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BOARDWALK DESIGN GUIDE
INTRODUCTION
Boardwalks can range from narrow nature trails in
fragile wetlands to wide beachfront entertainment
decks; from golf course access to pathways linking
facilities in ecotourist projects; from recreational
bicycle ways to observation decks in tourist parks; from
fishing piers to small scale jetties. They are a
convenient way of providing a safe, clean walkway free
from dirt and pools of water.

Boardwalks are frequently chosen purely for the

natural look and feel of timber. Added to this is the
renewable nature of the material, its versatility and,
often more importantly, for its reduced impact on the
surroundings during construction and use. It provides
a welcome alternative to concrete or asphalt and
facilitates the construction of easy grades that
encourages walking for an extended range of users.

Typical wetlands boardwalk

A boardwalk is simply a raised walkway with a surface

made up of boards; usually arranged across the
direction of travel. It is a pedestrian bridge with low,
short spans, but without the waterproofing benefits of
bituminous surfacing. Since the decking is exposed to
the ravages of weather and traffic, it has to withstand
one of the most demanding situations placed upon
timber.

This publication has been developed specifically to

raise understanding and knowledge of professional
designers and constructors of timber boardwalks.
This publication is one of two (Boardwalk Design Guide
and Boardwalk Engineering Guide) produced for
Gatton Sawmilling by James Pierce & Associates,
While care has been taken to ensure coverage of the design Consulting Engineers.
principles for boardwalks, the versatility and adaptability of
this form of construction is only touched on here and so the
information must be regarded as incomplete.
© Gatton Sawmilling Company 1998
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General Timber in Boardwalks
Boardwalks can often replace conventional footpath Timber promotion agencies have been very successful
construction resulting in:- over the last 15 years in promoting the quality
assurances processes for structural timber and
• less damage during construction;
developing an awareness of the F (strength grades)
• no erosion problems caused by construction rating. So much so, that a designer could be excused
processes; from thinking that the visual grading rules have been
• no revegetation needed because of minimal superceded. Even for appropriate timber species
construction disturbance; exposed to the weather, defects visible to the trained
• no change in drainage patterns (and subsequent eye, permit the lodgement of water and can lead to
effects on flora & fauna) caused by the damming premature decay and a poor appearance when
effect of pavement construction or concentration of exposed to the sun and rain for a short period.
water by use of stormwater pipes;
For a well performing boardwalk exposed to the full
• constraining the users to the defined pathways and all ravages of weather, a timber species that is tough,
but eliminating damage to the flora. stable, resistant to UV degrade, and durable is
necessary. Additionally the surface exposed to the
The versatility of this construction means that pathways can
weather has to be free of defects that may be
be constructed where conventional tracks/footpaths were
hazardous to the public many years later or may
impractical or self defeating (i.e. the track construction very
contribute to premature degrade of the decking in
often degraded the very environment that it was installed to
service.
showcase).
The longevity of external timber structures depends on
Designers, inexperienced in boardwalk construction, have a
both the design and execution. Usually a few typical
tendency to use traditional footpath construction methods
details are shown on engineer’s working drawings but
and are not completely aware of the many advantages of
more extensive detailing is required for workshop
boardwalks. Also the factors necessary to take into account in
drawings where virtually every circumstance has to be
the concept plans are beyond their experience e.g. in a
thought out in advance of manufacture. This requires
wetlands environment it is important to get the viewer as
visualizing the three dimensional structure and
close to the water as practical while positioning the structure
applying both craftsmanship and the engineer’s intent
so it is minimally affected by extreme tides, storm surge and
to produce the finished structure.
flood.
One of the strengths of Gatton Sawmilling is that, as a
Walkway construction in sensitive environments is
manufacturer, the company understands the
complicated by many variables. The design requires a broad
workshop detailing required to construct good
experience of local conditions and should only be attempted
structures in house. It provides the same standard and
by trained professionals. Due attention should be given to
completeness of detailing for structures built on site;
the intended users, environment, aesthetics, available
even for carpenters unfamiliar with these structures. In
equipment and construction skills.
assessing tenders for a project, workshop details and
Proper evaluation of soils is critical to the economy of the craftsmanship are rarely known by the potential client
system and the performance of the walkway. In most walks, and that is a great pity as the long term performance of
the underfoot conditions are poor and variable. A detailed these structures is embodied in these instructions.
soils evaluation of the site enables more informed design
decisions as well as reducing the risk for the contractor. For a
more detailed discussion of the foundation systems refer to
the Boardwalk Engineering Guide.

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Design Standards Location
Just as the design of recreational walking trails can be The proposed location will dictate the appearance of
constrained too rigorously by the all-embracing the boardwalk, the design intent and the construction
requirements for pedestrians (AustRoads & SAA HB methods to be adopted.
69.13-1995 - Pedestrians), boardwalks seem to come
under the jurisdiction of either the BCA (Building Code Wetlands
of Australia) or AustRoads bridges. For some Marine
boardwalks that are just an extension of a building, the
BCA may be entirely appropriate. For others, serving In Australia most of the rainfall is confined to the
purely an access function, bridging requirements may periphery of the continent so correspondingly many of
not be particularly onerous. its wetlands are in marine or brackish environments.
(Mangrove trees grow only in marine environments.)
However the great majority of boardwalks provide an Marine borers destroy most timbers within the tidal
adventure role and are akin to a recreational walking zone and appropriate measures have to be taken to
track. Unrealistically high loads can have major cost reduce attack (refer to section on marine borers in the
consequences (especially piling and connections) while Engineering Guide).
enthusiastic use of railings can present an all too
unnatural nature walk. At the moment the designer
has to debate the design loads and the railing
requirements, both of which impact on the appearance
and cost of the structure.

It is suggested that a Risk Analysis be carried out on the

decision making for each type of boardwalk use. The
aspects that require attention are the loadings and the
railing.

What is the probability of an overload?

What is the consequence of an

overload?

What is the consequence of not having a

full railing with balusters?

For instance a 1.2 metre high barrier is mandatory for a

swimming pool surround to exclude unsupervised
Treated pine piling with fibre cement shield in marine
small children. While a creek under a boardwalk may environment
be a similar hazard, it may be reasonable to expect that
small children would be under parental supervision and
so the barrier (if any) need not be as substantial. Since the main use of marine boardwalks is
recreational, it is unlikely that they will be used during
extremes of weather (as opposed to those serving trips
to work/education). For economy and protection from
wave splash, all timbers (headstock and above) shall be
above the extreme water level (occasional wetting is
not a problem). On the other hand, wetland
boardwalks are most effective when they are close to
the water level. The problem in a marine environment
is that the tidal range is often more than 2 metres (tidal
information is usally available from the harbour
authorities).

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Freshwater Services
Freshwater environments are usually less restrictive Underground services, especially sewerage and
compared to marine. There are no marine borers and underground power, can often be a hazard to
wave action is usually smaller. construction where footing excavations or piles are
required. Service authorities should be contacted
Some factors to be considered in choosing a deck level before final location of the boardwalk is fixed. The
include: adaptability of the systems allows the boardwalk to
straddle the obstacle provided its accurate location is
• Normal water level and its typical range from wet
known.
season to dry (keep the deck as close as practical to
the water) Leaf litter
• Wave action depending on exposure/shelter The decking can entrap leaf litter and twigs. The
• Consequences of submergence problem depends very much on the surrounding tree
• Effect of the structure on flood levels upstream. species. If the planks are widely gapped with a kerb
spaced above the deck, wind action can assist in
• Flood levels and corresponding flow velocity.
removal of this rubbish. So a deck with the narrow
• Likely debris. boards, spaced well apart, requires less cleaning.
(Further points to be considered in deciding on a deck Supplementary cleaning needs to be done using a
level are given in the Engineering Guide.) blower/vac or compressed air periodically. The
frequency depends on the foliage and exposure. Twigs
and branches have to be removed by hand. Removal of
Rugged Country litter is important to ensure the longevity of the deck
In rocky country a boardwalk may be the only practical as, otherwise, the decomposition of the litter
way of providing access. Supports may need to be rock introduces an increased rotting hazard for the deck.
anchors or, at the very least, drilled into the rock. As
canterlevering supports are impractical to attain, the
structure may have to be stabilized with bracing.

Hazards
There are a few points that need to be considered that
may not be obvious from a cursory field inspection:
services and leaf litter.

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It has been the experience that pegged piling positions
Preliminary Layout are easily disturbed so offsets are required, well clear of
construction. In non-marshy ground, it may be
Apart from a straight boardwalk over reasonable sufficient to mark the ground with a cross at every pile
ground (and that is rare), most walks are in difficult position. Hydrated lime poured out of a plastic bottle
country so the deck alignment has to conform to many (like sports field line marking) or survey spray paint (an
demands: upside down spray can) are effective. In situations
where foundation locations govern the handrailing
• height above water level
line, much more care has to be taken so that the
• grade less than 3% finished line is acceptable to the eye. Engineering
• vertical clearance overhead surveyors may be needed then to set out an even curve.
• between various trees; even trees within the
For every metre of the walk the proximity of the trees,
deck
overhanging foliage, and the change in direction must
• access viewing spots all be assessed in deciding on the final alignment.
• curves in plan Once the foundations are installed, it is difficult to alter.
• construction tolerance Remember that, when close to some obstructions, the
final level of deck and railing may govern the
and so the list goes on.
foundation location so one has to look overhead as
These demand that the structural system be adaptable well as below.
to keep construction simple. For this reason, the
pegged foundations should not adopt the maximum
span for the system but somewhat less. This allows the
person laying out the work to have some latitude in Alignment
seeking a suitable foundation location while not
exceeding the structural limitations. The grades and meandering of a walk are referred to as
the alignment. The vertical alignment refers to the
Initial investigatory work would include: deck levels while the horizontal alignment refers to the
plan layout. There are various requirements to be met
• the flooding/tidal profile
depending on the expected users.
• the natural ground surface level
• the nature of the ground. Vertical
An investigatory line needs to be marked so it can form AS 1428.1, (Design for Access & Mobility) while not
the basis for design, estimating and construction. The directly applicable, indicates that for grades less than
line can be established by: 3% (1:33), rest platforms for people with disabilities
are not required. It specifies 7% (1:14) as the
• engineering survey (pegged line and levels) maximum grade for a ramp but level rest platforms
• contour plans have to be provided every 9 metres.
• chain, compass and clinometer with adjacent While the decking is free draining, there may be an
obstacles/features being marked with flagging alignment need to provide crossfall. AS 1428.1
tape as an aid to construction. specifies a maximum of 1:40 (2.5%).
Some temporary benchmarks and other recovery
marks may have to be established as well as property/ AustRoads allows walkways to be graded to 12.5%
lease boundaries. (1:8) and 1:1.6 for stairways. Cycleways would
normally be restricted to 5% desirable grades with less
In inundated areas, the depth of water can be than 3% preferable.
measured and related to the tide at the time by placing
a peg at the water level and later correlating this with Cycling speed on boardwalks needs to be restricted to
the height datum (often AHD - Australian Height 15 km/h due to the nature of the surface, purpose of
Datum which may be different to the tidal or port the structure and especially if it is shared with
datum). pedestrians. Smaller board width can be used to
restrict speed somewhat but recent trends towards
mountain bikes negate this.

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Sometimes the designer may provide two routes TABLE 1
(especially in circuit walks) where one portion is not HORIZONTAL CURVES
accessible for the disabled while another portion is. Horizontal Alignment to suit Bicycles - 15 km/h
Design Speed
In wetland environments boardwalks are invariably flat.
There may be a small increase in level in sections of AustR oads - Bicycles
AustRoads
Radius Approx angle change
walks exposed to wave action compared with sections
in 3 m chords (degrees)
sheltered by vegetation to give the same immunity to
overtopping but the ramps between these sections Minimum 5m 35
should have no difficulty in meeting a 3% grade. Along Preferred 8m 22
permanent waterways such as creeks and rivers there
An 8 m radius also meets the minimum requirement for a 20 km/h cycle speed.
may be a gradient equivalent to the flowing water
surface but this would rarely be greater than 3% (rapids
and cascades). Vertical Clearance
A pleasing walkway often owes its character to the way
Recommended grades
it harmonizes with the vegetation, flowing from tree to
A recommendation satisfying all users:
tree, providing new vistas at every turn. Sometimes
• 3% grade generally trees are incorporated into the deck itself rather than
changing the alignment or lopping. It is necessary to
• 7% grade ramps connecting differences in level ensure that such incursions do not become undue
of less than 0.63 m (i.e. ramps no longer than 9 hazards. It is quite common on walking tracks for
metres) sections to be narrow or of limited headroom. On
boardwalks there may be an expectation that there
Horizontal Alignment
should be less intrusion into the travelled way. And
Walking and jogging rarely govern design alignment.
don’t forget that, due to growing vegetation, there
While cycling routes are often designed for 30 km/h,
may be a need for judicious pruning to maintain these
recreational cycling needs to be restricted to 15km/h in
clearances.
the normal application of these structures.
TABLE 2
Vertical Clearances

Reference BCA AustRoads

Rooms Doorways Pedestrians Bicycles Bridge Design
& stairs Pedestrians Bicycles
Minimum 2.1m 2.0m 2.0m 2.4m 2.1m 2.5m
Preferred 2.4m 2.4m 2.7m 2.4m 3.0m

Based on this table it is recommended that a vertical

clearance of 2.1 m be provided and, for shared walks
or exclusive bicycle ways, 2.7 m. Clearances to
overhanging branches may be somewhat less than this
in rest areas where the likelihood and consequences of
hitting your head are less.

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Substructure Superstructure

The foundation cost has a big impact on the viability of Deck Widths
a boardwalk. This is because the site is usually very poor
ground with difficult access. Table 3 gives a summary of
the more likely foundation types. TABLE 4
PEDESTRIAN BRIDGE WIDTHS

TABLE 3 Bridge Design Code - AustRoads Recommended System

FOUNDATIONS SELECTION
width between rails decking width
1.8 m preferred 2.0 m preferred
Ground Conditions Rock Stiff Ground Soft Ground Watertable (caters for 300 persons/hour) (ex 2.1 m plank lengths)
Foundation TType
ype Drilled Potted pier Piled or Bedlog (AS 1428.2 - allows 2 wheelchair to pass)

1.5 m min 1.7 m (ex 1.8 m plank lengths)

(AS 1428.2 - allows wheelchair & pram
to pass or absolute min for 2 wheelchairs)

TABLE 5
FOOTPATH WIDTHS

Pedestrians - AustRoads* Recommended System

width of footpath decking width
1.2 m min width 1.4 m (ex 1.5 m plank lengths)
where pedestrian volume low and
disabled use unlikely
e.g. restricted by stairs or existing approach
grades or long distances
0.9 m absolute min width not recommended for public use
Bedlog substructure system for low walks

TABLE 6
In most situations, a post embedded in the ground can BICYCLE BRIDGE WIDTHS
provide all the lateral stability of the structure by
cantilevering. In rock foundations this is not practical
and so diagonal bracing is often employed. Bridge Design Code - AustRoads Recommended System
width between rails decking width
The substructure is simplified by using only two piles/ One-way only
poles per bent. These are connected by a headstock. (A
2.0 m preferred 2.0 m preferred (ex 2.1 m plank lengths)
more detailed discussion of foundations and
1.5 m min. 1.7 m decking (ex 1.8 m plank lengths)
substructure is contained in the Engineering Guide.)
2 way
3.0 m preferred 3.2 m preferred (ex 3.3 m plank lengths)
2.5 m min. 2.6 m decking (ex 2.7 m plank lengths)

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TABLE 7 Golf cars
SHARED BRIDGE WIDTHS (CYCLISTS & PEDESTRIANS) Typical width of a golf car is 1200 mm. A 300 mm
clearance to kerbs on both sides gives a desirable
minimum deck width of 2.0 m (including kerbs).
Bridge Design Code - AustRoads Recommended System
When approaches to the bridge are skewed, an
width between rails decking width increase in width is desirable. For decks longer than 10
3.0 m preferred 3.2 m preferred (ex 3.3 m plank lengths) m, pedestrian refuges in the form of local widenings
2.5 m min. 2.6 m decking (ex 2.7 m plank lengths) are desirable. For two way movement of cars or, for
shared facilities with significant pedestrian movement
e.g. golf tournaments), a deck width of 3.5 m is the
TABLE 8 minimum.
BIKEWAY WIDTHS

Bicycles - AustRoads** Recommended System Recommended Widths

width between obstructions decking width
One-way only
TABLE 11
2.0 m preferred 2.0 m preferred (ex 2.1 m plank lengths) RECOMMENDED DECK WIDTHS
1.4 m min. 1.4 m decking (ex 1.5 m plank lengths)
2 way
Deck Width Application
2.9 m preferred 3.2 m preferred (ex 3.3 m plank lengths)
1.4m Low volume of pedestrians only, bicycles prohibited,
2.4 m min. 2.6 m decking (ex 2.7 m plank lengths)
not suitable for disabled
1.7m Absolute min for
TABLE 9 2 wheel chairs to pass, or
SHARED PATH WIDTHS (CYCLE & PEDESTRIAN) 1 way cycling
2.0m Preferred width for
pedestrian boardwalk, or
Bicycles - AustRoads** Recommended System
1 way cycling, or
width between obstructions decking width 1 way golf cars
3.0 m preferred 3.2 m preferred (ex 3.3 m plank lengths)
2.6m Absolute min for
2.9 m desirable min. 2.9 m decking (ex 3.0 m plank lengths) shared facility (pedestrians and cyclists), or
2.4 m absolute min. 2.6 m decking (ex 2.7 m plank lengths) 2 way cycling
2.9m Desirable min for shared facility (pedestrians and
cyclists)
TABLE 10
SEGREGATED PATHS (CYCLE & PEDESTRIAN) 3.2m Preferred for
shared facility (pedestrians and cyclists), or
2 way cycling
Bicycles - AustRoads** Recommended System
3.5m Preferred min. for 2 way operation of golf cars
width between obstructions decking width shared with pedestrians
5.5 m busy promenade 5.6 m preferred (ex 5.7 m plank lengths)
4.1m-5.6m Range of widths for segregated paths for cyclists and
5.0 m desirable min. 5.0 m decking (ex 5.1 m plank lengths) pedestrians
4.0 m absolute min. 4.1 m decking (ex 4.2m plank lengths)

* Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice 1995 - AustRoads Pt 13 Pedestrians Widenings, Transitions & Junctions
- SAA HB 69.13 - 1995 Widenings need to be provided at intervals to allow
** Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice 1995 - AustRoads Pt 14 Bicycles
congregation of groups, passing and rest
opportunities. Generally these take the form of a wider
section but can be modified to incorporate variations
in level for the different users. At the junction where
walks meet there needs to be an enlargement because
of the traffic movements as well as providing waiting
areas. The resulting framing needs to make the
decking intersections easy and logical.

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Boardwalk three way junction

Platforms, Shelters & Birdhides

Lookouts or rest platforms may need to meet the
requirements of the BCA with regard to crowd (panic)
loadings on both deck and handrails. Swimming pool
fencing, that is somewhat impenetrable to small
children, may be appropriate as balustrading. This may
be necessary as parental supervision of small children is
likely to be distracted at these locations due to viewing
or rest situations.

Fixed seating and shelters provide additional

opportunities for enjoyment of the environment,
encouraging use of these facilities by the aged and
infirm. Seating should be located off the travelled way
and preferably with a view.

On long walks, a simple shelter shed can provide

welcome refuge from sun and rain. The shed should be
constructed in sympathy with the boardwalk and the
natural surroundings and located on a widening. In
places where bird activity is concentrated, a birdhide,
walled on at least two sides, may be a further incentive
for using the facility.

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Terminations
To achieve a long lasting structure, about 0.6 metre is
Edge Treatments
required between the ground and the deck level in
typical construction. At some point there must be a Handrails
transition from boardwalk to footpath. This may be Information on handrails is presented here as a
accomplished by several means: discussion paper only. The designer should assess the
policy of the local authority and make choices based on
• terminating the boardwalk on a higher section of risk assessment of the actual site and its anticipated
natural ground users. It may be prudent to adopt a system that
permits retrofitting of rails as community expectations
• terminating the boardwalk on an embankment and boardwalk users may change with time.
and then grading down to the natural surface
The purpose of handrails are many:
• using Durability 1 timbers and virtually burying
the last 9 metres. • confining the user to the boardwalk to prevent
damage to the environment
• making a transition into a chain ladder (can be
• guiding the user; particularly the partially sighted
supplied by Gatton Sawmilling) where a roll of
and for walks used at night e.g. viewing
timber is connected by galvanized chains and laid
platforms for night views.
on a good draining ballast (very similar to railroad
tracks) • preventing falls from the boardwalk especially
when the consequences could be serious e.g. on
• using steps (timber framed, sleepers or stone or to rocks, into deep water.
concrete stairs) but these can only be used in • providing rest opportunities - to lean against
sections where cyclists and disabled are not
• crowd control - so you are not pushed over edge
anticipated.
• providing for the disabled.
• abutting a concrete structure (care with
differential shrinkage here).
Disadvantages of handrails include:
• increased cost
• visually intrusive especially in nature walks
• debris catchers especially in walks that can be
submerged in flood
• nearer the eye height so minor misalignment,
poor workmanship, timber defects are more
evident i.e. requires competent carpenter.
• handled surfaces have to be free of splinters and
preservative oils. This requires paint systems that
are more labour intensive to apply and maintain.

Fig 9 End deck focuses on specimen tree

Handrail Types
Types from simplest to more complicated:

• none
• kerb only
• high kerb only
• stanchions only (could be used in conjunction
with draped ropes or chains as visual barriers
only)
• top rail only
• top and intermediate rail
• top & bottom rails and balusters where small
children must be restrained.

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It is assumed that if small children are in public spaces
where boardwalks are installed, there will be parental
supervision at a level greater than required on a play
structure.

For the decking systems in this report, the desirable

minimum height to ground is 550 mm. Use of a low
profile system can reduce this to within 400 mm of the
ground. For lower heights use timber mats or chain
mats using Durability 1 timbers.

A first attempt has been made here to give some

rationale to the provision of safety while presenting a
minimum of intrusion into the environment. This
recognises the difference between the functions of
Kerb spaced above decking
boardwalks on the one hand and bridges and building
structures on the other. While suggestions are made
The infill (under the top rail) could be stainless steel here on edge treatments, designers must make their
wire as it is maximizes the view while providing some own assessment of the balance between the risk and
measure of restraint but it does not appear to meet the the intrusiveness of the railing systems.
intent of the BCA or AustRoads where the fall is
significant.
TABLE 13
SUGGESTED EDGE RESTRAINTS
TABLE 12
HANDRAIL HEIGHTS
Risk Fall Fall onto Edge Infrequent Application/
level height Treatment Users Comments
Bridge Design Code Min rail Preferred rail A 600 grass, swamp, none disabled, Isolated parts
- AustRoads height height water<0.9 m poor sighted, of nature
Pedestrian Barrier 1.0m 1.1m deep, tidal cyclists, crowds walks
Cyclist Barrier 1.1m 1.2m water
AS 1428.2 Design for Access & Mobility Min rail height Max rail height B 1000 grass, swamp, kerb poor sighted, typical
water<0.9 m crowds wetlands
Handrails at walkways ramps
deep, tidal
& landings 0.87 m 1.0 m water, rocks
Building Code of Australia Min rail height Max rail height
C 1200 grass, swamp, top suitable
for balconies between 1 & 3 m water<0.9 m rail for all
above ground. (125 mm max gap) 1.0 m deep, tidal only users
for balconies less than 1m no rail required water, rocks
balustrades used in low risk D 1500 grass, swamp, high disabled, golf courses
areas of stair and landings water<1.2 m kerb poor sighted, incl. golf
balusters max 300 mm apart deep, tidal cyclists, crowds cars
Mid intermediate rail water, rocks children
E 1800 grass, swamp, top &
water<0.9 m inter-
The Bridge Design Code specifies a maximum baluster
deep, tidal mediate
gap of 130 mm which assumes very small children
water rail
(pre-school age) are under supervision. The BCA
requires a similar gap (125 mm) based on the same F 3000 all surfaces top rail & debris
balusters problem if
design child but with the presumption that the
submerged
consequences of falling 1 to 3 metres are not major.
during flood?
(For higher fall heights (i.e. greater than 3 m), more
stringent barriers may be required but these are
beyond the scope of this publication).

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Stainless steel wire running horizontally at about 150 TABLE 14
mm spacing is often used in risk levels E & F together HANDRAIL HEIGHTS SUMMARY
with a solid top rail. While this barrier is not as
effective as close balusters, it does allow for some
control of small children while not being as visually Fall height
intrusive. <1 m >1 - 3 m<
Application Infrequent Disabled Balconies Bicycles
In many situations the cost of the railings may be disabled users BCA AustRoads
equivalent to increasing the deck width by 30%. That
Handrail Nil required 0.7 1 1.1
is, making a wide walkway may feel just as safe as a
Height m
narrow one with railings, as the user can keep away
from the ungarded edges (this assumes a rail is not
mandatory). If much of the deck surface can be kept Cycling and Disabled Handrail
low to the ground, a large proportion of the boardwalk Requirements
may not need rails. Cyclists require a rail that is continuous and relatively
easy to grab with a support that does not catch pedals
or handlebars. The disabled also require a continuous
Handrail Height rail that does not break the hand hold and a post/kerb
AustRoads prefers pedestrian barriers 1.1 m high and system that does not trap footplates or leading wheels
cycling barriers 1.2 m; but these rules are applied to of wheelchairs. AS 1428.1 requires that grab rails be
the whole spectrum of bridges where perhaps as many no larger than 50 mm ø so that a hand may
as 99% would have fall heights greater than 3 m. Since comfortably grip the rail. All these requirements lean
boardwalks in this discussion are limited to 3 m high towards a metal rail 50 OD although there has been a
above the finished ground, risk analysis suggests that trend recently to large diameter (75-100 mm) rails to
lower barriers could be acceptable. Boardwalks are, in steady cyclists at stopping points.
the main, continuous viewing platforms. Accordingly
uninterrupted sight lines are desirable. Based on a line Handrail Systems
of sight 13° below the horizontal (comfortable range) After considering the economics and practicalities of
and a practical distance away from the rail (based on the whole boardwalk system, including the
the user), a standing adult requires a rail below 1.4 m foundations, 3 m is most appropriate span for the
while a wheelchair based adult requires a rail below bridges themselves. For aesthetics of bridges a general
0.85 m so that the view is not impaired. It is often the principle is that the handrail post supports should
case in wetlands that the points of interest are below occur at pier positions. Reinforcing this view for
even this angle. (The intent of portion of the BCA boardwalks is that they meander. This usually means
seems to permit a low rail (0.7m) if there is one metre that there must be a handrail post at the change of
of deck outside the rail to act as a catch platform but direction: the pier position. Also the pier provides the
this is not normally done.) opportunity for a more rigid connection to the handrail
post.
Where the fall height is less than one metre and a rail is
installed specifically to assist the disabled, 700 mm is
recommended as a compromise between safety and
view. (This is the lowest that can be accessed for
standing adults.)

Where the fall height is more than one metre, 870 mm

high rails meet practical requirements including AS
1428.1 & BCA for ramps and landings but not the
requirements of the BCA for balconies or AustRoads for
general bridges. Increasing the rail to 1000 mm meets
all requirements except for bicycles but impairs
visibility. A rail height of 1100 mm meets the minimum
safety requirements of all users but the barrier may be
visually unacceptable.

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Sawn Post System-minor Advantages:
Sawn posts can be placed at 2 m to 2.5 m centres with • posts are fastened at piers enabling a variety of
rails cantilevering both ends to provide full span fixing ensuring a stiff rail.
coverage. While the components of this system are • horizontal wire infills can be used
smaller, virtually double the number posts are required.
• post position looks logical.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• components are smaller • components are heavier as they are more heavily
• connections are simple requiring little skill loaded
• accommodates changes of direction • connections require skill
Disadvantages: • accommodates minor changes of direction only.
• posts are bolted to small joists (away from the pier)
and are dependent on joist torsional resistance for
stiffness Round Post System
The round post system allows complete freedom of
• With large changes of direction (20°or so) the use of
alignment. It fixes at the pier where rigidity may be
horizontal wire infills is not practical as the wire,
achieved by several means. The posts protrude above
running from post to post, truncates the corner too
the rail to break the unnatural look of an unbroken
much.
horizontal line and conceal rail misalignment. This
• post position does not comply with the old axiom:- system is recommended for the handrail support for
posts must be at piers. (Of course this is only most boardwalks.
relevant if the boardwalk is viewed from afar.)
When the handrails are not sufficiently stiff, a pony
truss (outrigger) may have to be employed. This can
look clumsy and ends up being more expensive that the
Major System described below.

Sawn Post System-major

Sawn posts can be installed at pier positions if heavier
rails are used. It is difficult to detail rail connections for
walks that meander when using this system so it is best
to limit changes of direction to less than 6° per span
(less than 0.3 m change in 3 m span). While it is possible
to have the rail continuous over the top of the post this
practice does emphasize minor misalignments to the
eye. To avoid this protrude the post above the rail to
break the line of sight.
Round handrail post system - details

Pine Posts
Advantages of treated pine poles:
• lighter
• available as parallel sided so that diameter is
consistent
• less shrinkage
• compatible with concrete backfill in potted post
construction
• can be floated in without additional buoyancy in
wetland environments

Post projection breaks line of the rail

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Hardwood Posts Kerbs
Disadvantages of treated hardwood poles: Kerbs are installed to define the decking edge and give
• heavier especially when mechanical handling not some restraint to wheeled vehicles, the disabled and
an option the poorly sighted. While kerbs on timber decked
bridges are often used to restrain decking from
• not available in consistent diameters (problems
rattling, this is not the case with boardwalks.
with detailing, bolt lengths etc)
• must use compacted gravel backfill and this Kerbs have the following disadvantages:
presents problems with temporary bracing • restrict the freeform nature of the deck
restricting access in potted post construction. constraining it to straight chords (kerbs curved in
Advantages of hardwood poles: plan are not easy to form).
• double treated hardwood (CCA with PEC) is more • cost
effective than pine for marine immersion (but pine • increase flood forces
posts may be readily sleeved to resist this attack).
• tend to accumulate leaf litter
• cause deterioration of decking beneath due to
trapped moisture.
Spacing the kerb above the decking does allow a
Handrailing Systems
measure of self cleaning of litter as well as reducing
entrapment of moisture.

Boardwalk without kerb

Curves
Usually the timber handrail systems consist of straight
lengths forming a series of chords of the horizontal
curve. While an unprotected snaking deck edge can be
quite graceful, it is not generally practical to make
curved handrails or kerbs in timber. Where this is a
must, galvanized steel or aluminium hollow sections
can be rolled to the specified radius.

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Structural Systems Deckwood uses a sawn surface on top as this results in
superior longevity and is less slippery when wet. In
Various structural systems are explored and virtually all situations, except sometimes for the top
recommendations made. handrail, a sawn hardwood surface is preferred.

Deck Types Decking lay up

Almost invariably decking is laid across the short
direction of the deck so that joins at decking ends are
Decking Longevity
eliminated. This also produces better utilization of
The walking surface of the deck degrades due to:
timber as (deck width short length decking) shorts are
• Ultra violet light used. This means an isolated surface defect in a long
piece of timber can be cut out; often leaving two useful
• Mechanical damage
defect-free pieces.
• Shrinkage cracks
• Fastener initiated splitting While superior ride for wheeled vehicles is experienced
using running planks (decking parallel to the direction
• Wetting and drying
of travel) AS 1428 and Bicycles - AustRoads require that
• Biological decay (rot) for decks that carry cyclists, wheelchairs and invalids,
The hot tropics is a most aggressive environment with decking is to be laid perpendicular to the predominant
high UV causing fibre de-bonding, high temperature direction of travel. This is mainly because of problems
increasing biological attack and the frequent wetting with trapping thin tyres. Further, the final gap
and drying giving rise to splitting. Conversely colder between planks should not be greater than 13 mm.
climates, those with a dense tree canopy providing For golf cars and similar, vibration and noise may be
shade (but without problem leaf litter) and a constant minimized by skewing the direction of the decking by
timber moisture, increase the decking life. five degrees to the direction of travel. Then both
wheels (on one axle) do not roll onto the same decking
While an opaque paint system could assist, there are
plank at the identical instant.
problems with:
• slippery wet surface (requiring an additive to restore Economy
friction) Timber is sold in length increments of 0.3 m. While
• cost of re-application timber can be supplied docked accurately to the deck
width (±5 mm) by the sawmill, inevitably the ends
• short life due to mechanical wear
need to be trimmed to a neat line on site so accurate
• short life due to horizontal surface pre-docking is usually not worthwhile. Further, timber
• appearance compared with natural timber finishes is supplied somewhat over-length to allow site
Preservative oils like CN Emulsion are more appropriate trimming and the removal of any end splits. To speed
in the majority of situations and lead to a longer life for up the installation process, it is suggested that the
the decking. Traffic should be kept off for several finished deck width be 0.1 m under the nominal timber
weeks until the oil has penetrated so that the surface is length. This allows an additional 50 mm tolerance on
not slippery. position (each end), especially for alignments that
meander (as opposed to straight runs) as it can be
difficult to judge the exact (trimmed) edge until a
substantial area of deck has been laid.

This results in preferred finished decking widths of 1.4,

1.7, 2.0, 2.6, 2.9, 3.2 & 3.5 m used in this publication.

CN emulsion on cut end

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Deck Types

Low Profile Deck

For narrow decks (1.4 m wide), a Low Profile system is
possible. This enables the deck to skim over the ground
often eliminating handrailing and even, in some
instances, the kerb. The headstock is not needed but
the system requires the thicker deck (90x45 min
decking size). With the low ground clearance, post
sizes could be reduced to 125 mm diameter as lateral
stiffness is less of a problem. The system also facilitates
incorporation of occasional steps and substantial
Gatton Deckwood profile
changes of direction.

Layouts for systems without handrails can be different

Low profile Deck System from those with handrails because of the requirements
of fixing the stanchions (handrail posts).

The decking can wend in sinuous way around the

countryside in a variety of ways. The factory produced
tapered decking simply allows the shaped decking to
fan around corners and is the easiest system to use.
The mitred decking patterns suit more formal layouts
and abrupt changes of direction but take more care in
installation and maintenance. A variation, using a
radial member between changes in direction, reduces
Normal Deck the carpentry skills required as it can conceal mitres
that do not neatly bisect the change in direction and
reduces the need to neatly match the mitred members.
When the walk slinks from side to side and back again,
decking can be more economically laid without change
of direction by merely skewing up to 65 ° to the joists
as shown on the drawing.
Decking patterns for changing direction.

Normal deck system.

Decking
Research on external timber structures indicates that
wet wood only becomes a problem when it cannot dry
rapidly. Obviously periodic removal of leaf litter
facilitates drying. Generous spacing of decking also
assists.

Gatton Sawmilling’s Deckwood profile tapers towards

the bottom and acts like a self cleaning grate assisting
in removal of leaves as well as encouraging air drying at
the joist-decking interface. Making the top edge pencil
rounded rather than arrised reduces corner splinters
and makes the decking easier to handle. The wider
sections have a anti-cupping groove on the bottom
side.

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Construction Requirements Durability
Wood durability is measured by graveyard
Gatton Sawmilling supplies detailed illustrated performance of stakes in a hazardous environment.
instructions for the installation of boardwalks with While it does not give absolute performance figures for
every kit delivered. These includes notes on: non-embedded situations, it is all that is available at
the present time. (Some research is currently being
• environmental issues conducted into this aspect.)
• application of preservatives including safety aspects
• working with hardwood
• installation of fasteners Table 15
TRUEWOOD DURABILITY
• decking installation
• handrailing techniques
Gatton Sawmilling supplies a priced materials schedule Species Durability of Truewood Anticipated Life Span
for each job and arranges the staging of deliveries to Iron Bark 1 25 to
suit progress of the works. Grey Gum 1
Tallowwood 1
Additionally extra fabrication services can be provided
to facilitate installation. These can include: Gympie Messmate 1
Cypress Pine 1 50 years
• pre-oiling decking and joists Spotted Gum 2 15 to
• predocking to size Blackbutt 2
• prefabrication of decking modules Kwila (Merbau) 2
• balustrade systems Western red cedar 2 25 years
• epoxy coating galvanized items for increased life Brush Box 3 8 to 15 years
Also equipment and hardware can be supplied. These Oregon (Douglas Fir) 4 1 to 8 years
can include:

• router guide for easy precise handrail fixing Another list of appropriate species is shown in Table 16
• bolts, washers and other hardware in heavy hot and is sourced from bridge construction authorities.
dipped galvanized finish as well as stainless steel. While for most timber bridges an asphalt wearing
• baseplates and bracing surface was placed over the timber deck, the listed
species are still considered appropriate to decks with
• stainless steel rigging for handrail infills
running planks (no deck wearing surface).
• preservatives, paints, stains and coatings
TABLE 16
TRADITIONAL SPECIES USED IN BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

Bridge Suitable Species

Design & Construction with Components Hot tropics Additional species
Hardwood other regions
Piles Struts & Ironbark
Fenders
General
Gatton Sawmilling uses open forest hardwoods (not Girders, Ironbark, Spotted Gum Grey Gum
rainforest species) exclusively as they are excellent corbels &kerbs Gympie Messmate
construction materials and exhibit superior resistance
Headstocks Ironbark Tallowwood, Grey Gum
to abuse, decay and vandalism. For those unfamiliar
Gympie Messmate Blackbutt, Spotted Gum
with hardwood, a little time spent in understanding
the material in both detailing and construction will pay Wales, braces & Ironbark, Spotted Gum Tallowwood, Grey Gum
off with a handsome, long lasting structure. In the handrails Gympie Messmate Blackbutt
following discussion hardwood, supplied by Gatton
Sawmilling, is compared with timbers possibly more Decking Ironbark, Blackbutt Tallowwood, Grey Gum
Gympie Messmate Spotted Gum
familiar to the reader. The properties discussed are
those that are relevant to outdoor structures.

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Forest Resource While most timbers ignite with about the same degree
It is important that the forest resource is milled and of difficulty, flame spreads slower on dense hardwood
used as efficiently as possible to minimize cost and to allowing more time to extinguish it. It also chars more
maximize the number of structures that can come from slowly so it often has a better chance of survival than
each tree. As the timber used for decking has to be softwood.
substantially defect free, the choice of smaller sections
and lengths increases the amount of decking recovered Preservatives
from a log. Hence, when there is no overriding reason, No matter what the durability of the truewood, the
decking should be 35x70 with a preferred maximum sapwood of all species is not durable. In order to more
length of 3.6 metres. fully utilize the forest harvest, the sapwood has to be
preservative treated when used in exposed structures.
The forest is used even more efficiently if the life of the Gatton Sawmilling is one of the first companies in
structure can be increased. This also locks up carbon so Australia to have adopted Copper Azole as the
that the greenhouse gas (when the timber decays) is preservative for the sapwood of all its products. While
delayed or slowly compensated over time. The being as effective as CCA, this product is less hazardous
longevity of the structure can be ensured by: at the treatment plant and at the construction site.

• species choice The normal procedures for handling and working CCA
• grading decking free of defects that otherwise treated hardwood apply to copper azole and details of
could lead to premature decay these are sent with every boardwalk. In particular
goggles, mask and gloves are required during cutting
• preservative treatment of the sapwood
the timber. Offcut timber should not be burnt but
• constructing the deck to Gatton Sawmilling’s good disposed of at a landfill site. In environmentally
practice sensitive areas, heavy canvas can be used on the
• finishing & maintenance practice as per Gatton ground of the fabrication area and at completion of
Sawmilling’s recommendations. each day’s operations the material can be gathered up
• Gatton Sawmilling’s unique profiles designed to and offcuts and sawdust easily tipped into a dumpster
promote longevity. for suitable disposal. Offcuts further down the site
should be placed into containers as the work
progresses for future collection and disposal, leaving
Fire the site in an unsullied condition.
Obviously with any timber structure, fire can be a
CN (Copper Napthanate) emulsion is applied to all
problem. The fire source can be forest or grass fires or
housings, end grain and joints including the joist-deck
sheer vandalism. Good maintenance practices can
interface. Detailed instructions for this are included in
eliminate a great deal of the litter that causes much of
the kit. It is like a green grease that easily fouls clothing
the problem. Removal of leaf litter also aids in the
and hands. Any excess that is likely to be in areas
prevention of dry rot. Spacing the decking timber and
handled by the public should be removed at
raising the kerb facilitates a measure of self cleaning
completion of the job.
while removal or cutting of adjacent grasses reduces
the fuel available. Where support posts are particularly CN Oil should be used on all timber to retard moisture
vulnerable, the timber can be painted with an almost movement, seal the surface against water ingress and
transparent paint that reduces the spread of flame. prevent fungal development. The resulting surface is
This lessens the likelihood of the structure catching fire slippery for some weeks (depending on weather and
from below. It is worth pointing out that the use of climate) and so the public should be prohibited while
preservative treatments increases the spread of flame. the hazard exists. Do not use linseed oil as it
Usually fire is not a problem with walks in marine encourages fungal development. Surfaces that are
environments frequently handled, should not be oiled but painted
with a fungal resistant stain or paint. These paints and
TABLE 17
stains need more attention and maintenance than
FIRE INDICES
oiled surfaces. Only light colours should be used as
Species Early Fire Index dark colours increase the timber temperature
Spread of flame (0-10) Charring rate mm/min promoting fungal growth and premature breakdown
Spotted Gum 3 0.45 of the finishing system.
Iron Bark 5 0.45
Cypress Pine 8 0.55
Radiata Pine 8 0.65
Oregon (Douglas Fir) 9 0.65
18 Western Red Cedar 10 1.05
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Gatton Sawmilling can supply decking pre-oiled. This Staining
results in: If water passes over unpainted hardwood it can
produce a brown stain on the surfaces below. This is
• faster construction
more likely to occur when the timber is freshly sawn
• the public being allowed access immediately as the but will continue to a lesser extent after it is seasoned
oil has had time to penetrate or weathered. There are some cleaning agents that
• more uniform product will remove the stain, but discolouring will reoccur
• less messy operations on site unless water is excluded. Flashings or roofing can be
used to direct water away from any surfaces to be
• less interruptions due to wet weather.
protected or an opaque paint system can be applied to
all the hardwood surfaces including all housings and
Shrinkage notchings. This is not necessary for most boardwalks.
All timber shrinks across the grain as wood loses Storage
moisture after milling. Different species shrink various When properly used, hardwood is one of the toughest,
amounts as shown in the accompanying table. most serviceable and easily handled of all building
materials, but like any other structural member, it can
be seriously damaged by mishandling, especially
TABLE 18 careless or improper exposure to wetting and drying.
Tangential Shrinkage from unseasoned to seasoned
Hardwood is more easily cut and drilled when it is
Species % unseasoned so it makes sense to retard drying while in
Brush Box 9.7 storage on site. The best means is to block stack the
timber level; at least 150 mm above the ground. Any
Ironbark, grey 7.5
vegetation on the ground should be scrapedaway or
Spotted Gum 6.1
covered with an impervious sheet. The whole of the
Radiata Pine 5.1 stack, including the ends, should also be covered with
Douglas Fir 4 an impervious sheet; spaced so that the timber is
Cypress Pine 2.5 protected from the sun’s heat and to retard drying.
Proper stripping of the timber should be undertaken so
Notes that the timber cannot twist or distort as otherwise this
Actual shrinkage will be less than that shown could make it very difficult to build into the works later.
as timber will not completely season in a
weather exposed environment. Also radial It is recommended to coat all timber ends with
shrinkage is almost half that of the tangential
direction and so the shrinkage depends very petroleum jelly or a wax coating to control end
much on the orientation of the sawn piece to splitting that is a direct result of rapid drying. When
the original log. the timber is subsequently incorporated into the
Radiata pine is normally supplied seasoned. structure, the freshly trimmed ends are coated with CN
Emulsion which also retards drying as well as
Spotted gum has about 50% more shrinkage
preserving.
compared with Douglas Fir but the reality is that as
joists and headstocks in spotted gum are about 25% Completed sections of the boardwalk, especially
smaller then the shrinkage that a joint has to widenings, can make excellent storage and fabrication
accommodate is about the same order. areas provided that the mass of timber being
supported is nowhere worse than a solid section 300
The consequences of shrinkage should be considered:
mm high.
• at joints
• in providing sufficient thread length to allow
tightening of bolts as timber seasons
• when different thickness of timber may make an
abrupt misalignment of the decking
• when adjacent to a fixed level e.g. concrete path
Details of initial decking gaps at fixing time for various
environments are given in the Deckwood brochure.

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Strength Working
Table 19 shows the superior strength (more than Hardwood is more easily worked while it is
double) and stiffness (almost double) of hardwood unseasoned. For this reason it is best to keep it from
relative to the softwoods. Toughness relates to the drying out whilst in storage. (Refer to the section on
capacity to resist abuse and impact. Janka hardness Storage). In order to retain the treatment envelope
figures shown here relate to seasoned product but are intact, any extensive working of the timber should be
indicative of resistance to indentation due to undertaken at Gatton Sawmilling before treatment.
concentrated loads on unseasoned decks This results in a more uniform product, faster
construction and less waste for disposal.
TABLE 20
STRENGTH PROPERTIES While spade bits are efficient at boring through
hardwood they should only be used when mounted on
Species Stiffness Bending Toughness Janka a drill stand as otherwise the bored hole may not be
E MPa F’b MPa Hardness straight. Wood bits (scotch pattern augers) easily
Iron Bark 16000 22 H 16.3 produce straight holes can be used in electric drills for
Spotted Gum 14000 17 H 10.1 12 mm holes (and larger) but pneumatic drills are
Cypress Pine 6900 5.5 L 6.1 preferred for safety (especially over water), superior
Radiata Pine 6900 5.5 M 3.3 torque and stalling does not result in burnout.
Oregon (Douglas Fir) 7900 6.9 L 3.0 Edges of all timber should be arrised to resist splinter
Toughness nomenclature:-H=high, M=medium, L=low development and as an aid to safe handling.
Deckwood is supplied standard with pencilled top
edges. More specific details of construction are
Weight contained in Gatton Sawmilling’s Construction Guide
Table 20 shows the range of unseasoned densities for that is supplied with every kit.
various timbers. While the range of densities is large,
the actual range of component mass is significantly
less. Spotted gum 150x75 has been adopted as a
CONCLUSION
standard for comparison purposes and the depth (D
Gatton Sawmilling prides itself in its expertise in
stiffness) of the common grades of the other species
rugged external public structures including shelters,
has been computed so that they all exhibit the same
walls, bridges, barriers and boardwalks. It is
stiffness, as this generally governs design. For
committed to innovation while retaining what is best
comparison purposes, D bending shows the relative
of traditional practice in outdoor timber structures.
masses of components sized for the same bending
strength. Boardwalks are an important part of the range of
products and can be adapted and customized to the
client’s requirements. Detailing of decking layup,
Table 20 junctions and handrailing can all be modified to suit a
TIMBER COMPONENTS MASS client’s theme such is the versatility of this style of
construction.
Species Timber density Same stiffness Same Strength
3
kg/m D stiffness kg/m D bending kg/m
Iron Bark 1250 143 13.4 132 12.4 REFERENCES
Spotted Gum 1200 150 13.5 150 13.5 AS refers to an Australian Standard as numbered.
Cypress Pine 850 190 12.1 264 16.8
Radiata Pine 800 190 11.4 264 15.8 BCA refers to the Building Code of Australia.
Oregon (Doug. Fir) 710 182 9.7 235 12.5

It should be noted that a standard 3.3 m length of GAT TON SAWMILLING

GAT
150x75 joist weighs less than 45 kg; an easy lift for Old College Road, Gatton, Queensland, Australia Q 4343
two. PO Box 517, Gatton, Queensland, Australia Q 4343

Phone (07) 5462 4255

Fax (07) 5462 4077
Email [Link]@[Link]
Home Page - [Link]
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