Sustainable use of industrial waste as

partial replacement of fine aggregate for

preparation of concrete

Utilisation of industrial waste material enhances the human-

environment relationship by a two-way road
1)It compensates the lack of natural resources, henceforth
finding an alternative to safeguard nature.
2) It ensures the proper disposal of the industrial waste
material.
There are numerous industrial waste materials which can
replace the coarse and fine aggregates.
Various experiments have been conducted on particularly 2 of
the industrial wastes; these are:
1)copper slag
2)Foundry sand
Some more industrial wastes listed below are undergoing tests
and examinations for the replacement of sand in concrete.
They are:
 Steel slag
 Copper slag
 Imperial Smelting Furnace slag (ISF slag)
 Blast furnace slag
 Coal bottom ash
 Ferrochrome slag
  Palm oil clinker

It can be observed that the concrete in which sand is replaced

by copper slag, imperial smelting furnace slag, or class F
fly ash; exhibits improved strength and durability
properties.

Significance of Sand
 Fine aggregate (Sand) is a significant material utilised for
the composition of mortar and concrete and assumes a
most essential part in design mix.
 Properties of a specific concrete mix are determined by
the proportion and type of sand used to formulate the
concrete.
 It reduces volume changes resulting from setting and
hardening process and provides the major particles which
are suitable to resist the action of applied loads and show
better durability than cement paste alone.
 Why replace sand??

The growing demand of sand results in non-availability

of good quality sand and especially in India, deposits of
natural sand are being exhausted which create an extreme
menace to the environment, like losing water holding soil
strata, extending to the sliding of the banks of river.

 On the other hand, as the industrialisation increases, in

India, 960 million tonnes solid waste is being generated
yearly, out of which 290 million tonnes are unwanted
inorganic waste of mining & industrial division.
 Using industrial waste in concrete for conserving natural
resources and ensuring proper disposal of waste is a key
thing which the buildcon industry can provide.
 The utilisation of waste items in concrete makes it
inexpensive and ecological.

WASTE FOUNDRY SAND

(WFS)
 Indian foundries deliver roughly 1.71 million tonnes of
waste foundry sand (WFS) every year.
 Depending upon the type of binder used in casting,
foundry sands are of two types:
1)clay bonded system also known as green sand
2) chemically bonded system (Chemically Bonded
Sand).
Chemical properties & appearance  dark grey to black in colour
 subangular to rounded shape
particles

Physical attributes  lower fineness modulus,

specific gravity and water
absorption than natural sand
 better abrasion resistance
 Particles: non-plastic
 Uniform Particle distribution
(upto 90% particles fall
between 0.06 – 0.15 mm)
 Water absorption: 1.1% -
1.4%
Specific Gravity 2.18 - 2.62
Density  2200 – 2700 kg/m^3
 hardened stage density
decreases with the increase in
rate of foundry sand
replacement.
Reason: The presence of clay,
sawdust and wood flour reduces the
specific density of the material, and
also decreases the density of the
concrete by creating air voids in the
concrete
Chemical composition SiO2: 76 - 90.41
Al2O3: 0.81 - 6.32
FeO: NA
K2O: 0.04 - 1.20
TiO2 NA
MgO: 0.23 - 3.56
Na2O: 0.09 - 0.87
CaO: 0.14 - 1.88
Fe2O3: 0.25 - 5.39
SO3: NA
MnO: NA
LOI: 0.77 – 5.85
Tensile Strength  diminishes with the increment
in the foundry sand
substitution rate.
 At 20% replacement, TS is
roughly equal to the TS of
reference concrete.
 decrease in tensile strength of
the concrete mixtures with
10% - 30% replaced by
foundry sand was 4.5% - 7.08
% respectively.

Mechanical Property  As per low Micro-Deval

abrasion, durability is
superior.
 The angle of shearing
resistance varies between 33
and 40 degrees, similar to
ordinary sand.
Flexural strength  Better flexural performance
as compared to polymer
impregnated recycled sand
based mortar.
 Recommendation of
optimum replacement of 10
- 30% for natural sand with
foundry sand
Workability/flowability  Reduced workability/
flowability of the mortar mix
as compared to natural sand
 Reason: inappropriate
particle size and shape,
presence of clay-type
particles, ashes and
impurities, which act as
water absorber and thus
reduces the fluidity of mix
and increases the water
requirement of mix for being
workable.
Compressive strength  fall in compressive strength
of mortar
 28 days strength fall range: 0
– 75% (as per increase in
replacement percentage)
 Lower w/c ratio (0.50) has
higher strength than w/c ratio
(0.55)
Reason: increase in porosity
of the mortar mix at higher
water/cement ratio as excess
water is available than
required for hydration
process.
Microstructural analysis For investigating the macroscopic
behaviour of the cement mortar
mix.
SEM(Scanning Electron  inclusion of foundry sand
Microscopy) leads to generation of needle
like structures and
comparatively even spread of
C-S-H gel, thus leading to
formation of dense structure.
 presence of Calcium
hydroxide (Portlandite) and
Ettringites is confirmed in
foundry sand mortar.

COPPER SLAG

 Presently worldwide around 33MT of copper slag is

generated yearly amongst that India contributes 6.0–6.5
million tons.
  Copper slag can be utilised as substitution of regular
sand into acquired mortars and concrete with
performance needed, durability and strength.

Chemical properties & appearance  hard crystalline granules

 generally black in colour
 glassy appearance
 The particles are angular in
shape, sharp edged and
shiny.
Physical attributes  produced during smelting
and refining process of
copper from its ore.
 good mechanical strength
 good abrasion resistance
(Abrasion loss: 24%)
 Fineness modulus: 1.78 –
3.91

 low water absorption(0.10%

- 0.40 %)(~0.14%)
Reason: Due to highly dense and
crystalline particles, surface
porosity is less.

 particle size distribution

varies between 0.1 and 10
mm.
about 75% particles
between 0.3 mm and 1.18
mm
Specific Gravity  3.30 – 3.92 (>Natural sand)

Density 1670 – 3600 kg/m^3

 Chemical composition SiO2: 9.57 - 35
Al2O3: 0.22 - 6.64
FeO: NA
K2O: 0.19 - 1.02
TiO2: 0.26 - 0.60
MgO: 0.29 - 4.66
Na2O: 0.2 - 0.95
CaO: 0.15 - 6.06
Fe2O3: 36 - 68.29
SO3: 0.11 - 1.89
MnO: NA
LOI: NA
Tensile Strength  11% - 14% higher splitting
tensile strength than the
reference mix was found in
concrete mix on 20% - 50%
replacement range.
 3% - 18% Tensile strength of
mortar decreases at higher
substitution ratio of natural
sand with CS. (>50%)

Workability/flowability  Improvement in workability.

Application: masonry mortar

and plastering of flooring
 increase in flowability.

Reason: low water absorption

characteristics as compared to
natural sand
 Slump test: 60% (compared to
normal M30 sample) slump
value was obtained at 100% cs
replacement.
 Addition of CS = improved
workability
Compressive Strength  On replacement, mechanical
strength of mortar is
 improved.
 The peak of compressive
strength achieved at 40% CS
replacement, after that the
peak declines but the
compressive strength is still
higher than the natural sand
mortar sample.
Reason: increase in the free
water which is excess than the
needed for cement paste
hydration
 Considering other factors too;
optimum replacement range:
20 – 25%.

Flexural Strength  superior to natural sand

mortar
 Appx. 35% more than the
natural sand mortar at 28 days
 Reusing used CS drops the
flexural strength of mortar
 Strength roughly equal to the
natural sand mortar at lower
replacement rates (~10%).
Microstructural analysis For investigating the macroscopic
behaviour of the cement mortar mix.
SEM (Scanning Electron  Copper slag has specific gravity
Microscopy) higher than the natural sand,
indicating its more
compactness than natural
sand.
 The addition of copper slag in
mortar causes formation of
clusters of hydrates and
calcium.
 as per ASTM C618-15, it
indicates that copper slag have
pozzolanic properties, but
lower CaO percentage limits its
 use as cementitious materials.

Substitution of River Sand in SCC

Coal Bottom Ash (CBA)

 Coal bottom ash is black in colour.

 Coal bottom ash reflects both spherical as well as
irregular shaped porous particles with a rough
texture.
 It primarily consists of silica, alumina and iron
oxide. Traces of other elements like oxides of
sulphur, magnesium, calcium, potassium are also
observed.

 SCC mixes are made with CBA as a sand substitute

and fly ash as a cement substitute.
 As the content of CBA increases, the w/c ratio
increases.

 the quantity of super plasticisers are reduced to

achieve the fresh properties of SCC.

 The slump flow of SCC mix without CBA resulted

in higher slump flow. As the percentage of CBA
increases, the slump flow and segregation resistance
of SCC mix decreases.

 Compressive strength reduces with the increase in

the percentage of CBA and splitting tensile strength
reduces for SCC mix incorporating 30% CBA.

 Water absorption and sorptivity of SCC mixes

increased with the addition of CBA up to 30%.

Waste Glass
 Glass is a highly transparent material formed by
melting a mixture of materials such as silica, soda
ash, and CaCO3 at high temperatures followed by
cooling during which solidification occurs without
crystallization.

 The size distribution of cylindrical glass particle

varies from 38 to 300 μm.

 A chemical reaction between silica rich glass and

alkali pore of concrete can be very detrimental to
the stability of concrete.

 In order to minimise the effects of reaction,

incorporating a suitable pozzolanic material such as
fly ash, ground blast furnace slag or metakaolin in
the concrete mix at appropriate proportions is done.
 The compressive strength of SCC mixes made with
recycled glass reduces due to
(1) decrease in bond strength between glass and
cement paste.
 (2) increase in fineness modulus of fine aggregate
that leads to reduction of the overall density of
concrete.
 The compressive strength declines for SCC mix
containing recycled glass and fly ash for cement.

 The slump flow of self-compacting glass concrete

(SCGC) increases with higher glass sand
replacement.

 V-funnel and U-test indicates that, when the glass

sand replacement increases, the time required to
flow and pass through the space between the steel
bars increases, mainly because the unit weight
reduces. The air content and unit weight would be
raised with glass sand contents decreasing.

CONCLUSION

 Physical properties such as bulk density,

specific gravity and grain size distribution of
 industrial wastes are almost equal to the
properties of natural sand except the particle
size distribution of foundry sand.

 In the case of concrete where fine aggregate is

replaced by waste foundry sand, slump value
reduces by increasing the percentage of
replacement and concrete mix in which fine
aggregate substituted by copper slag, slump
value increases.

 Inclusion of copper slag in concrete, density of

concrete increases.

 Replacement of natural sand by foundry sand

in mortar enhances its durability characteristics
as it results in denser mix and thus reduces the
porosity and water absorption of the mix.
Compressive strength of mix reduces, but at
later ages of curing, strength reduction is lower
than 28 days strength reduction, thus
improvement in strength is noted.

 The utilization of copper slag up to 50% as

natural sand replacement in mortar has a
constructive impact on workability,
compressive strength, micro-wave absorption
capacity, and permittivity characteristics of
mortar. Copper slag mortar can be used for
plastering of floors, brick and block walls.
 SCC mixes require more quantity of super
plasticiser with the increasing WFS content. At a
constant content of super plasticiser, workability is
reduced with the addition of WFS in SCC. On
increasing the dosage of super plasticiser,
workability improved with the addition of WFS.

 SCC mixes incorporating coal bottom ash reduces

the dosage of super plasticiser on the addition of
CBA. Compressive strength and splitting tensile
strength of SCC mixes made with coal bottom ash is
reduced. SCC mixes can be designed using coal
bottom ash where low strength structural elements
are to be developed.

 Improvement in slump flow is obtained in SCC

mixes incorporating waste glass due to its smooth
and glassy texture as well as low water absorption
property. The dosage of superplasticiser reduces on
glass addition in SCC mixes. A reduction in
compressive and splitting tensile strength is
observed, attributed to the poor geometry of glass
being used. Also, flexural strength is reduced with
the addition of glass in SCC mixes.

 To improve the mechanical strength of SCC mixes;

addition of metakaolin as cement substitute and
recycled glass as fine aggregate is done.
 Industrial by-products can be utilised as a part of
concrete innovations at greatest amount for a
sustainable standard strength, durability and eco-
friendly concrete.
 Coarse Aggregates

 Coarse aggregates are a made of rock quarried from ground

deposits and retaining on 4.7mm sieve.
 They constitute 85% of the concrete.
 They are important for strength, thermal and elastic properties
of concrete, dimensional stability and volume stability in
concrete.

WHEN WE USE IT AS A SUBSTITUTES:

We cannot completely replace coarse aggregate but partially it is
possible. to replace it partially, it must satisfy the below points

● It should have the characteristics of coarse aggregates

● It should withstand all the coarse aggregates tests
● It should not be harmful to nature

Compressive strength test Tensile strength test

Workability test Aggregate impact value test
Sieve analysis test Specific gravity test
Initial & final setting time test Silt content test
Water absorption test Salt test

As per the Indian standard IS code , the substitute product shall pass
all the above tests
 EXTENT OF UTILIZATION
COARSE AGGREGATE:

TYPE OF PLAIN REINFORCED LEAN

AGGREGATE CONCRETE CONCRETE% CONCRETE
% (LESS THAN
M15 GRADE)%
IRON SLAG 50 25 100
AGGREGATE
STEEL SLAG 25 NIL 100
AGGREGATE
RECYCLED 25 20(ONLY 100
CONCRETE UPTO M25
AGGREGATE GRADE)
RECYCLED NIL NIL 100
AGGREGATE

FINE AGGREGATE:
TYPE OF PLAIN REINFORCED LEAN
AGGREGATE CONCRETE CONCRETE% CONCRETE
% (LESS THAN
M15 GRADE)%
IRON SLAG 50 25 100
AGGREGATE
STEEL SLAG 25 NIL 100
AGGREGATE
COPPER SLAG 40 35 50
AGGREGATE
RECYCLED 25 20(ONLY 100
CONCRETE UPTO M25
AGGREGATE GRADE)
BOTTOM ASH NIL NIL 25
FROM THERMAL
POWER PLANTS

SUBSTITUTES:

● RECYCLED DEMOLITION WASTE AGGREGATES

● STEEL SLAG
● COCONUT SHELLS
● GLASS PARTICLES
● E-WASTE
● RECYCLED PLASTIC WASTE

RECYCLED DEMOLITION WASTE AGGREGATES

Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) is derived from concrete after
requisite processing. RCA contains original aggregate and hydrated
cement paste adhering to its surface. Residual adhered mortar on
aggregate is a main factor affecting the properties of density,
porosity, and water absorption of RCA.

● When demolished concrete is crushed, a certain amount of

cement paste/mortar from the original concrete remains attached
to RCA particles, due to the presence of old mortar adhered to
the original , it results in a greater continuity of the porous
structure. Higher porosity and entrained air structure of RCA
leads to a higher water absorption, accounting to increased
durability of concrete.
● Increasing RCA content leads to an increase in demand for
water and furthermore, finishability of concrete tends to be
poorer with RCA.

● Recycled-concrete aggregates have lower specific gravity due to

the high absorption of hardened cement paste and porosity
 within the recycled concrete aggregates.

● More water is required to achieve the same slump flow and

workability compared with normal type aggregates. To avoid
this, stockpiles are kept moist and recycled aggregates are pre-
wetted.

● The adhered cement mortar rich in calcium hydroxide and

calcium silicate hydrate is a potential calcium source for CO2
sequestration, forming thermodynamically stable carbonate
minerals.

● Because of the high water to cement ratio, there is a gradual

decrease in the compressive strength of concrete.
● For high-strength and high-performance structural concrete,
RCA is added along with silica fume.

ADVANTAGES OF USING IN CONCRETE

 ● Reduces the number of conventional aggregates to be created,
less evacuation of natural resources
● Reduction in construction costs
● Re-using the coarse aggregates reduces the carbon footprint and
is eco-friendly.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING IN CONCRETE:

● Increases the water absorption capacity.

● Decrease in compressive strength of concrete.
● Reduces workability of concrete

STEEL SLAG
 Steel slag is a by-product obtained either from conversion of
iron to steel in a Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) or by the melting
of scrap to make steel in the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF).
 Basic oxygen furnace slag has increased skid resistance and
high level of strength described by the impact- and crushing
value compared to natural rocks, which makes it an ideal
aggregate for road constructions and surface layers for high skid
resistance.
 Its high density makes its use advantageous in some
constructions such as foundations, retaining walls, breakwater
blocks, noise barriers, radiation insulators etc.
 The presence of C3S, C2S, C4AF, C2F minerals in steel slag
makes it potentially used as a cementitious material.
 The specific gravity is 3.2 & impact value of steel slag
aggregates used is higher than the natural coarse aggregates.
Water absorption is more than 3%. The slag aggregates are
significantly lesser in flakiness index than the natural coarse
aggregates leading to better packing and workability of concrete
mixes.
 Utilization of steel slag is economical because the costs of steel
slag are just about 50% of that of conventional aggregate.
Workability of concrete decreases as increase in substitution of
steel slag increases.
 The compressive strength of concrete tends to increase
gradually as the percentage of steel slag increases. Durability
properties of concrete shows slight decrease in for sulphate
attack test results due to pores present in steel slag.
 COCONUT SHELLS

PROPERTIES

● Properties of coconut shell which may make it suitable coarse

aggregate for concrete are
(i) High strength and modulus properties.
(ii) High lignin content that makes the composites more weather
resistant.
(iii) Low cellulose content due to which it absorbs less moisture
as compared to other agricultural.
● Density of coconut shells is in the range of conventional
aggregate.
● The continuous increase in strength indicates that the coconut
shell aggregate does not degrade once enclosed in the concrete
mix.
● The concrete has a low slump, that decreased with an increase
in CS percentage.
● Addition of CS increases workability and addition of fly ash
either as cement replacement or aggregate replacement
increases workability in CS concrete.
● For strength reasons and optimum results, coconut shells can be
replaced upto 25% in concrete.
● The flexural strength is better when in the case of coconut
shell concrete as compared to the reference concrete.
● Coconut shell is found to be more economical than the
reference concrete as the cost reduces.

GLASS PARTICLES
 Waste glass is a major component of the solid waste stream in
many countries and a 100% recyclable material with high
performances and unique aesthetic properties which make it
suitable for partially replacing coarse aggregate in concrete in
different percentages without any decline in strength.
● The workability & compressive strength reduces when using
waste of glass particles. So the glass concrete may be used in
filler areas like deck slabs.
● The specific gravity of glass lies in the range of conventional
coarse aggregate.
● The concrete slump can be seen to reduce as the percentage
replacement of glass as coarse aggregate increases, the slippery
nature of glass lacking cohesive forces with the presence of
water is responsible for the reduction in slump

E-WASTE MATERIAL :

 The Utilization of e plastic waste materials is a partial solution

to environmental and ecological problems. The use of E plastic
waste will reduce the Aggregate cost and provide a good
 strength for the structures and roads. It will reduce the landfill
cost and it is energy saving.
 The disposal and management issue with the E-waste gets
solved when it’s used in the coarse aggregate replacement.
 Compressive strength, Tensile strength and Flexural strength of
Concrete with E- waste plastic as aggregates was exhibits a
good strength. 
● The electronic waste is crushed as it requires particle size and
can be mixed with other aggregates in concrete which doesn’t
affect the quality & durability of the concrete. The partial e-
waste concrete also named E-CRETE CONCRETE

Advantages of using the e waste in concrete

The growth in the use of plastic is due to its beneficial properties,

which include:
●  Extreme versatility and ability to be tailored to meet specific
technical needs.
●  Lighter weight than competing materials reducing fuel
consumption during transportation. 
●  Durability and longevity. 
● Resistance to chemicals, water and impact. 
● Excellent thermal and electrical insulation properties.
● Comparatively lesser production cost. 
● At melting point the bonding capacity increases as the
temperature increases.
 Mass Concrete
Massive concrete structures such as dams, piers, metro rail project,
raft in high rise buildings etc. are called mass concrete. While setting
large concrete structures, there is a problem of temperature
differential between surface and core which can cause the structure
to crack. This situation calls for alternate ways to set the concrete to
avoid cracks. While casting massive concrete structures, heat
generation due to cement hydration in concrete leads to cracks. ACI
211.1 states that “Many large structure elements may be may be
massive enough that heat generation should be considered,
particularly when the minimum cross-sectional dimension of a solid
concrete member approaches or exceed 3 feet (900 mm) or where
cement content is above 364kg/m3 are being considered.” However,
generally structural members with a least dimension greater than
1.22 m (4 ft.) are considered as mass concrete.
While outer portion of fresh mass concrete is open to atmosphere and
is cooled easily, the inner portion is not cooled easily which causes
temperature differential and tensile stress starts acting between outer
surface and core which leads to cracks. Most codes require a
temperature differential of less than 30-36oC from the surface to the
core of the concrete.
There are several ways to reduce heat generation and ultimately
crack formation in mass concrete, which are:
 Reducing cement usage by adding supplementary cementitious
materials like fly ash, slag etc.
 Using low heat cement
 Cooling the concrete through embedded cooling pipes
 Using cold water or ice or other cooling components while
mixing concrete
 Construction practices like placing concrete layer-by-layer
 SCM in mass concrete
Supplementary cementitious material may be used in mass concrete.
When partially replaced, it does not take part in the primary
hydration which leads to less heat evolved. Higher percentage of
SCM should be used to reduce the heat of hydration of cement
significantly. It can reduce the temperature gain by about 50% if
sufficient SCM is used. It helps significantly in controlling the
temperature difference which causes cracking.

Using low heat cement in mass concrete

Cement having low C3S and C3A content may be used. It leads to
lesser temperature rise and hence lesser cracking. Most mass
concrete structures do not need early age strength, so slower
hydration is not usually harmful for construction.

Pre-cooling in mass concrete

There are several components used in concrete which can be cooled
before mixing. This can reduce the temperature of mix. This
ultimately reduces cracking of concrete. For example, cooled water
can be used in casting of mass concrete.

Post-cooling in mass concrete

Concrete structures can be cooled through cold water network of
pipes throughout the mass concrete structure. This reduces the
overall internal temperature of the mass concrete. This ultimately
reduces the temperature differential and hence cracking.
Placing of mass concrete
Placing of mass concrete may be done in layers. The thickness of
each layer depends upon how the concrete is compacted. However,
thickness of about 35-45 cm is commonly employed. When concrete
is poured in layers, there is possibility of formation of lift, which
results in the formation of cold joints. Thus, the concrete on the
above layers should be placed quickly with sufficient care. The
thickness of layers is limited based on the method of compaction and
size and frequency of vibrator used. Before placing the concrete, the
surface of the previous lift is cleaned with water jet and rubbed with
a wire brush. The old surface is sometimes hacked and made rough
by removing the laitance and the loose material. The surface is
wetted, sometimes a very thin layer of rich mortar or cement slurry is
dashed against the old surface and then the next layer fresh concrete
is placed.