, a 7.03-carat (1.41 g) blue diamond fetched the highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond

when it was sold at auction for 10.5 million Swiss francs (6.97 million euro or US$9.5 million at the time).[28] That record was however

beaten the same year: a 5-carat (1.0 g) vivid pink diamond was sold for $10.8 million in Hong Kong on December 1, 2009.[29]

Identification

Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity. Their high refractive index is also indicative, but other materials have

similar refractivity. Diamonds cut glass, but this does not positively identify a diamond because other materials, such as quartz, also lie

above glass on the Mohs scale and can also cut it. Diamonds can scratch other diamonds, but this can result in damage to one or both

stones. Hardness tests are infrequently used in practical gemology because of their potentially destructive nature.[14] The extreme

hardness and high value of diamond means that gems are typically polished slowly using painstaking traditional techniques and greater

attention to detail than is the case with most other gemstones;[8] these tend to result in extremely flat, highly polished facets with

exceptionally sharp facet edges. Diamonds also possess an extremely high refractive index and fairly high dispersion. Taken together,

these factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond and most diamantaires still rely upon skilled use of

a loupe(magnifying glass) to identify diamonds 'by eye'.[30]

Natural history

The formation of natural diamond requires very specific conditions—exposure of carbon-bearing materials to high pressure, ranging

approximately between 45 and 60 kilobars (4.5 and 6 GPa), but at a comparatively low temperature range between approximately 900–

1300 °C. These conditions are met in two places on Earth; in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at

the site of a meteorite strike.[31]

Formation in cratons

One face of an uncut octahedral diamond, showing trigons (of positive and negative relief) formed by natural chemical etching

The conditions for diamond formation to happen in the lithospheric mantle occur at considerable depth corresponding to the

requirements of temperature and pressure. These depths are estimated between 140 and 190 km though occasionally diamonds have

crystallized at depths about 300 km as well.[32] The rate at which temperature changes with increasing depth into the Earth varies greatly

in different parts of the Earth. In particular, under oceanic plates the temperature rises more quickly with depth, beyond the range

required for diamond formation at the depth required. The correct combination of temperature and pressure is only found in the thick,
ancient, and stable parts of continental plates where regions of lithosphere known as cratons exist. Long residence in the cratonic

lithosphere allows diamond crystals to grow larger.[32]

Through studies of carbon isotope ratios (similar to the methodology used in carbon dating, except with the stable isotopes C-12 and C-

13), it has been shown that the carbon found in diamonds comes from both inorganic and organic sources. Some diamonds, known

as harzburgitic, are formed from inorganic carbon originally found deep in the Earth's mantle. In contrast, eclogitic diamonds contain

organic carbon from organic detritus that has been pushed down from the surface of the Earth's crust through subduction (seeplate

tectonics) before transforming into diamond. These two different source of carbon have measurably different 13C:12C ratios. Diamonds

that have come to the Earth's surface are generally quite old, ranging from under 1 billion to 3.3 billion years old. This is 22% to 73% of

the age of the Earth.[32]

Diamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as macles. As diamond's crystal structure

has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube, octahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis

hexahedron or disdyakis dodecahedron. The crystals can have rounded off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Sometimes

they are found grown together or form double "twinned" crystals at the surfaces of the octahedron. These different shapes and habits of

some diamonds result from differing external circumstances. Diamonds (especially those with rounded crystal faces) are commonly

found coated in nyf, an opaque gum-like skin.[33]

Deposition in meteorite impact craters

Not all diamonds found on Earth originated here. A type of diamond called carbonado that is found in South America and Africa may

have been deposited there via an asteroid impact (not formed from the impact) about 3 billion years ago. These diamonds may have

formed in the intrastellar environment, but as of 2008, there was no scientific consensus on how carbonado diamonds originated.[34][35]

Diamonds can also form under other naturally occurring high-pressure conditions. Very small diamonds of micrometer and nanometer

sizes, known as microdiamonds or nanodiamonds respectively, have been found in meteorite impact craters. Such impact events create

shock zones of high pressure and temperature suitable for diamond formation. Impact-type microdiamonds can be used as an indicator

of ancient impact craters.[31]

Transport from mantle

Schematic diagram of a volcanic pipe

Diamond-bearing rock is carried from the mantle to the Earth's surface by deep-origin volcanic eruptions. The magma for such a

volcano must originate at a depth where diamonds can be formed[32]—150 km (93 mi) or more (three times or more the depth of source

magma for most volcanoes). This is a relatively rare occurrence. These typically small surface volcanic craters extend downward in

formations known as volcanic pipes.[32]The pipes contain material that was transported toward the surface by volcanic action, but was

not ejected before the volcanic activity ceased. During eruption these pipes are open to the surface, resulting in open circulation;

many xenoliths of surface rock and even wood and fossils are found in volcanic pipes. Diamond-bearing volcanic pipes are closely

related to the oldest, coolest regions of continental crust (cratons). This is because cratons are very thick, and their lithospheric mantle

extends to great enough depth that diamonds are stable. Not all pipes contain diamonds, and even fewer contain enough diamonds to

make mining economically viable.[32]

The magma in volcanic pipes is usually one of two characteristic types, which cool into igneous rock known as either kimberlite or

lamproite.[32] The magma itself does not contain diamond; instead, it acts as an elevator that carries deep-formed rocks (xenoliths),

minerals (xenocrysts), and fluids upward. These rocks are characteristically rich in magnesium-bearing olivine, pyroxene,

and amphibole minerals[32] which are often altered toserpentine by heat and fluids during and after eruption. Certain indicator

minerals typically occur within diamantiferous kimberlites and are used as mineralogical tracers by prospectors, who follow the indicator

trail back to the volcanic pipe which may contain diamonds. These minerals are rich in chromium (Cr) or titanium (Ti), elements which

impart bright colors to the minerals. The most common indicator minerals are chromium garnets (usually bright red chromium-pyrope,

and occasionally green ugrandite-series garnets), eclogitic garnets, orange titanium-pyrope, red high-chromium spinels, dark chromite,

bright green chromium-diopside, glassy green olivine, black picroilmenite, and magnetite. Kimberlite deposits are known as blue

ground for the deeper serpentinized part of the deposits, or as yellow ground for the near surface smectite clay and

carbonate weathered and oxidized portion.[32]

Once diamonds have been transported to the surface by magma in a volcanic pipe, they may erode out and be distributed over a large

area. A volcanic pipe containing diamonds is known as a primary source of diamonds. Secondary sources of diamonds include all areas

where a significant number of diamonds have been eroded out of their kimberlite or lamproite matrix, and accumulated because of

water or wind action. These include alluvial deposits and deposits along existing and ancient shorelines, where loose diamonds tend to

accumulate because of their size and density. Diamonds have also rarely been found in deposits left behind by glaciers (notably

inWisconsin and Indiana); in contrast to alluvial deposits, glacial deposits are minor and are therefore not viable commercial sources of

diamond.[32]

Production

Diamond output in 2005

See also: List of diamond mines

Approximately 130,000,000 carats (26,000 kg) of diamonds are mined annually, with a total value of nearly US$9 billion, and about

100,000 kg (220,000 lb) are synthesized annually.[36]

Roughly 49% of diamonds originate from central and southern Africa, although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered

in Canada, India, Russia, Brazil, and Australia.[37] They are mined from kimberlite and lamproite volcanic pipes, which can bring

diamond crystals, originating from deep within the Earth where high pressures and temperatures enable them to form, to the surface.

The mining and distribution of natural diamonds are subjects of frequent controversy such as concerns over the sale of blood

diamonds or conflict diamonds by African paramilitarygroups.[38] The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful

businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world (see figure).

Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care is required not to

destroy larger diamonds, and then sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help

ofX-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace,[39] the

separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.[19]

Historically, diamonds were found only in alluvial deposits in Guntur and Krishna district of the Krishna River delta in Southern India.

[40]
India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC[4][41] to the mid-18th

century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was

eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.[4] Currently, one of the most prominent Indian mines is

located at Panna.[42]

Diamond extraction from primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond Fields in

South Africa.[43] Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of 4,500,000,000 carats (900,000 kg) have been

mined since that date.[44] Twenty percent of that amount has been mined in the last five years, and during the last 10 years, nine new

mines have started production; four more are waiting to be opened soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe,

Angola, and one in Russia.[44]

In the U.S., diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, and Montana.[45][46] In 2004, the discovery of a microscopic diamond in

the U.S. led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana.[46]

Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia (mostly in Sakha Republic, for example Mir pipe and Udachnaya

pipe), Botswana, Australia (Northern and Western Australia) and the Democratic Republic of Congo.[47] In 2005, Russia produced

almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, reports the British Geological Survey. Australia boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe,

with production from the Argyle diamond mine reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons per year in the 1990s.[45][48] There are also

commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada and Brazil.[37] Diamond prospectors continue to search

the globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.

Controversial sources
Main articles: Kimberley Process, Blood diamond, and Child labour in the diamond industry

In some of the more politically unstable central African and west African countries, revolutionary groups have taken control of diamond

mines, using proceeds from diamond sales to finance their operations. Diamonds sold through this process are known as conflict

diamonds or blood diamonds.[38] Major diamond trading corporations continue to fund and fuel these conflicts by doing business with

armed groups. In response to public concerns that their diamond purchases were contributing to war and human rights
abuses incentral and western Africa, the United Nations, the diamond industry and diamond-trading nations introduced the Kimberley

Process in 2002.[49] The Kimberley Process aims to ensure that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds not

controlled by such rebel groups. This is done by requiring diamond-producing countries to provide proof that the money they make from

selling the diamonds is not used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities. Although the Kimberley Process has been moderately

successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market, some still find their way in. Conflict diamonds constitute 2–

3% of all diamonds traded.[50] Two major flaws still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley Process: (1) the relative ease of smuggling

diamonds across African borders, and (2) the violent nature of diamond mining in nations that are not in a technical state of war and

whose diamonds are therefore considered "clean".[49]

The Canadian Government has set up a body known as Canadian Diamond Code of Conduct[51] to help authenticate Canadian

diamonds. This is a stringent tracking system of diamonds and helps protect the "conflict free" label of Canadian diamonds.[52]

Commercial markets
See also: Diamonds as an investment

A round brilliant cut diamond set in a ring

The diamond industry can be separated into two distinct categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-

grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.

Gemstones and their distribution

Main article: Diamond (gemstone)

A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Unlike other commodities, such as most precious metals, there is a substantial mark-up in

the retail sale of gem diamonds.[53] There is a well-established market for resale of polished diamonds (e.g. pawnbroking, auctions,

second-hand jewelry stores, diamantaires, bourses, etc.). One hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable

concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to just a few locations; In 2003, 92% of the world's diamonds were cut and

polished in Surat,India.[54] Other important centers of diamond cutting and trading are Antwerp, where theInternational Gemological

Institute is based, London, New York City, Tel Aviv, and Amsterdam. A single company—De Beers—controls a significant proportion of

the trade in diamonds.[55] They are based in Johannesburg, South Africa and London, England. One contributory factor is the geological

nature of diamond deposits: several large primary kimberlite-pipe mines each account for significant portions of market share (such as

the Jwaneng mine in Botswana, which is a single large pit operated by De Beers that can produce between 12,500,000 carats

(2,500 kg) to 15,000,000 carats (3,000 kg) of diamonds per year,[56]) whereas secondary alluvial diamond deposits tend to be
fragmented amongst many different operators because they can be dispersed over many hundreds of square kilometers (e.g., alluvial

deposits in Brazil).

The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, and concentrated in traditional

diamond trading centers, the most important being Antwerp, where 80% of all rough diamonds, 50% of all cut diamonds and more than

50% of all rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled.[57] This makes Antwerp a de facto "world diamond capital".

[58]
Another important diamond center is New York City, where almost 80% of the world's diamonds are sold, including auction sales.

[57]
The DeBeers company, as the world's largest diamond miner holds a dominant position in the industry, and has done so since soon

after its founding in 1888 by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes. De Beers owns or controls a significant portion of the world's rough

diamond production facilities (mines) and distribution channels for gem-quality diamonds. The Diamond Trading Company (DTC) is a

subsidiary of De Beers and markets rough diamonds from De Beers-operated mines. De Beers and its subsidiaries own mines that

produce some 40% of annual world diamond production. For most of the 20th century over 80% of the world's rough diamonds passed

through De Beers,[59] but in the period 2001–2009 the figure has decreased to around 45%.[60] De Beers sold off the vast majority of its

diamond stockpile in the late 1990s – early 2000s[61] and the remainder largely represents working stock (diamonds that are being

sorted before sale).[62] This was well documented in the press[63] but remains little known to the general public.

As a part of reducing its influence, De Beers withdrew from purchasing diamonds on the open market in 1999 and ceased, at the end of

2008, purchasing Russian diamonds mined by the largest Russian diamond company Alrosa.[64] As at January 2011, De Beers states

that it only sells diamonds from the following four countries: Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Canada.[65] Alrosa had to suspend

their sales in October 2008 due to the global energy crisis,[66] but the company reported that it had resumed selling rough diamonds on

the open market by October 2009.[67] Apart from Alrosa, other important diamond mining companies include BHP Billiton, which is the

world's largest mining company;[68] Rio Tinto Group, the owner of Argyle (100%), Diavik (60%), and Murowa (78%) diamond mines;

[69]
and Petra Diamonds, the owner of several major diamond mines in Africa.

Further down the supply chain, members of The World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) act as a medium for wholesale

diamond exchange, trading both polished and rough diamonds. The WFDB consists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting

centers such as Tel Aviv, Antwerp, Johannesburg and other cities across the USA, Europe and Asia.[19] In 2000, the WFDB and The

International Diamond Manufacturers Association established the World Diamond Council to prevent the trading of diamonds used to

fund war and inhumane acts. WFDB's additional activities include sponsoring the World Diamond Congress every two years, as well as

the establishment of the International Diamond Council (IDC) to oversee diamond grading.

Once purchased by Sightholders (which is a trademark term referring to the companies that have a three-year supply contract with

DTC), diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones ('industrial' stones are regarded as a by-product of the

gemstone market; they are used for abrasives).[70] The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated

in a limited number of locations worldwide.[70] Traditional diamond cutting centers are Antwerp, Amsterdam, Johannesburg, New York

City, and Tel Aviv. Recently, diamond cutting centers have been established in China, India, Thailand, Namibia and Botswana.

[70]
 Cutting centers with lower cost of labor, notably Surat in Gujarat, India, handle a larger number of smaller carat diamonds, while

smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more likely to be handled in Europe or North America. The recent expansion

of this industry in India, employing low cost labor, has allowed smaller diamonds to be prepared as gems in greater quantities than was

previously economically feasible.[57]

Diamonds which have been prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called bourses. There are 26 registered diamond

bourses in the world.[71] Bourses are the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able

to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be

sold already set in jewelry, or sold unset ("loose"). According to the Rio Tinto Group, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to

the market were valued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesale

diamond jewelry, and US$57 billion in retail sales.[72]

Marketing

The image of diamond as a valuable commodity has been preserved through clever marketing campaigns (as, indeed, is the case with

many other luxury products). In particular, the De Beers diamond advertising campaign is acknowledged as one of the most successful

and innovative campaigns in history. N. W. Ayer & Son, the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in

reviving the American diamond market and opened up new markets, even in countries where no diamond tradition had existed before.

N. W. Ayer's multifaceted marketing campaign included product placement, advertising the diamond itself rather than the De Beers

brand, and building associations with celebrities and royalty. It was a "generic" advertising campaign that tended to focus upon

promoting diamonds in general, or particular types of diamond jewellery, rather than specific brands. This meant that, as De Beers'

market share declined, it was increasingly advertising its competitors' products as well as its own[73] (De Beers' market share dipped

temporarily to 2nd place in the global market below Alrosa in the aftermath of the global economic crisis of 2008, down to less than 29%

in terms of carats mined, rather than sold[74]). The campaign lasted for decades but was effectively discontinued by early 2011. De

Beers still advertises diamonds, but the advertising now mostly promotes its own brands, or licensed product lines, rather than

completely "generic" diamond products[75]. The campaign was perhaps best captured by the slogan "a diamond is forever".[7] This slogan

is now being used by De Beers Diamond Jewelers[76], a jewelry firm which is a 50%/50% joint venture between the De Beers mining

company and LVMH, the luxury goods conglomerate.

Another example of successful diamond marketing is brown Australian diamonds. Brown-colored diamonds have always constituted a

significant part of the diamond production, but were considered worthless for jewelry; they were not even assessed on the diamond

color scale, and were predominantly used for industrial purposes. The attitude has changed drastically after the development of Argyle

diamond mine in Australia in 1986. As a result of an aggressive marketing campaign, brown diamonds have become acceptable gems.

[77][78]
 The change was mostly due to the numbers: the Argyle mine, with its 35,000,000 carats (7,000 kg) of diamonds per year, makes

about one-third of global production of natural diamonds;[79] 80% of Argyle diamonds are brown.[80]

Cutting
Main articles: Diamond cutting and Diamond cut
The Darya-I-Nur Diamond—an example of unusual diamond cut and jewelry arrangement

The mined rough diamonds are converted into gems through a multi-step process called "cutting". Diamonds are extremely hard, but

also brittle and can be split up by a single blow. Therefore, diamond cutting is traditionally considered as a delicate procedure requiring

skills, scientific knowledge, tools and experience. Its final goal is to produce a faceted jewel where the specific angles between the

facets would optimize the diamond luster, that is dispersion of white light, whereas the number and area of facets would determine the

weight of the final product. The weight reduction upon cutting is significant and can be of the order of 50%.[39] Several possible shapes

are considered, but the final decision is often determined not only by scientific, but also practical considerations. For example the

diamond might be intended for display or for wear, in a ring or a necklace, singled or surrounded by other gems of certain color and

shape.[81]

The most time-consuming part of the cutting is the preliminary analysis of the rough stone. It needs to address a large number of issues,

bears much responsibility, and therefore can last years in case of unique diamonds. The following issues are considered:

 The hardness of diamond and its ability to cleave strongly depend on the crystal orientation. Therefore, the crystallographic

structure of the diamond to be cut is analyzed using X-ray diffraction to choose the optimal cutting directions.

 Most diamonds contain visible non-diamond inclusions and crystal flaws. The cutter has to decide which flaws are to be

removed by the cutting and which could be kept.

 The diamond can be split by a single, well calculated blow of a hammer to a pointed tool, which is quick, but risky.

Alternatively, it can be cut with a diamond saw, which is a more reliable but tedious procedure.[81][82]

After initial cutting, the diamond is shaped in numerous stages of polishing. Unlike cutting, which is a responsible but quick operation,

polishing removes material by gradual erosion and is extremely time consuming. The associated technique is well developed; it is

considered as a routine and can be performed by technicians.[83] After polishing, the diamond is reexamined for possible flaws, either

remaining or induced by the process. Those flaws are concealed through various diamond enhancement techniques, such as
repolishing, crack filling, or clever arrangement of the stone in the jewelry. Remaining non-diamond inclusions are removed through

laser drilling and filling of the voids produced.[14]

Industrial uses

A scalpel with synthetic diamond blade

Close-up photograph of an angle grinderblade with tiny diamonds shown embedded in the metal

The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued

mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamonds, such as clarity and color,

irrelevant for most applications. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 135,000,000 carats (27,000 kg)

annually), unsuitable for use as gemstones, are destined for industrial use. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found

industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 570,000,000 carats (110,000 kg) of synthetic

diamond is produced annually for industrial use. Approximately 90% of diamond grinding grit is currently of synthetic origin.[37]

The boundary between gem-quality diamonds and industrial diamonds is poorly defined and partly depends on market conditions (for

example, if demand for polished diamonds is high, some suitable stones will be polished into low-quality or small gemstones rather than

being sold for industrial use). Within the category of industrial diamonds, there is a sub-category comprising the lowest-quality, mostly

opaque stones, which are known asbort.[84]

Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness; this property makes diamond the ideal material for

cutting and grinding tools. As the hardest known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any
material, including other diamonds. Common industrial adaptations of this ability include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, and the use

of diamond powder as an abrasive. Less expensive industrial-grade diamonds, known as bort, with more flaws and poorer color than

gems, are used for such purposes.[85] Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrousalloys at high speeds, as carbon is soluble in iron at

the high temperatures created by high-speed machining, leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives.

[86]

Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-

performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows.[84] With the continuing advances being made in the production of

synthetic diamonds, future applications are becoming feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a

semiconductor suitable to build microchips, or the use of diamond as a heat sink[87] in electronics.

Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements

Synthetics
Main article: Synthetic diamond

Synthetic diamonds of various colors grown by the high-pressure high-temperature technique

Synthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory, as opposed to diamonds mined from the Earth. The gemological and

industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough stones. This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic

diamonds, which have been manufactured by various processes for more than half a century. However, in recent years it has become

possible to produce gem-quality synthetic diamonds of significant size.[32]

The majority of commercially available synthetic diamonds are yellow and are produced by so called High Pressure High Temperature

(HPHT) processes.[88] The yellow color is caused by nitrogen impurities. Other colors may also be reproduced such as blue, green or

pink, which are a result of the addition of boron or from irradiation after synthesis.[89]

Colorless gem cut from diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition

Another popular method of growing synthetic diamond is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The growth occurs under low pressure

(below atmospheric pressure). It involves feeding a mixture of gases (typically 1 to 99 methane to hydrogen) into a chamber and

splitting them to chemically active radicals in a plasma ignited by microwaves, hot filament, arc discharge, welding torch or laser.[90] This

method is mostly used for coatings, but can also produce single crystals several millimeters in size (see picture).[36]

At present, the annual production of gem quality synthetic diamonds is only a few thousand carats, whereas the total production of

natural diamonds is around 120,000,000 carats (24,000 kg). Despite this fact, a purchaser is more likely to encounter a synthetic when

looking for a fancy-colored diamond because nearly all synthetic diamonds are fancy-colored, while only 0.01% of natural diamonds

are.[91]

Simulants
Main article: Diamond simulant

Gem-cut synthetic silicon carbide set in a ring

A diamond simulant is defined as a non-diamond material that is used to simulate the appearance of a diamond. Diamond-simulant

gems are often referred to as diamante. The most familiar diamond simulant to most consumers is cubic zirconia. The popular

gemstone moissanite (silicon carbide) is often treated as a diamond simulant, although it is a gemstone in its own right. While

moissanite looks similar to diamond, its main disadvantage as a diamond simulant is that cubic zirconia is far cheaper and arguably

equally convincing. Both cubic zirconia and moissanite are produced synthetically.[92]

Enhancements
Main article: Diamond enhancement

Diamond enhancements are specific treatments performed on natural or synthetic diamonds (usually those already cut and polished

into a gem), which are designed to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include laser drilling

to remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond's color grade, and treatments to give

fancy color to a white diamond.[93]

Coatings are increasingly used to give a diamond simulant such as cubic zirconia a more "diamond-like" appearance. One such

substance is diamond-like carbon—an amorphous carbonaceous material that has some physical properties similar to those of the

diamond. Advertising suggests that such a coating would transfer some of these diamond-like properties to the coated stone, hence

enhancing the diamond simulant. Techniques such as Raman spectroscopy should easily identify such a treatment.[94]

Identification

Early diamond identification tests included a scratch test relying on the superior hardness of diamond. This test is destructive, as a

diamond can scratch diamond, and is rarely used nowadays. Instead, diamond identification relies on its superior thermal conductivity.

Electronic thermal probes are widely used in the gemological centers to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist

of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other
measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's thermal energy rapidly

enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. This test takes about 2–3 seconds.[95]

Whereas the thermal probe can separate diamonds from most of their simulants, distinguishing between various types of diamond, for

example synthetic or natural, irradiated or non-irradiated, etc., requires more advanced, optical techniques. Those techniques are also

used for some diamonds simulants, such as silicon carbide, which pass the thermal conductivity test. Optical techniques can distinguish

between natural diamonds and synthetic diamonds. They can also identify the vast majority of treated natural diamonds.[96]"Perfect"

crystals (at the atomic lattice level) have never been found, so both natural and synthetic diamonds always possess characteristic

imperfections, arising from the circumstances of their crystal growth, that allow them to be distinguished from each other.[97]

Laboratories use techniques such as spectroscopy, microscopy and luminescence under shortwave ultraviolet light to determine a

diamond's origin.[96] They also use specially made instruments to aid them in the identification process. Two screening instruments are

the DiamondSure and the DiamondView, both produced by the DTC and marketed by the GIA.[98]

Several methods for identifying synthetic diamonds can be performed, depending on the method of production and the color of the

diamond. CVD diamonds can usually be identified by an orange fluorescence. D-J colored diamonds can be screened through theSwiss

Gemmological Institute's[99] Diamond Spotter. Stones in the D-Z color range can be examined through the DiamondSure UV/visible

spectrometer, a tool developed by De Beers.[97] Similarly, natural diamonds usually have minor imperfections and flaws, such as

inclusions of foreign material, that are not seen in synthetic diamonds.