INSTRUCTIONS TO BE FOLLOWED FOR BIOLOGY PRACTICALS RECORD
BOOK
• USE ONLY A HARD BOUND BIOLOGY PRACTICAL NOTEBOOK(NOT A
LAB MANUAL, NO LOOSE SHEETS THAT ARE ATTACHED WITH
STRING).
• IT SHOULD BE INTERLEAVED.
• IT SHOULD HAVE A CERTIFICATE PAGE.
• IT SHOULD ALSO HAVE AN INDEX PAGE.
• YOUR WORK SHOULD BE NEAT.
• YOU HAVE TO DRAW AND LABEL THE DIAGRAMS USING
PENCIL (YOU SHOULD NOT PASTE/STICK ANY PRINTED PICTURES.)
• DIAGRAMS NEED NOT BE COLOURED UNLESS SPECIFIED BY
THE TEACHER.
• DRAW BIGGER DIAGRAMS AND LABEL THE PARTS NEATLY.
• YOU MUST WRITE AS PER THE NOTES PROVIDED BY YOUR
TEACHER AND NOT COPY FROM ANY OTHER OLD RECORDS AS THE
SEQUENCE AND CONTENTS OF THE PRACTICAL WORK HAS
CHANGED THIS YEAR.
• PLEASE USE BLUE GEL PEN FOR THE ENTIRE PRACTICAL RECORD
FOR WRITING THE EXPERIMENTS.
• PLEASE WRITE EACH EXPERIMENT ON A NEW PAGE.
• FAILING TO FOLLOW THE ABOVE INSTRUCTIONS, YOU MAY HAVE
TO REDO YOUR WORK.
INDEX
1. BLOOD AND ITS COMPONENTS
2. STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN HEART
3. PHOTOSYNTHESIS- OXYGEN IS EVOLVED
4. PHOTOSYNTHESIS- CARBONDIOXIDE IS ESSENTIAL
5. PHOTOSYNTHESIS-SUNLIGHT IS ESSENTIAL
6. PHOTOSYNTHESIS- CHLOROPHYLL IS ESSENTIAL
7. STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BRAIN
8. STRUCTURE OF HUMAN EYE
9. STRUCTURE OF HUMAN EAR
10.PROCESS OF DIFFUSION
11.DEMONSTRATION OF OSMOSIS-I
12.DEMONSTRATION OF OSMOSIS(II) IN LIVING TISSES(USING POTATO)
13.DEMONSTRATION OF ABSORPTION OF WATER BY PLANTS
14.ENDOCRINE GLANDS
15. TRANSPIRATION- PLANTS TRANSPIRE
16.TRANSPIRATION- RATE OF TRANSPIRATION USING GANONG’S POTOMETER
17.TRANSPIRATION-USING DICOTYLEDONOUS LEAF
18.STRUCTURE OF HUMAN KIDNEY
19.CELL DIVISION- STUDY OF MITOSIS IN ANIMAL CELLS
EXPERIMENT 1
BLOOD AND ITS COMPONENTS
Aim: To observe and identify different types of blood cells in a blood smear
Materials required: Two glass slides, microscope, cover slip, cotton, a disposable needle, leishman's stain,
spirit and alcohol.
Method:
Sterilize the disposable needle. Prick the fingertip with the needle. Squeeze the fingertip and take a drop
of blood near the right end of the slide. Immediately put the second slide held at an angle of about 60 o
over the first slide close to the drop of blood and pull it gently to the opposite end of the first slide. Wait
until the blood gets evenly distributed. Remove the second slide. Allow the blood smear to dry and then
stain it, by adding a few drops of Leishman's stain. After 2 minutes, add an equal volume of distilled
water. Wait for 2 minutes and then drain off the excess water. Cover the stain with the cover slip and
examine it under a microscope.
Observation:
Blood contains a fluid part called plasma (55%-60%) and cellular parts containing of corpuscles (RBCs,
WBCs and platelets) which make 40% of our blood.
a)Plasma:It contains about 90% of water and 10% of organic and inorganic matter. It is a light yellow
coloured alkaline liquid.
b)Cellular part:
i)Erythrocytes: they are minute biconcave discs that contain a respiratory pigment called haemoglobin.
Immature RBC contain nucleus whereas mature RBC do not contain nucleus. This helps in the
transportation of oxygen.
ii) Leukocytes: they are fewer in number than RBCs. They are amoeboid in shape and have a distinct
nucleus. They help in defending the body. They are of two types:
1) Granulocytes (granular WBCs)
Cytoplasm containing granules and nucleus usually constructed into lobes. There are three types of
granulocytes:
Neutrophils: they contribute 62% of WBCs and their function is to engulf bacteria (phagocytosis)
Eosinophils: they contribute 2.34 percent of WBCs and their function is to engulf bacteria and secrete
antitoxins.
Basophils: they contribute 0.4% of WBCs and their function is to release histamine (chemicals) which
dilates blood vessels and makes them leaky for other WBCs is to squeeze through capillaries.
2) Agranulocytes (non- granular WBCs)
They contain a cytoplasm without granules and a single large nucleus is present in them.
They are of two types:
Lymphocytes: they contribute 30% of WBCs and are the smallest WBCs that produce antibodies.
Monocytes: they contribute about 5.3 % of WBCs, the nuclear being large, kidney shaped and they ingest
enzymes.
iii) Blood Platelets: blood platelets are minute, oval or round shaped structures, non-nucleated, floating in
the blood. The platelets are derived from some giant cells called megakaryocytes in the red bone marrow.
The lifespan is three to five days and are destroyed mainly in the spleen. They are very important in
coagulation (clotting of blood). At the site of injury, the platelets disintegrate to release a chemical
substance called Thrombokinase which initiates the coagulation.
EXPERIMENT 2
STRUCTURE OF HUMAN HEART
Aim: To study the structure of the human heart.
Materials Required:Model of the human heart, chart etc.
Structure:
1. The heart is a muscular organ which functions to pump the blood throughout the body.
2. The heart is a cone-shaped muscular organ about the size of a closed fist(12cm in length and 9cm in
breadth)
3. It is located in the thoracic cavity, between the two lungs. It is enclosed in a double walled membranous sac
called pericardium. The double membrane of pericardium contains pericardial fluid which nourishes the
heart and prevents shock.
4. The heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are called atria (the right atrium and the left atrium)
divided by inter-auricular septum, and the two lower chambers are called ventricles(right ventricle and left
ventricle) divided by inter-ventricular septum.
5. Between the right auricle and right ventricle and left auricles and left ventricle vales are present. Valves are
flap-like structures that allow blood to flow in one direction.
6. The heart has two kinds of valves, atrio-ventricular and semilunar valves. These valves open and close
during the cardiac cycle, to direct the flow of blood through the heart chambers and out to the rest of the
body. Heart valves are formed from elastic connective tissue which provides the flexibility needed to open
and close properly.
7. Tricuspid Valve is located between the right atrium and the right ventricle. When closed, it allows oxygen-
depleted blood returning to the heart from the vena cava to fill the right atrium. When open, it allows
blood from the right atrium to flow into the right ventricle.
8. Bicuspid or Mitral Valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle. When closed, it allows the left
atrium to fill with oxygen-rich blood returning to the heart from the pulmonary veins. It opens to allow
blood from the left atrium to fill the left ventricle. The bicuspid and tricuspid valves prevent backflow of
blood to the auricles.
9. The valves are held in position by thread like structures called chordae tendinae.
10. The human heart is controlled by a number of nerve fibres called the Sino- atrial node (SAN) or pacemaker.
The SAN commands the heart to start the heart beat and it is located in the walls of the right auricle.
11. The superior vena cava is a large, short vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the
body to the right atrium. The inferior vena cava is the largest vein in the body and carries deoxygenated
blood from the lower half of the body into the heart.
12. The pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle into the lungs to unload carbon
dioxide and take up oxygen. These are the only arteries that carry deoxygenated blood, and are considered
arteries because they carry blood away from the heart.
13. The oxygenated blood from the lungs is brought back to the left auricle by the pulmonary vein.
14. The aorta is the largest of all the arteries in systemic circulation. Blood is pumped from the left ventricle
through the aortic valve into the aorta and distributed to all the tissues of the body.
15. The semilunar valves are located between the aorta and the left ventricle, and between the pulmonary
artery and the right ventricle. The semilunar valves prevent the flow of the blood from the pulmonary
artery and right ventricle and aorta to the left ventricles.
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF HEART
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF HEART
EXPERIMENT 3
PHOTOSYNTHESIS –OXYGEN IS EVOLVED
Aim: To show that Oxygen is evolved during Photosynthesis.
Materials Required: Beaker, test tube, water, a short stemmed funnel and Hydrilla plant (aquatic
plant).
Procedure:
Place an aquatic plant example Hydrilla, in a beaker containing water. Cover the plant with the
short stemmed funnel. The level of water should be above the stem of the funnel. Take a test tube
filled with water and inverted it quickly over the stem of the funnel. Place the apparatus in
sunlight for a few hours.
Observation: bubbles of a certain gas will be seen rising to the top of the test tube, which get
collected there by the downward displacement of water. After some time, remove the test tube
slowly by placing your finger on the mouth of the test tube. When a glowing splinter is introduced
into the test tube, it will glow brightly, showing that the gas collected is Oxygen.
Inference:
Since the gas rekindles the glowing splinter, it is prove that oxygen is evolved during
photosynthesis.
EXPERIMENT 4
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: CARBON-DIOXIDE IS ESSENTIAL
Aim: To show that carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis.
Materials required: a de-starched potted plant, conical flask, potassium hydroxide, iodine solution etc.
Procedure: take a de-starched plant and insert half the leaf through a slit of a cock in a conical flask which
contains potassium hydroxide. Leave the set apparatus in the sunlight for a few hours. Pluck the leaf to be
tested for starch.
Observation:
The leaf which was exposed to the atmospheric air becomes bluish black and the one in the flask turns
brown.
Inference: the leaf which was exposed to the air turns bluish black showing the presence of starch as it
gets free supply of carbon dioxide but the part of the leaf in the conical flask shows the absence of starch
as it was not exposed to carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide was absorbed by the KOH solution). This proves
that carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis.
EXPERIMENT 5
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: SUNLIGHT IS ESSENTIAL
Aim: To show that sunlight is essential for photosynthesis.
Materials required: A de-starched plant, clips, black paper and weak iodine solution.
Procedure: take the plant with de-starched leaves and cover one of its leaves with black paper, on
which the design of a star is cut. Now pluck this particular leaf from the plant. Test it for the
presence of starch, using iodine solution.
Observation: It is seen that the part of the leaf, previously covered by the black paper, turns
yellowish brown. On the other hand, the part exposed to sunlight turns Black on performing the
starch test.
Inference: the part of the leaf which received sunlight, show the presence of starch when tested
with iodine solution, while the part covered with the black paper, does not show the presence of
starch. This proves that sunlight is essential for photosynthesis.
EXPERIMENT 6
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: CHLOROPHYLL IS ESSENTIAL
Aim:To show that chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.
Materials required: plant with variegated leaves, paper, pencil, weak iodine solution for starch
test.
Procedure: take a plant with variegated leaves and de-starch it. Select leaf to be tested and make
an outline of it on a piece of paper. Place the plant (experimental set-up) in sunlight for a few
hours. Then, take the leaf that was marked and test it for the presence of starch by performing the
iodine test.
Observation: the non-green parts of the leaves turn yellowish brown, while the green parts turn
bluish-black after the test.
Inference:
The green parts of the leaf turn bluish-black because chlorophyll is present, it produces starch
during photosynthesis. The non-green parts turn brown due to the absence of starch, because no
photosynthesis has occurred. This proves that chlorophyll is an important pigment, required for
the process of photosynthesis.
EXPERIMENT 7
THE HUMAN BRAIN
Aim: To study the structure of human brain.
Materials Required: Model, transparencies and chart of human brain.
Structure:
1. The human brain is present within the brain box or the cranium of the axial skeleton.It weighs
approximately 1.5 Kg in weight and has a volume of around 1,300-1500 cc.
2. Meninges is a common term used to denote a group of three membranes called Duramater,
Arachnoidmater and Piamater that envelope the brain.
3. The Cerebro-spinal fluid fills the spaces between the meninges and the cavities of thebrain. It
surrounds the brain and acts as a shock absorbs.
4. The human brain is divided into three parts: i)Fore Brain
ii)Mid Brain
iii) Hind brain
5. The outer surface of the brain is not smooth but thrown into many folds. The folds are called the
Gyri and the grooves are called the Sulci. Deeper grooves are called fissures.
The outer surface of the brain is greyish in colour and is referred to as the gray matter. It is
composed of the cell bodies and dendrites of the neurons. The inner part is made up of the white
matter which is composed of myelinated nerve fibres.
6. The fore brain is the largest part of the brain and consists of the cerebrum and diencephalon.
7. The cerebrum is divided into two large halves, called the Right cerebral hemisphere and left
cerebral hemisphere connected by a band of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum.
8. Its outer surface is greyish in colour and is called the cerebral cortex. This surface is not smooth
but contains the gyri and sulci.
9. The cerebrum is the seat of intelligence, memory, thinking and voluntary actions. It controls
speech and all the sense organs.
10. The diencephalon consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.
11. The midbrain consists of tubular part that connects the four brain with the hinde brain. It controls
the activities of the ears and eyes.
12. The hind brain consists of cerebellum pons varolii and medulla oblongata.
13. The cerebellum or the little brain is located to the base of the cerebrum.
14. It maintains balance of the body and coordinates muscular activities.
15. The medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brain located at the base of the skull. It controls
the activities of the internal organs such as heart beat breathing rate and peristaltic movement of
the alimentary canal.
EXPERIMENT 8
THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EYE
Aim: To study the structure of human eye.
Materials required: model of the eye, chart and transparencies is of the human eye.
Structure:
1. The eye is the sense organ of sight and is situated in the orbit of the skull.
2. Each eye has a movable upper and lower eyelid with eyelashes present at its periphery.
3. The eyes are always kept moist by secretion of the tear glands or the lacrimal glands which
open into the eye from the upper sideward portion of the orbit.
4. Eyeball is divided into three layers:
a) Outer sclerotic layer or sclera
b) Middle choroid layer
c) The inner retina layer
a) The outer sclerotic layar
It is the outermost white tough layer of the eye and is opaque in nature. In the front the sclerotic
layer bulges to form a transparent cornea. Once the cornea is a transparent membrane, it is called
the conjunctiva, which is continuous with the inner lining of the eyelids.
b) The choroid layer
It is the middle layer of the eyeball and is richly supplied with blood capillaries, providing nutrition
and oxygen to the eye. The free edges of the choroid layer form athin muscular ring called the
ciliary muscles. The ciliary body is responsible for altering the shape of the lens to see near or far
of objects in front of the eye. The choroid forms an opaque disc called iris. The retinal part of the
iris is called the pupil. The colour of the eye is due to the pigment present in the iris.
c) The inner retina
It is the innermost layer of the eyeball and is sensitive to light. It acts as a screen, to receive the
image formed by the lens.The retina contains the main type of sensory cells rods and cones. The
rod cells are sensitive to dim light and are able to distinguish shades of white, black and grey. They
contain a pigment called rhodopsin. The cones are sensitive to bright light and are responsible for
coloured vision. They contain a pigment called iodopsin. The nerve fibres from the sclerotic cells
leave the eyeball at a point to form the optic nerves which carry impulses to the brain. The nerve
point where the nerve fibres connect to form the optic nerve is called the blind spot, where no
image is recorded. Almost directly opposite to the lens is the most sensitive part of the retina
called the yellow spot. The yellow spot on the retina is the region of the brightest, sharpest and
clearest image. The region contains high concentration of cones.
Lens
It is transparent, flexible, biconvex crystalline body .It is located in just behind the pupil .It contains
transparent lens fibers which is collectively held in position by the fibers called suspensory
ligament, which is attached to the ciliarybody.Theciliary body helps in change of shape of the lens
for viewing objects at different distances . the Lens divides the eyeball into two chambers:
a) Aqueous chamber
b) Vitreous chamber
Aqueous chamber :
Is the front chamber between lens and the cornea .It is filled with a clear watery liquid called
aqueous humour. Aqueous humour helps by keeping the lens moist, protects it from physical
shock and refracts light.
Vitreous chamber :
It is a larger cavity of the eyeball, located behind the lens. It is filled with a transparent jell-like
thicker fluid called vitreous humour.Vitreous humour helps in keeping the shape of the eyeball
and protects the retina and its nerve endings
Lacrimal (tear) apparatus of the Human Eye Horizontal section of Human Eye
EXPERIMENT 9
THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN EAR
Aim: To study the structure of the human ear
Materials required: model, chart and transparencies of human ear.
Structure:
The ears are the organs of hearing and body balance. It is divided into three parts:
a)the outer ear
b)the middle ear and
c)the inner ear.
The outer ear:
It consists of the ear lobes or external pinna which leads into the external auditory canal. The
pinna is a funnel shaped structure which receives the sound vibration and directs it into the ear
canal. The external auditory canal is tightly stretched to form the tympanic membrane or the
eardrum, which is highly sensitive to sound vibrations.
Middle ear
The middle ear, separated from the outer ear by the eardrum, contains three small bones, or
ossicles. Because of their shapes, these bones are known as the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus),
and stirrup (stapes). Air reaches the middle ear through the Eustachian tube , or auditory tube,
which connects it to the throat.
Inner ear
The inner ear, or labyrinth, contains the cochlea, which houses the sound-analyzing cells of the
ear, and the vestibule, which houses the organs of equilibrium. The cochlea is a coiled, fluid-filled
tube divided into the three canals: the vestibular, tympanic, and cochlear canals. The basilar
membrane forms a partition between the cochlear canal and the tympanic canal and houses the
organ of Corti.
THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN EAR
EXPERIMENT- 10
ABSORPTION BY ROOTS (Demonstration of diffusion)
Aim-
To demonstrate the process of diffusion
Materials required- Potassium permanganate tablet, beaker containing water
Principle-
Diffusion is the movement of the molecules of a substance (solid, liquid or a gas) from the region of their
higher concentration to the region of their lower concentration when they are in contact with each other.
Procedure-
1. Take a beaker containing water.
2. Drop a tablet of potassium permanganate into it.
3. Keep it undisturbed.
Observation-
The water turns pink in colour.
Conclusion-
We conclude that water in the beaker turns pink after sometime because the molecules of potassium
permanganate diffuse in water.
Precaution-
1. Clean water should be taken in the beaker.
2. The potassium permanganate tablet should be dropped slowly into the water.
EXPERIMENT- 11
ABSORPTION BY ROOTS (Demonstration of osmosis-1)
Aim
To demonstrate the process of osmosis.
Materials required-
Stand, thistle funnel, water, sugar solution, animal bladder or egg membrane (semi-permeable
membrane) and beaker
Principle-
Osmosis is a phenomenon in which there is a movement of a sovent (or water molecules) from a region of
their higher concentration to a region of theirlower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
Procedure-
1. A thistle funnel is taken
2. An animal bladderis tied at the mouth of the thistle funnel
3. A beaker filled with water is taken aand kept at the base of the stand.
4. The thistle funnel is introduced into the beaker and fixed to the stand in an inverted position.
6. The lSugar solution is poured into the thistle funnel stem.
6. the level of the solution is marked.
7. The apparatus is left undisturbed for a few hours.
Observation
The level of the sugar solution rises in the stem of the thistle funnel.
Conclusion-
The level of sugar solution increases in the stem of the thistle funnel as the water molecules from the
beaker move intothethistle funnel through the animal bladder which is a semi-permeable membrane.
EXPERIMENT- 12
ABSORPTION BY ROOTS(Demonstration of osmosis-2)
Aim-
To demonstrate osmosis using potato osmoscope
Materials required-
Potato tuber, sugar solution, water, petri dish, pins
Procedure-
1. Peel off the outer skin of the potato tuber.
2. Cut one end flat.
3. From the other end, scoop a cavity nearly down to the bottom.
4. Half fill the cavity with a concentrated sugar solution and mark the level with the help of a pin.
5. Place the tuber on its flat end in a petri dish of water. (The level of which should not be higher than the
level of the sugar solution in the cavity.)
Observation-
After some time, it is observed that the level of the sugar solution in the cavity rises and becomes stable
after a certain period of time.
Conclusion-
The flow of the molecules of the solvent (water) is along the concentration gradient i.e. the osmotic
gradient of sugar solution being higher (thus the concentration of water being lower). The water
molecules move through the cell membrane of the cells of the tuber which acts as a semi-permeable
membrane.
EXPERIMENT-13
ABSORPTION BY ROOTS
Aim
To show that roots of the plant absorbs water.
Materials required
Two big test tube (labeled A and B), water, oil. Young plant with roots intact.
Procedure-
1. Two test tubes are taken.
2. They are filled with water.
3. In test tube ‘A’ a young plant is placed.
4. The level of water in both the test tubes is noted down.
5. A few drops of oil are introduced into both the test tubes to prevent loss water by evaporation.
6. The test tubes are left undisturbed on a stand for a while.
Observation-
The level of water in the test tube ‘A’ fell after some time but the level of water in test tube ‘B’ remains
unchanged.
Conclusion-We conclude that the roots of the plants absorb water.
Precaution-
1. A healthy plant should be taken.
2. The levels of water should be taken down carefully.
EXPERIMENT 14
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Aim: To identify the secretion and function of various endocrine glands.
Materials Required: Charts and transparencies of the different endocrine glands.
Note:
Endocrine glands are also called ductless glands because they do not have their own ducts. They
release certain chemical secretions called hormones which are required for the regulation of body
activities.Hormones are the secretions from endocrine glands, which are poured directly into the
blood and which acts on target organs or cells away from their source.They are produced in very
minute quantities but are biologically very active. Their excess or deficiency leads to serious
consequences.
The principal endocrine glands are as follows:
1. Adrenal Glands: The adrenal glands are cap-like structures located just above the kidneys. Each
adrenal gland consists of two parts:
i) Central medulla
ii) Peripheral cortex
2. Pancreas: It is a leaf-like structure located just below the stomach. Pancreas is called as exo-
endocrine gland since it has dual.As exocrine gland; pancreas produces pancreatic juice for
digestion. The endocrine portion the pancreas consists of about one million cells clustered together to
form “ Islets of Langerhans”. Three kinds of cells are recognised in this region:
i) Alpha cells- which secretes the hormone Glucagon. Glucagon stimulates the breakdown of
glycogen in the liver into glucose and raises blood sugar level.
ii) Beta cells- secretes the hormone Insulin. Insulin checks the rise in sugar level by stimulating
deposition of extra glucose in blood as Glycogen in the liver. It also promotes glucose
utilisation.
iii) Delta cells- which secrete Somatostatin. It prevents the secretion of glucagon and insulin.
3. Thyroid Gland: it is a bilobed, butterfly shaped structure, located in front of the neck, just below the
larynx. The two lobes are joined to form an inter-connected isthmus. It secretes two important
hormones, thyroxin and calcitonin.
4. Pituitary Gland: Pituitary gland is a small projection, about the size of a pea which hangs attached to
the hypothalamus.It is popularly called the master gland because it controls all other endocrine glands.
Pituitary has two distinct lobes- anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary. Some important hormones
produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland are:
i) Growth hormone
ii) Thyroid stimulating hormone
iii) Gonad Stimulating hormone
iv) Adrenocorticotropic hormone
v) Follicle stimulating hormone
vi) Luteinizing hormone
The hormones produced by the posterior lobe are:
i) Anti-diuretic hormone(ADH) or Vasopressin
ii) Oxytocin
Diagrams:
1) The principal Endocrine Glands 2) Adrenal glands
3) Pancreas(refer text book diagram if needed) 4) Thyroid gland
5) Pituitary gland (refer text book diagram)
EXPERIMENT- 15
TRANSPIRATION (a)-PLANTS TRANSPIRE
Aim- To demonstrate the process of transpiration using a bell jar
Materials required
Bell jar, well watered potted plant, rubber sheet, glass plate, Vaseline
Procedure-
1. Take a well-watered healthy potted plant.
2. Cover the pot with a rubber sheet.
3. Keep the potted covered it with the bell jar.
4. Apply Vaseline at the base of the bell jar.
5. Keep the apparatus in the sunlight for some time.
6. Take a control set up in the same way except that the pot should be without a potted plant.
Observation-
Water drops are seen on the inner wall of the bell jar containing the potted plant while there are no
water drops in the bell jar without the plant.
Conclusion-
Water drops are seen on the inner wall of the bell jar containing the potted plant as the plant transpires.
Water drops are not seen on the inner wall of the second bell jar as there is no plant inside it and
therefore no transpiration takes place.
EXPERIMENT- 16
TRANSPIRATION (b)- GANONG’S POTOMETER
Aim-
To measure the amount of water taken by the plants due of transpiration with the help of Ganong’s
potometer
Materials required-
Ganong’s potometer, twig of a plant like coleus, water, colouring agent (eosin-pink coloured)
Procedure-
1. The twig of a plant is taken.
2. The graduated capillary tube of the Ganong’s potometer is filled with water.
3. The twig is cut with a sharp knife and fitted into the upper wide tube at one end of the graduated
capillary tube.
4.The other end of the tube is made to dip in a beaker containing coloured water.
5. An air bubble is introduced into the horizontal graduated capillary tube by first lifting the bent capillary
tube above the coloured water and again dipping it into it.
6. As the process of transpiration take place in the twig of the plant, the bubble starts moving forward.
This is because of the suction force which pulls water from the beaker.
7. Since the capillary tube is graduated, the reading gives an idea of the volume of water lost by
transpiration.
8. The air bubble can be brought back to its original position by releasing water from the reservoir by
opening the stopcock.
Observation-
The bubble starts moving forward. This is due to the suction force created by the loss of water by
transpiration which pulls the coloured water from the beaker. Since the capillary tube is graduated, the
reading gives an idea of the volume of water lost by transpiration.
Conclusion-
Transpiration occurs in the leaves of the plants which leads to the absorption of water from the roots.
This water then moves up to the leaves through the stem.
EXPERIMENT- 17
TRANSPIRATION (c)-IN DICOT LEAF
Aim-
To compare the rate of transpiration from the upper and lower surfaces of a in dicot leaf using Cobalt
chloride paper
Materials required- Filter paper, CoCl2 solution, glass slides, rubber bands, desiccator and a potted plant
Procedure-
1. Dissolve 5g of cobalt chloride in 100ml of water to make 5% cobalt chloride solution.
2. Cut thin strips of filter paper and dip them in the cobalt chloride solution.
3. Dry the strips of filter paper thoroughly in a desiccator.
4. The pink coloured strips become blue when dried in the desiccator.
5. Two such filter paper strips are taken and are fixed on the lower and upper surfaces of a leaf with
the help of the glass slides and rubber bands.
6. Observe the time taken by each of the strip for changing the colour from blue to pink.
Observation-It is observed that the filter paper attached to the lower side of the leaf turns pink earlier
than the strip attached on the upper surface.
Conclusion
The strips changed colour from blue to pink because of the water vapours released from the leaf
due to transpiration. Since more stomata are present on the lower surface, the strip is fixed to the
lower surface turned pink quickly.
EXPERIMENT – 18
THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN KIDNEY
Aim:
To study the external and internal structure of Human kidney with the help of charts and models.
Materials Required: models and charts of Human kidney and nephron
Structure:
1. The kidneys are the primary excretory organs eliminating nitrogenous wastes like urea, uric acid
etc. in the form of urine.
2. Each kidney is a bean shaped (reni-formed) organ about 10cms long and 6cm wide located on
either side of the backbone and protected by the floating ribs.
3. Hilum is on the concave side of the kidney through which the blood vessels, nerves and ureter
enter or leave.
4. Two distinct regions can be seen in the cross section of the kidney- the outer darker renal cortex
and inner lighter renal medulla.
5. The renal medulla consists of the collecting ducts of the nephrons which pass the urine to the
renal pelvis.
6. The urine is collected by the ureters arising from the notch of the hilum to the urinary bladder
where urine is stored temporarily.
7. From the urinary bladder, the urine is passed out of the body through a short tube called urethra.
8. The opening of the urinary bladder into the urethra is guarded by sphincter muscles which relax at
the time of urination under an impulse from the brain.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY
1. Each kidney is made up of numerous delicate tubules called uriniferous tubules or nephrons that
are held together by connective tissue.
2. Each nephron is blind at one end and joins the other nephrons at the posterior end to form the
collecting tubules which open into the renal pelvis from where the ureter begins.
3. The blind end of the tubule lies in the cortex region and is expanded to form a cup-like structure
called Bowman’s capsule.
4. Each Bowman’s capsule encloses a mass of blood capillaries known as Glomerulus.
5. A branch of the renal artery called afferent arteriole enters the Bowman’s capsule and divides
repeatedly to form a bunch of capillaries called Glomerulus.
6. The blood leaves the glomerulus by means of efferent arteriole, which supplies blood to the
remaining part of the tubule, and finally leaves the kidney as a venule to join and form the renal
vein.
7. The smaller diameter of the efferent arteriole subjects the blood within the glomerulus to high
pressure due to which water and dissolved substances like urea, salts, glucose etc. get diffused
from the blood into the cavity of the Bowman’s capsule by a processcalled pressure filtration or
ultra-filtration.
8. As the filtrate passes down the tubule, useful substances like glucose, water and salts get
reabsorbed by the secondary network of blood over the tubule and then finally what comes into
the connecting ducts is now called urine.
9. The connecting tubules carry urine to the pelvis and to the urinary bladder through the ureter,
where it is temporarily stored.
10. When the bladder is full, the sphincter muscles relax and the urine is forced out of the body
through the urethra.
Experiment 19
Cell Division- Study of Mitosis in Animal cells.
Aim : To study the stages of mitosis during cell division by observing permanent slides of
mitosis.
Materials Required: Slides of mitosis of animal cells.
Procedure:
1. Focus the slides under the low power lens of a microscope and locate the cells showing
division.
2. Gently rotate the slides to look at a few neighbouring cells.
3. Search for the different stages of mitosis and observe parts like cell membrane,
centrosome, chromosomes, spindle fibres, etc
4. Make a note your observations.
The four phases of mitosis are:
(i). Prophase:
a. The chromosomes have become short and thick and are clearly visible inside the nucleus.
b. Each chromosome has already duplicated to form chromatids.
c. The two sister chromatids remain attached to each other at a small region called
centrosome.
d. The centrosome splits into two, along with simultaneous duplication of the centrioles
contained in it. The daughter centrioles move apart and occupy opposite ‘poles’ of the cell.
Each centriole is surrounded by radiating rays called aster.
e. A number of fibres appear between the two daughter centrioles, which are called the
spindle fibres.
f. The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus disappear.
g. The chromosomes start moving toward the “equator” of the cell.
(ii) Metaphase:
a. The chromosomes arrange on the equatorial plane.
b. Each chromosome gets attached to a spindle fibre.
(iii) Anaphase:
a. The centrosome attaching the two chromatids divides and the two sister chromatids
of each chromosome are separated and drawn apart towards opposite poles.
b. The drawing action is performed by the contraction of spindle fibres.
(iv) Telophase:
a. Each chromatid, or the daughter chromosome, lengthens becomes thinner and turns
into a network of chromatin threads.
b. Nuclear membrane reappears
c. Nucleolus reappears in each daughter nucleus.
Cytokinesis (Division of cytoplasm)
At the end of telophase, a furrow appears in the cell membrane in the middle, which
deepens and finally splits the cytoplasm in to two, thus producing two new cells.
Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis:
All the nuclear changes that occur during cell division are collectively termed
“Karyokinesis” (Karyo: nucleus). Karyokinesis is followed by the division of cytoplasm
(Cytokinesis).
Mitosis in Animal cell
Interphase (Resting Stage)
A. Early Prophase
B. Late Prophase
C. Metaphase
Chromosomes lie along the
equatorial plane of the spindle
D. Early Anaphase
E. Late Anaphase
F. Telophase
Furrow in cytoplasm
Nuclear
membrane
Cytokinesis begins
Cytokinesis
Nucleolus
reappears completed
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