REVIEW

published: 25 June 2019

doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00085

Food Processing at a Crossroad

Dietrich Knorr 1* and Heribert Watzke 2
1
Food Biotechnology and Food Process Engineering, Technical University Berlin, Berlin, Germany, 2 Dr. Phil. Watzke Heribert
Consulting, Lausanne, Switzerland

Recently, processed foods received negative images among consumers and

experts regarding food-health imbalance. This stresses the importance of the food
processing—nutrition interface and its relevance within the diet-health debates. In
this review, we approach the related questions in a 3-fold way. Pointing out the
distinguished role food processing has played in the development of the human condition
and during its 1.7 million year old history, we show the function of food processing
for the general design principles of food products. Secondly, a detailed analysis
of consumer related design principles and processing reveals questions remaining
from the historical transformation from basic cooking into advanced food technology.
As a consequence, we analyze new and emerging technologies in relation to their
contributions to food-health impacts. During the last 35 years, new and emerging
food technologies have initiated a paradigm shift away from conventional process
methodologies to gentler, non-thermal processing. Reducing the existing uncertainties
in the assessment of impact of technology like “minimal processing,” we propose the
Edited by: use of the newly established ISO standard for natural food ingredients as a “reference
Francisco Jose Barba,
University of Valencia, Spain
point.” Finally, we assess the usefulness of recently proposed classification systems, e.g.,
Reviewed by:
NOVA classification, based on comprehensive insights of recently published nutritional
Vincenzo Fogliano, analysis of those classifications. This paper calls for a radical change and worldwide
Wageningen University and adaptation of the key research and developmental areas tackling the grand challenges
Research, Netherlands
Pedro Elez-Martinez, in our food systems.
Universitat de Lleida, Spain
Keywords: food processing, ultra-processed foods, emerging technologies, PAN principles, food
*Correspondence: process-structure-function relationship, nutrient profiling, food system changes
Dietrich Knorr
[Link]@[Link]
INTRODUCTION
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to Food is on everyone’s mind. At least, this is the impression given by the prominence food themes,
Nutrition and Food Science
products and consumer attitudes provided on social media. However, food available in their
Technology,
healthy-looking and picture-perfect presentations seem far off from the daily foods people get on
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Nutrition their table. An excess of fads, myths, hypes, and food belief systems are of no help for consumers
searching for clear, balanced and well-researched answers and advice.
Received: 21 December 2018
While the impact of social media on actual food consumption is still uncertain (1), heated
Accepted: 21 May 2019
Published: 25 June 2019 discussions can establish a dichotomy between what is thought to be natural-healthy foods and
processed products, whereby the latter are stigmatized as unhealthy. In these views, processed
Citation:
Knorr D and Watzke H (2019) Food
foods acquired negative connotations and the interface between food processing and nutritional
Processing at a Crossroad. impact moved into center stage. Historically, food processing and nutrition have remained separate
Front. Nutr. 6:85. scientific endeavors. Questions of health-impact of processing create a need for a trans-disciplinary
doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00085 view and, as a consequence, a practical and simplified classification for consumers.

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Knorr and Watzke Food Processing

The need for simple classification of foods is a longstanding While the objective of processing of food is the provision of
concern. The anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss observed and a safe and nutritional food supply, the ways to achieve this are
demonstrated that the culinary triangle “raw-cooked-rotten” manifold and have undergone rapid development in recent times
establishes a basic scheme not only for separating edible from (4). The function of food processing contributes to all stages of
non-consumable foods but for analysis of the larger world food making from raw material, ingredients and the production
including social relations (2). The culinary triangle mirrors the of the final product. It is not only confined to the last step
transformations that food has been subjected to throughout from the formulation premix to end product (5). Moreover, it
human history. The reduction of “rotten” food was always on relates closely to cooking and gastronomic food manipulations
the mind of those handling food. Traditionally, food processing as Aguilera pointed out in his comprehensive review (6). The
was developed for solving problems of long-time storage and versatility of food processing techniques and solutions also adapt
transport of foods by various simple means (e.g., cooking, to the varied needs of food producers worldwide.
curing, smoking). Later, pasteurization and other heat treatment
technologies achieved effective reduction of spoilage and History of Food Processing
pathogenic microorganisms rendering foods safe. Development Throughout the human evolution, humans and their ancestors
of food processing in 20th century added processing for were confronted with difficulties to get to foods or to eat
increasing palatability and production of indulgent products. them in the raw state. As omnivorous species they lacked any
Packaged foods inspired the search for and applications of specialization of a speedy predator nor did they efficiently digest
new and intelligent packaging materials and the general plant materials. For this reason, humans have searched and with
question of shelf-life quality reached center stage of technology ingenuity they have developed means, tools and technologies to
developments. The introduction of processing aids and food improve food availability, digestibility, safety, transportability,
additives extended the scope of marketing oriented industrial and storage life (7). Recent studies estimate the first use of
food creations. Less attention was directed toward the food fire between 2 million and 200,000 years ago. Fire and cooking
processing—nutrition interface that has only gained prominence allowed unlocking of caloric energy and access to nutrients (8, 9).
in recent food-health debates. Support for the thesis that changes in diets and the invention
In this review, we approach the questions arising from the of cooking supported the growth of our brain to host 86 billion
food processing—nutrition interface in a 3-fold way. Firstly, the neurons comes from recent neuroscience studies (10). Starting
paper deals with the functions of food processing and their with the invention of agriculture, food processing set off to a
historical development and impact. Addressing the role and broad development of unit operations and processes embracing
function of food processing for the general design principles of all edible food sources (4, 11). Technologies like refrigeration,
food products in detail allows the identification of short-comings pasteurization, sterilization and canning rank even under the
and missing technology. From this analysis, it becomes clear that most significant inventions in the history of food and drink in
the health-related design principle lacks stronger support from the UK Royal Society member and expert voting (12).
food processing. This leads to the question as to how new and Already from the beginning, food processing was directed
emerging technologies close the gaps identified and how they toward making foods safe, transportable, and retaining their
relate to requirements of nutritional qualities of products. Finally, dietary values trough storage. Fire and first preservation
we address the recent discussion of simplified classification techniques (e.g., air drying, smoking, fermentation) transformed
systems, e.g., the NOVA classification, basing our analysis on our species into a migrating species settling in any ecological
recently published comprehensive nutritional reviews. niche on this planet. Population growth through improved
agricultural yield, for example, crop rotation, demanded more
extensive and more efficient preservation technology. McLachlan
THE ROLE OF FOOD PROCESSING has proposed four major areas which food technology and its
processing abilities were developing in McLachlan (13):
The discussions about nutritional impact of food processing and
1. preservation (avoiding spoilage and foodborne diseases)
its according classification underline the need for clarification
2. increase palatability (better tasting and access to nutrients)
on terminologies and processes, as well as on the need for
3. transportation stability (development of supply chains)
information, stressing the role of processing in ensuring a safe,
4. production of convenience food (freeing from daily chores)
functional and nutritional food supply.
The need for clarification on processing gains more weight Thermal preservation technologies exhibit a fascinating history,
through the substantial market importance of food processing. beginning with drying and smoking, going back ∼6,000 years.
Before the financial crisis in 2008, the assessment of the The industrial revolution saw pasteurization and sterilization
processed food market valued its size at US$ 3.2 trillion (Pasteur and Appert) augmenting the scope and power of
representing three-quarters of the worldwide food market. food preservations in the 19th century. Using cooling, ancient
Global producing and trading of processed-packaged foods by Romans, and Chinese applied ice blocks and snow to preserve
global companies make up around 10% of that market, leaving delicate foodstuff (14). Stockfish, salmon and herring trades
90% of processed food production to indigenous companies. This throughout medieval times depended on drying, smoking, but
value amounts to ∼8% of the total worldwide processed food mostly on salting methods to make large traded quantities
production (3). transportable (15).

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Knorr and Watzke Food Processing

Food Processing Produces Specific Fortunately, a large variety of novel and emergent unit operations
Characteristics of Products are at disposal for the use in reduced and efficient processing
A non-negotiable basic principle guides food production: safety of foods.
of food. The historical development of food technology is All processing-oriented food classification systems encompass
a key witness to solutions for this primordial prerequisite. processes described under the term “minimal processing.”
However, from safe food production, particular products are Minimal processing is developed, especially on demand from
produced in various forms and different kinds. They share restaurants, catering and foodservice industry, to provide pre-
a group of interdependent design principles that represent cut and pre-prepared vegetable and meat products for meal
consumer preference areas. The abbreviation “C.H.E.F.S.” preparations, saving labor cost and improving hygiene (what is
summarizes those principles. It stands for “convenience,” called “mise en place” in culinary art). However, pre-cut and pre-
“health,” “epicurean/emotions,” “function,” and “sustainability” prepared consumer food products also appeared on the retail
(16). These principles resonate with the consumer glossary shelves (21).
descriptors, like “taste,” “natural,” and so on. A widely accepted definition is that minimal-processing
“Convenience” refers to the time economy modern food technologies are modern techniques that provide sufficient shelf
products provide to the consumer. The term “health” also life to foods to allow their transport and distribution, while also
includes, in its broadest sense, the basic and safe avoidance of any meeting the consumer demands for convenience and fresh-like
food-borne diseases beyond health claim driven functionality. quality (22).
The combination term “epicurean/emotions” relates to the However, critical voices raised concerns against the industrial
sensorial qualities and the delightfulness of food. The term practice of minimal processing. For example, Stuckler and Nestle
“function” collects food aspects designed to cater to specific state that “although in theory, minimal processing of foods can
eating occasions, including specific eating habits, for example improve nutritional content, in practice most processing is done
at religious events. Finally, “sustainability” extends beyond the to increase palatability, shelf-life, and transportability; processes
specific environmental impact of a given food product, including that can reduce nutritional quality” (23).
the organization of the complete food systems. Minimal processing has been the answer to the problem of
While the impact assessment of food processing on nutrition keeping and, if possible, increasing the nutritional quality of
is already available, the inverse guiding information is missing. foods. The term covers a large group of different technologies,
What do nutrition and healthy diets demand from food all trying to reduce nutrient degradation during production
processing? If the goal of nutritional health targets “balanced and storage. The critical feature of minimal processing is the
dietary trajectories,” a new “culinary triangle” (minimal treated- lower thermal load during unit operations to protect fragile food
processed-transformed) has to be supported by adapting food components (e.g., vitamins). However, calibrating the impact of a
processing (16, 17). This point of view is supported by the fact given technology on the preservation of nutritional quality is not
that “food, not nutrients, is the fundamental unit in nutrition” as an easy undertaking.
Jacobs and Tapsell have argued (18). The newly published ISO standard “ISO/TS 19657” on
Knorr also recently stressed the requirements needed to gain natural food ingredients offers the needed “reference” (24). The
consumer trust and acceptance (19). The processing group of technical criteria deciding the analysis of the naturalness of a
the European Technology Platform: Food for Life (ETP 2007), a food ingredient could determine a lower limit that could be
European food research vision document, introduced the PAN more easily achieved. Technologies fulfilling the requirements of
(reverse engineering) concept, suggesting that food processes the standard could form a positive list of minimal processing
must adapt to the preferences, acceptance, and needs of the unit operations by simultaneously achieving the required food
consumers rather than adapting raw materials to the process safety standards. Furthermore, food profiling and descriptor
requirements as previously applied (20). methodologies could provide quantitative assessment of the loss
McLachlan’s list of food technology developments (13) can of nutritional quality (25).
be matched up with the five design principles. The processing
technologies support designs within the five domains. However, New and Emergent Physical Technologies
the comparison clearly shows that the technologies might have The discussion so far has indicated that a reduced “processing
beneficial or adverse effects on a specific design. State-of-the- load” can only be achieved by physical and biotechnological
art product development tries to balance all design principles, techniques. To accomplish the basis of any food product
keeping the trade-off as small as possible. Historically, the development producing safe food, a variety of physical
food industry has concentrated its efforts mainly in the design technologies are available. Table 1 provides an overview of
of highly palatable and convenient foods throughout the last critical non-thermal technologies, including emerging ones that
50 years. are distinguished by their non-thermal process nature. The table
also contains the current status of development with descriptions
of advantages and disadvantages in their application.
New Food Processes Their application provides gentle and efficient processing of
Despite the long history of food processes, the above discussions raw materials, ingredients to complete products (26–29).
and analysis make it clear that the future demands new Böckel et al. have included in their review non-thermal
food processes, unit operations, and production technologies. processes from the broader scope of food processing

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TABLE 1 | Comparison of common non-thermal processes including emerging ones.

Fermentation Irradiation HP PEF A Plasma US UV

Principles of action Biotransformation Oxidation free Activation Transmembrane Oxidation Pressure, Ozone, free radical
(enzymes) radicals volume potential UV free radicales gradients, formation
cavitation,
sheer forces,
free radicales
Status Industrial (∼8 Ka) Pilot/industrial R&D industrial R&D industrial R&D industrial Industrial Industrial
(∼250 units) (∼40 units) (medicine, BT)
Advantages ↑ digestion and Low aw Quality, Quality, Universal (gas) ↑ mass Microbial
edigility products freshness 3rd freshness, transfer, inactivation
preservation dimension (p, low energy. partial
T, t) Process continuous microbial
opportunities inactivation,
↑ extraction
of
components
Disadvantages Major product ↑ free radicals Batch Aseptic Surface Energy Surface treatment
conversion ↓ consumer process packaging treatment intensive cow penetration
Acceptance needed depth
no enzymes moisture
required
Challenges Mechanisms Consumer R&D R&D process Proof of concept Energy Oxidation reaction
acceptance continuous integration consumer distribution impact on sensory
indicator indicator acceptance temperature properties
microorganisms microorganisms indicator control
microorganism
Opportunities New raw materials Low aw Composite Scalable Gas mictures Combination Combination
solid state products materials equipment new concepts processes processes
small new concepts gas (diffusivity) scalable scalable
scale/home new fields equipment equipment
processing
new fields
(health), new
raw materials

HP, hydrostatic pressure; PEF, pulsed electric fields; AP, atmospheric plasma; US, ultrasound; UV, ultra violet light.

and the beneficial aspects arising from them (30). A As mentioned in the European Vision document for food
special place in the area of the novel and emergent research (ETP 2007), two key drivers are at play for an adapted
technologies is taken by “pulsed electric fields treatment” food technology (20). Firstly, food processing needs retargeting
technology (PEF), which targets its processing impact toward food structure—food functions/property development.
directly toward the biological weaknesses of cells. It This approach matches both adequate processing means with
perforates cell membranes and leads to high killing rates at consumer needs expressed in C.H.E.F.S. principles. Examples of
lower temperatures (31–33). applying targeted technologies for creating a defined structure for
The targeting of biological properties of raw materials permits providing tailor-made foods in areas, such as reduction of salt,
a paradigm shift in food processing. The novel approach of “bio- sugar, and oil in foods, have been given by Janositz et al. (31),
guided processing” uses evolved intrinsic material properties, Raso et al (32), Kaufmann and Palzer (36), Hutchings et al. (17),
structures and dynamics to achieve the desired processing and Fauster et al. (37).
goal (34, 35). A typical example is the “extraction” of highly The second paradigm changes, the PAN concept in its form of
valuable PUFA oils from biomasses. Using edible oils instead “reverse engineering,” is a radical shift from process/technology
of hexane allows for exchanging the PUFA oils against the driven processing. This consumer-oriented approach, developed
carrier oil. The “extracting medium” becomes part of the in the ETP “Food for Life” underwent further development by
final product. Vegetable oils have the same physicochemical the newest edition of the European food research vision. It
solvability as hexane but exhibit lower solvability of biological presents the current future-oriented strategy of the European
molecules (e.g., phospholipids). A bio-guided extraction process Union. Other recent essential agenda points of European food
results in a clear finalized oil product directly usable in-line science and technology include, transparency and integration of
production (34). The same concept transfers easily to other the food chain (20, 38), traceability and authenticity of our food
processing operations. supply (39), sustainability as an integral part of food processing

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(16, 19, 40, 41) and realization of the need for inter-disciplinary generated compound in a product (50). Only then does it count
research (33). for the class of ultra-processed foods.
It becomes clear from the examples in NOVA that the
CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD PROCESSING distinction between unprocessed or minimal processed food
products and ultra-processed foods boils down to whether they
Recent consumer trends turn toward a stronger emphasis of are produced through home cooking/culinary art or on an
the food-health balance of products. The myth and hypes of industrial scale. The NOVA classification builds on the idea that
“super-foods” are only expressions of the consumer’s concerns extended amounts of sugar, salt and fat, but also the use of
for healthier choices of products. Combining an existing food additives, is the critical distinction against industrial processing
profiling system with processing related food descriptors permits of foods but not in any other form of food making. Table 2
the judgment of the trade-offs of food processing on the design of summarizes examples of foods falling in the different classes of
food products. unprocessed or minimally processed foods and ultra-processed
Recently, a new classification appeared in debates about the foods (44).
food-health imbalance based on stark terms like “ultra-processed Martinez et al. state “NOVA is the food classification
foods” (42). The term coined by Monteiro classifies food products that categorizes foods according to the extent and purpose
by the processing during their production (43–45). Monteiro of processing, rather than in terms of nutrients” (50). This
and his collaborators declare those products as nutritionally statement is most confusing to any food scientist because the
empty and health-wise hazardous. The classification using this applied categorization is not based on the extent or purpose
term should allow consumers to select healthy products that of processing.
use a decreased intensity of processing during their production More recently, Martinez et al. suggested that food processing
(43, 46, 47). as such is not the issue (50). However, they indicated that a
The newly created and currently frequently used term combination of unprocessed or minimally processed foods and
“ultra-processed foods” is receiving attention from consumer processed ingredients result in “ultra” processed foods (44). In
organizations and various media. The proponents of this new consequence, this would mean that the use of additives (including
term use it to point to the processing of foods as one of the added sugar and salt), rather than the right food processing
causes for non-communicable diseases (e.g., obesity, diabetes of agricultural raw material, determines the characteristics of
type 2, cancer, etc.) (48, 49). This relation underlines the need for ultra-processed foods. This definition would strangely and
clarification on terminologies and processes as well as the need instantly transform a minimally processed yogurt into an
for information, stressing the role of processing in ensuring a safe, ultra-processed product when the consumer sweetens it with
functional, and nutritional food supply. additional sugar.

NOVA Classification
Monteiro and collaborators developed a novel classification TABLE 2 | Food products as stand-in examples for selected industrial processing
system from the distinction between processed and unprocessed [after (44)].
food. Monteiro justifies the guidelines for healthier food choices
with his observation that “. . . almost all work on nutrition and Food group Example

public health has overestimated the significance of nutrients and

Group 1: Unprocessed Fresh, chilled, frozen, vacuum-packed fruits,
foods as such, and has underestimated or even overlooked the or minimally processed vegetables, fungi, roots and tubers; grains (cereals)
significance of processing. . . ” (42). foods in general; fresh, frozen and dried beans and other
The NOVA classification comprises four classes of foods pulses (legumes); dried fruits and 100%
of increasing processing intensities. The “ultra-processed unsweetened fruit juices; unsalted nuts and seeds;
fresh, dried, chilled, frozen meats, poultry and fish;
foods,” UPFD, are defined as follows: “Ultra-processed foods
fresh and pasteurized milk, fermented milk such as
were defined as industrial formulations, which, besides salt, plain yogurt; eggs; teas, coffee, herb infusions, tap
sugar, oils, and fats, include substances not used in culinary water, bottled spring water
preparations, in particular additives used to imitate sensorial Group 3: Breads, biscuits (cookies), cakes and pastries; ice
qualities of minimally processed foods and their culinary Ultra-processed food cream; jams (preserves); fruits canned in syrup;
preparations.” The presence of salt identifies ultra-processed products chocolates, confectionery (candies), cereal bars,
breakfast cereals with added sugar; chips, crisps;
foods, but also added sugar, high-fat content, additives, taste
sauces; savory and sweet snack products;
compounds, colors, substances from contact with packaging cheeses; sugared fruit and milk drinks and sugared
materials, and compounds produced during processing and and “no-cal” cola, and other soft drinks; frozen
storage (44). pasta and pizza dishes; pre-prepared meat, poultry,
The definition does not refer to processing or unit operations fish, vegetable and other “recipe” dishes; processed
meat including chicken nuggets, hot dogs,
used during production of the described food products at all, sausages, burgers, fish sticks; canned or
but still remains in the realm of nutritional compositions and dehydrated soups, stews and pot noodle, salted,
puts the emphasis on formulation and additives. Importantly, the pickled, smoked or cured meat and fish; vegetables
consumer must be able to extrapolate the diminished nutritional bottled or canned in brine, fish canned in oil; infant
formulas, follow-on milks, baby food
quality from the presence of an additive or in-process (or storage)

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Nutritional Analysis of NOVA Classification As Gibney et al. have already concluded in their appraisal,
The NOVA classification should function as a replacement for the existing systems are detailed enough to allow the assessments
nutritional and dietary guidelines with the goal of aiding the of the nutritional and compositional impact of food processing
consumers in making healthier food choices. An appraisal of on diets (51). The NOVA classification system appears crude in
this new classification system has to start with a comparison comparison and its superficiality is misleading.
against other existing food classification systems based on food Miller Jones comes to similar and confirming conclusions in
processing. Gibney et al. have undertaken a comprehensive and her recent article. She points to the tautological definition of
critical appraisal of the Nova classification system (51). ultra-processed foods and warns that significant micronutrient
Gibney et al. remark that the definition of ultra-processed deficiencies will result in the avoidance of specific ultra-processed
foods (see above) poses definition problems because the term foods (e.g., whole-grain enriched bread) (60).
“formulation” is open to various interpretations. Moreover, there
is no mention of cut-offs per gram or portion or energy of CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK
defining food components of salt, sugar, fat, and additives.
Furthermore, Gibney et al. point out that “. . . neither the terms In response to consumer trends for healthier food choices, a close
used to define UPFDs nor the list of typical foods in each assessment of the impact of food processing is necessary. The
category of the NOVA system meet the normal standards set in existing food profiling systems and the food descriptors allow a
established food classification” (51). For example, the European very detailed identification of process treatments of ingredients,
Food Authorities have developed a food classification standard products, and meals.
(Foodex) “. . . to define foods in a way that suits all users of However, terms like “ultra-processed food” are more
food-intake data from food chemical exposure to food intake for misleading than explanatory. The proponents of the NOVA
dietary purposes. . . ” (52). classifications system overlook the fact that a strict interpretation
A further food classification system exists, which emphasize of their classifications scheme leads to the statement that the
food processing in their classification schemes. The EPIC human body reacts to processing and not to nutrients, including
(European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition) those which appear during processing (50).
consortium based their direct coding of individual foods and Consumers also bear part of the responsibility for choosing
meal components on the degree of food processing (53). The healthier foods, a fact very often forgotten in on-going
EPIC consortium applied their classification across a wide variety discussions. Studies in behavioral economy, especially those of
of cultures and gastronomic traditions. Moreover, the EPIC Richard Thaler, Nobel laureate in economics 2017, have shown
system allows the direct comparison with NOVA because both that a slight push, a so-called “nudge,” toward a specific choice
methods served in cancer-related studies (53, 54). A highly increases the chance of its realization. A typical example along
sophisticated food classification system is available in the food these lines is the work of Walmsley et al. who could show that
coding system “LanguaL” from EuroFIR. It comprises a large repositioning the vegetable stall closer to the entrance of a grocery
number of descriptors for different aspects of food processing store increases the vegetable sales by 15% (61). As they report,
(25, 53, 55, 56). The availability of broad and versatile food changing the “choice architecture” has a significant influence on
coding systems oriented to processing reveals the simplistic and the choice’s consumers make.
contrasting approach of the NOVA classification scheme. To move forward in food research and development,
Gibney et al. concluded that the proposed NOVA classification a worldwide adaptation of the critical research and the
system, which is pushed by its proponents for use in the UN development of agendas are required. A forceful paradigm
Sustainable Development Goals and the UN Decade of Nutrition, shift is needed in the field of food process science and
is built on the irresponsible myth that the modern approach to technology, to tackle the grand challenges stemming from
food classification is static and out of date. Nova classification the interface food processing with nutrition (19, 62). Most
does not substitute epidemiological studies for ingredient importantly, a paradigm change is necessary for food research.
impacts on public health-related issues. Finally, Gibney et al. The specialization is detrimentally opposing progress in
point out that no data exist proving average consumer’s ability addressing the unsolved questions in food science and
“. . . in terms of income, culinary skills, available culinary facilities, nutrition (63).
and time or food availability. . . ” to uphold the case that
the abandonment of ultra-processed foods would significantly AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
change nutritional well-being (51).
Various combinations between food profiling systems and DK and HW developed concept, content and write-up of
food descriptor databases, like LangaL, are available. The the article.
thesaurus of LangaL comprises a very detailed list of food
descriptors for processing terms. For example, the main term ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
“preservation methods” enlists 81 sub-terms structured in a
hierarchical organization up to 6 layers deep. LangaL provides The authors gratefully acknowledge fruitful discussions of
a high resolution in its description of food items to which content and presentation of the topics with Brian McKenna, as
compositional and dietary quality data can be associated for well as Robert Sevenich for editorial support. The authors thank
guideline purposes (18, 25, 38, 57–59). the reviewers for helpful comments.

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