Composite Structures 92 (2010) 603–611

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Composite Structures
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Review

A review of alternative materials for replacing existing timber sleepers

A. Manalo, T. Aravinthan *, W. Karunasena, A. Ticoalu
Centre of Excellence in Engineered Fibre Composites (CEEFC), Faculty of Engineering and Surveying, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, 4350 Queensland, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Timber is the most widely used material for railway sleepers, however, as a sleeper material it deterio-
Available online 1 September 2009 rates with time and needs appropriate replacement. In recent years, hardwood timber for railway sleep-
ers is becoming more expensive, less available and is of inferior quality compared to the timber
Keywords: previously available. There are also now various environmental concerns regarding the use and disposal
Railway sleepers of chemically-impregnated timber sleepers. This has resulted in most railway industries searching for
Replacement sleepers alternative materials to replace existing timber sleepers. This paper presents a review of recent develop-
Hardwood timber
ments and presents an initiative focusing on fibre composites as an alternative material for railway
Alternative materials
Fibre composites
sleepers. Fibre composites are emerging as an alternative viable construction material. An overview of
the on-going research and development on innovative fibre composite railway sleepers is also discussed.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
2. Existing materials for railway sleepers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
2.1. Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
2.2. Softwood timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
2.3. Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
2.4. Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
3. The need for alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
4. Fibre composite alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
4.1. Combinations with other materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
4.2. Strengthening of existing sleepers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
5. R&D on innovative fibre composite sleepers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
6. Challenges and possible solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
7. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

1. Introduction cutting and abrading actions of the bearing plates and the ballast
material [2]. Sleepers also resist the lateral and the longitudinal
Railway sleepers are one of the most important elements of the movement of the rail system. The main components of a rail track
railway track system. They are the beams/ties laid underneath the system are illustrated in Fig. 1.
rails to support the track [1]. Their function is to transfer and dis- Hardwood timber is the most widely used sleeper material. Cur-
tribute the transported rail loads to the ballast, transversely secure rently, there are more than 2.5 billion timber sleepers installed in
the rails to maintain the correct gauge-width and to resist the the railway track throughout the world [3]. Within Australia, the
state of Queensland alone has 8 million timber sleepers in-service
[4]. Most of these railway sleepers are deteriorating and becoming
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 7 4631 1385; fax: +61 7 4631 2110.
less capable of meeting performance requirements. In order to
E-mail addresses: manalo@[Link] (A. Manalo), aravinth@[Link]
(T. Aravinthan), karunasa@[Link] (W. Karunasena), aneticoalu@[Link] maintain the track quality to a specified service level and ensure
(A. Ticoalu). a safe track operation, damaged and deteriorated sleepers are

0263-8223/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2009.08.046
604 A. Manalo et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 603–611

Fig. 1. Components of a typical railway track system.

being replaced with new ones. Currently, the Australian railway als for replacement railway sleepers. The paper aims to provide
lines require in excess of 2.5 million timber sleepers per year for researchers and engineers with information on the different mate-
railway maintenance [5]. In the US, the railway industry replaces rials being used for the railway sleepers and the on-going research
2% of the 700 million timber sleepers annually [6]. Furthermore, conducted throughout the world directed towards finding suitable
India imports 7 million timber sleepers per year to solve its railway alternatives for replacing existing timber sleepers. Research and
maintenance problems [5]. Railway industries in Germany are in developments on fibre composite railway sleepers are highlighted
need of 11 million sleepers for replacement [7]. This figure still in this paper.
does not include other European countries and China where rail-
way industries are almost exclusively using timber sleepers.
The Australian railway industry spends approximately 25–35% 2. Existing materials for railway sleepers
of its annual budget on rail track maintenance [8]. According to
Hagaman and McAlpine [9], sleeper replacement represents the There has already been a vast research and development effort
most significant maintenance cost for the railways, exclusive of rail into materials for sleepers since railways were introduced. Timber
cost. This has cost the US railway industries more than US$1 billion sleepers are still the most common, however, use of pre-stressed
per year [10]. Thus, several railway industries have adopted the concrete and steel sleepers is also increasing. The advantages and
spot replacement strategy to lessen the cost of track maintenance disadvantages of these railway materials will be discussed in the
[2,8,11]. The spot replacement strategy embraces the component following sections.
replacement of failing timber sleepers with new sleepers to main-
tain the railway tracks. This is also the maintenance program being 2.1. Timber
implemented by most Australian railway industries [12]. A prere-
quisite of this maintenance strategy is that replacement sleepers Timber sleepers have a long history of effective and reliable per-
should have properties compatible with that of existing timber formance in the railway environment [25]. The major advantage of
sleepers. Furthermore, the method of installation in situ should timber sleepers is their adaptability. They can be fitted with all
also be relatively easy. However, due to the vast number of deteri- types of railway track. Timber sleepers are workable, easy to han-
orating timber sleepers in the railway track and restriction on the dle, easy to replace and needs no complicated assembly equipment
supply of new timber sleepers of approved quality, the demand [3]. Thus, local problem sites can be repaired or replaced without
requirements cannot be matched to replace deteriorated timber the need for outside support in the form of either manpower or
sleepers. In addition, there have been intensified pressures for lim- equipment. This is particularly attractive in high speed or high
iting the use of timber sleepers from durable hardwood species be- density lines where track time is both limited and constrained by
cause of the various environmental concerns. These problems have the ability to bring in large scale production gangs.
resulted in many railway industries throughout the world investi- The main disadvantage in using timber for sleepers is their sus-
gating alternative materials for replacement timber sleepers. In the ceptibility to mechanical and biological degradation leading to fail-
near future, railway companies would cease using native timber ure [17]. In Queensland, fungal decay is the most predominant
and instead switch to alternative materials like plantation timber, form of timber sleeper failure [9]. Splitting of timber at the ends
concrete, steel or composites. is also common as railway sleepers support very large transverse
Several investigations have been carried out in an attempt to shear loadings [26]. Most common failure modes in timber sleep-
investigate the most durable, the strongest and the most cost- ers are shown in Fig. 2. However, the most difficult problem that
effective material for replacing deteriorated and damaged timber the railway industry is now facing is the declining availability of
sleepers. Some of these approaches attempted to optimise the quality timber for railway sleepers.
use of the already existing materials for sleepers such as plantation Another growing concern is the environmental and health im-
timber, steel and pre-stressed concrete [13–16]. Another approach pact of the use of chemical preservatives to timber sleepers. The
was to use fibre composites as reinforcement for existing railway railway industry has historically almost exclusively used creosote
sleepers [17–20]. Other approaches focused on the replacement impregnated timber sleepers [27]. This industry is still relying on
of deteriorated timber sleepers using alternative materials such these sleepers in the absence of satisfactory substitutes to timber
as polymer concrete, reinforced plastics, rubber and fibre compos- [28]. In the near future, it is more likely that the chemical impreg-
ite material [6,21–24]. nated timber sleepers will require specific disposal procedures as
This paper provides an overview on the existing materials for timber sleepers are gradually being removed and replaced with
railway sleepers and the consequent issues in using these materi- new ones. Moreover, newer research has suggested that many of
 A. Manalo et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 603–611 605

Fig. 2. Common types of timber sleeper failure. (a) fungal decay, (b) splitting at ends. (source: [Link]

the timber sleepers exceed the creosote critical limit set by the oped and successfully tested. Monobloc pre-stressed concrete
European Union environmental regulations and should be treated sleepers is the most commonly used [34]. Twin-bloc, on the other
as hazardous waste when they are disposed [29]. Thus, efforts have hand, is gaining popularity because it weighs less compared to
been made in various countries to restrict the use of creosote monobloc sleepers. Twin-bloc sleeper is made up of two concrete
impregnated timber sleepers and to tighten regulations on the pro- parts supported by steel reinforcements. However, handling and
duction process due to environmental concerns [27]. Morris [30] placing of twin-bloc sleepers can be difficult due to the tendency
reported that there is a need for a set of rules on how the old cre- to twist when lifted. ‘Ladder sleepers’ are another development
osote-impregnated sleepers are to be stored and disposed of to [21]. These sleepers consist of a 12 m long pre-stressed longitudi-
prevent potential health hazards. Reports worldwide suggest that nal concrete member bound by lateral steel tubes like a ladder. The
the disposal to landfill of preservative-treated timber sleepers is rails are supported continuously on the concrete members, which
at present an acceptable option [27]. It is unlikely that existing distribute the load lengthwise thereby reducing the need for bal-
landfills will be able to accept increasing loads of preservative- last maintenance.
treated timber sleepers without impacting the environment. In Further developments in the technology of concrete sleepers
Australia, the New South Wales Environmental Protection Agency have since seen the introduction of low profile concrete sleepers.
[31] requires that treated timber be disposed of to engineered Researchers at the University of Queensland have designed the
landfills with currently operating leachate management systems. world’s first pre-stressed concrete railway sleeper specifically
Although options for the re-use of sleepers exist such as in home aimed at replacing timber sleepers [15]. Unlike existing concrete
garden applications, these are only for untreated timber sleepers. sleeper designs, the new sleeper has similar dimensions to a timber
Industries are also reluctant to recycle chemically-impregnated sleeper. This is of great benefit to the railway infrastructure owners
timber products due to concerns over workers safety and environ- who want the long term benefits of concrete but cannot (because
mental problems [32]. Combustion or incineration is also not an of size restrictions) use the traditionally designed concrete sleep-
acceptable option due to the toxicity of the ash [33]. Also the pro- ers. These sleepers are similar to the partial replacement sleepers
cess is expensive and impractical on an economic basis. Clearly, an shown in Fig. 3 [20]. This sleeper is specifically designed to be
environment-friendly material should be developed as an alterna- interspersed with timber sleepers in existing timber tracks or to re-
tive to chemical impregnated timber railway sleepers. place timber sleepers that have reached the end of their useful life.
However, this sleeper is limited to only mainline sleeper replace-
2.2. Softwood timber ment as it has specific pattern to hold track gauge.
The problem with concrete sleepers is their heavy weight
Softwood timber does not offer the resistance of hardwood slee- which requires specialised machinery during laying and installa-
per to gauge spreading and spike hole enlargement [34]. In addi- tion. The initial cost of concrete sleepers is almost double that
tion, softwood sleepers are not as effective in transmitting the of hardwood timber sleepers. Studies conducted by Kohoutek
loads to the ballast as the hardwood sleepers do, thus they should
not be mixed with hardwood sleepers on the railway track. How-
ever, since softwood timber is sourced mostly from plantations
and is a renewable resource, a research project is being imple-
mented by the Queensland University of Technology to transform
softwood into timber suitable for railway sleepers [14]. A series
of tests have already been completed which have proven the tech-
nical suitability of softwood timber for rail sleepers. However, it
should be noted that this test was conducted only for more lightly
used secondary rail networks.

2.3. Concrete

Pre-stressed concrete sleepers have become widely and suc-

cessfully accepted for railway sleeper usage especially in high
speed lines. Their economic and technical advantages are the re-
sults of longer life cycles and lower maintenance costs. With their
great weight, concrete sleepers assure optimal position perma-
nence and stability even for traffic at high speeds. In fact, many
pre-stressed concrete sleeper technologies have now been devel- Fig. 3. Partial replacement sleepers [20].
606 A. Manalo et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 603–611

[35] confirmed that the sleepers manufactured from concrete 3. The need for alternatives
performed differently to those made from timber. Concrete
sleepers have high stiffness characteristics and the design re- Many railway infrastructure companies have long been trialling
quires higher depth than the existing timber sleepers. Concrete concrete and steel for replacing timber sleepers in existing railway
sleepers are also vulnerable to rail seat corrosion resulting from tracks. However, this maintenance strategy has gained limited suc-
the absence of a resilient rail pad and the concrete [36]. In addi- cess. These materials did not prove to be a viable alternative to
tion, the low profile concrete sleepers have been trialled with timber sleepers. Gruber [40] stated that over 90% of maintenance
poor results because being relatively inflexible and with little and construction of railway tracks still utilised timber sleepers de-
damping it requires good standard rails and ballast to avoid spite the increasing reliability and effectiveness of alternatives
damage [12]. such as steel and concrete. It is often more financially viable or
convenient in the short term to replace sleepers with new timber
sleeper [18]. In 2006 alone, Queensland Rail (QR) in Australia pur-
2.4. Steel
chased 80,000 timber sleepers for track maintenance and develop-
ment [4]. In North America, the approximate market share for
Australia has developed a world reputation in technology re-
traditional timber sleepers was 91.5% compared to about 8.5% for
lated to the design and performance of steel railway sleepers.
concrete, steel and plastic composite sleepers combined as of Jan-
The Institute of Railway Technology at Monash University is work-
uary 2008 [37].
ing to minimise cost and ensure superior performance of steel
Concrete sleepers have the ability to provide better line and
sleepers [16]. Currently, steel sleepers account for over 13% of
gauge-holding characteristics than timber sleepers, but they are
the railway sleepers used within Australia. Steel sleepers can be
relatively expensive, quite heavy and are often incapable of provid-
interspersed with the existing track but in a fixed interspersing
ing a projected 50 year service life [41]. Sleepers made of steel, on
pattern to reduce the variation in the track geometry and prevent
the other hand, can offer superior strength over that of wood and
the early in-service failure of sleepers. A steel sleeper weighs less
concrete, but steel sleepers are being used in moderate quantities
than timber sleeper which makes it easy to handle as well as hav-
because of their high cost [17]. Frequent replacement and tighten-
ing a life expectancy known to be in excess of 50 years. However,
ing of fastenings are also required. Similarly, replacement of timber
steel sleepers are being used only on more lightly travelled tracks
sleepers with concrete or steel sleepers will be both difficult and
and are regarded as suitable only where speeds are 160 km/h or
costly. Concrete and steel sleepers have mechanical properties
less [37].
incompatible with the existing timber sleepers. The higher struc-
A modern Y-shaped steel sleeper (Fig. 4) was developed to re-
tural stiffness of the concrete means a higher load is transferred
place the traditional steel sleeper [38]. From the name itself im-
to the concrete sleepers which could lead to greater deterioration
plies, the Y-steel-sleeper is shaped like a ‘‘Y” in its horizontal
due to flexural cracks [42]. Similarly, steel sleepers should not be
layout. Compared to the usual steel sleeper, the Y-steel-sleeper
mixed with timber sleepers because of the differential settlement
possesses much greater resistance against cross movements due
[43]. The shape and size of steel sleepers results in a tendency to
to the greater amount of ballast contained between the two parts
settle more quickly than timber sleepers. This problem can only
of the Y-fork. However, due to its form, laying of the Y-steel-sleep-
be overcome by completely replacing timber sleepers in a rail track
ers should follow strict guidelines that require high output renewal
with concrete or steel sleepers even but this practice is more
trains. Practical experiences have proven that it is not possible to
expensive. Another concern is that manufacturing concrete and
adjust or pull the sleepers in the ballast subsequently by means
steel sleepers requires considerably more energy and is one of
of a simple laying device.
the largest producers of atmospheric carbon. The Australian Green-
Steel sleepers require extra care during installation and tamp-
house Office [44] reported that the carbon dioxide emissions dur-
ing due to their inverted through profile which makes them diffi-
ing the production of concrete and steel are 10–200 times higher
cult to satisfactorily pack with ballast. Observations of rail
than that of hardwood timber, respectively.
deflections under imposed vehicle track loading have shown that
It is evident that timber has been the material of choice for rail-
the steel sleepers settle a greater amount than the timber sleepers,
way sleepers, especially for the replacement of damaged and dete-
indicating that the steel and adjacent timber sleepers are not car-
riorated timber sleepers. However, the main problem with timber
rying an even proportion of the imposed wheel loading [39]. Fur-
sleepers is their tendency to rot, particularly near the points where
thermore, steel sleepers are expensive and are used only in
they are fastened to the rails. Timber needs to be treated with
minimal number because of the fear of corrosion. Another problem
with steel sleepers is fatigue cracking in the fastening holes caused
by moving trains [36].
Table 1
Comparison of existing materials for railway sleepers.

Properties Hardwood Softwood Concrete Steel

Adaptability Easy Difficult Difficult Difficult
Workability Easy Easy Difficult Difficult
Handling and installation Easy Easy Difficult Difficult
Durability Low Low High Low
Maintenance High High Low High
Replacement Easy Easy Difficult Difficult
Availability Low High High High
Cost High Low Very high Very high
Fasteners Good Poor Very good Poor
Tie ballast interaction Very good Good Very good Poor
Electric conductivity Low Low High Very high
Impact High High Low Medium
Weighta, kg 60–70 60–70 285 70–80
Service life, years 20–30 20 60 50
a
Fig. 4. Y-steel-sleepers (source: [Link] Based on the weight of a standard mainline sleepers.
 A. Manalo et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 603–611 607

preservatives; some of which are toxic chemicals [25] that are of properties similar to their wooden counterparts in terms of damp-
concern for various environmental protection authorities. Simi- ing impact loads, lateral stability and sound absorption. Railway
larly, replacement timber sleepers are now being cut from less sleepers manufactured from recycled plastic bottles with glass fi-
desirable species due to the declining availability of quality hard- bre reinforcements have been introduced in the US over the past
woods. Some of these species have poor resistance to decay and 10 years [6]. These sleepers posses physical and mechanical prop-
are more susceptible to mechanical degradation [17]. These prob- erties that are comparable to those of timber sleepers. The perfor-
lems have resulted in more premature failures and higher replace- mance of these sleepers in the field is now being investigated. The
ment rates of timber sleepers. Furthermore, the current supply of Indian railways adopted these materials for use in bridge sleepers
quality hardwood could not meet the significant demand of exist- [46]. In South Africa, composite polymer sleepers are being used in
ing timber sleepers that require replacement. Table 1 summarises the mining industry to support underground railway lines [47].
the advantages and disadvantages of the currently used materials Railway sleepers made of foamed urethane reinforced with long
for railway sleepers. An alternative material for sleeper replace- glass fibres shown in Fig. 5, has been used in the renovation project
ment to reduce maintenance cost and overcome problems encoun- of the Zollant Bridge in Austria [23]. This sleeper is lightweight, can
tered using timber sleepers is therefore both desirable and be screwed together and sawed using conventional woodworking
necessary. tools. Another is the recycled plastic sleeper (Fig. 6) developed by
the Transport Research Laboratory in the United Kingdom [24].
4. Fibre composite alternatives This sleeper exhibited similar stiffness to softwood sleepers but
has greater strength. It also showed better resistance to the re-
Recent developments in fibre composites now suggest their use moval of the screw spikes. In Germany, an on-going study is being
as alternative material for railway sleepers. These developments conducted by Woidasky [7] to develop railway sleepers from
can be subdivided into new railway sleepers produced by combin- mixed plastics wastes (MPW) along with glass fibre wastes and
ing other materials with fibre composites and the strengthening of other auxiliary agents. The MPW sleeper is expected to meet the
existing sleeper materials with fibre composite wraps. mechanical requirements for sleepers and expected to show supe-
rior weather resistance than timber sleepers. However, these com-
4.1. Combinations with other materials posite products have gained limited acceptance by railway
industry due to their prohibitive cost. Another reason is the lack
Early developments have shown that railway sleepers made of of long term performance testing such as fatigue, impact and dura-
polymer materials combined with fibre composites could enhance bility. Table 2 summarises the recent developments on fibre com-
both physical and mechanical properties. Pattamapron et al. [45] posite railway sleepers in different countries around the world.
have investigated the possibility of using natural rubber for rail-
way sleepers. The mechanical properties of natural rubber were 4.2. Strengthening of existing sleepers
engineered and resulted in a better compressive modulus and
hardness. However, the engineered rubber is excessively stiff and Another successful application of fibre composites in railway
inelastic. In Japan, synthetic sleepers made of hard polyethylene maintenance is the strengthening of existing sleepers. Quaio
foam and glass fibre are a unique development [21]. These sleepers et al. [17] evaluated the performance of timber sleepers wrapped
are designed for long service life (more than 60 years) while main- in glass fibre reinforced polymer or GFRP (Fig. 7). The results of
taining the physical properties of timber sleepers. Also these sleep- their study demonstrated that the GFRP-wood beams exhibited
ers are used in railway sections where maintenance or significant improvement in performance. The composite reinforce-
replacement is difficult. Furthermore, Hoger [22] investigated the ment increases the stiffness and the ultimate load capacity of a
use of bulk recycled plastic as material for railway sleepers. This timber sleeper while decreasing stresses and providing a tough
material showed increased strength but is not competitive in terms surface to resist plate cutting and ballast abrasion. The GFRP wrap-
of cost. ping also improved the resistance of the sleepers to moisture. The
A number of companies are selling railway sleepers manufac-
tured using recycled plastic materials and fibre composites. These
sleepers are said to have high strength, be more durable and to
weigh similar to timber sleepers while otherwise exhibiting

Fig. 5. Composite sleepers installed in Zollant Bridge, Austria [23]. Fig. 6. Testing of plastic railway sleeper [24].
608 A. Manalo et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 603–611

Table 2
Recent developments on fibre composite railway sleepers.

Country References Description Type of application Level of development

US [6] Glass fibre reinforced recycled plastic Standard sleepers turnout Actual application
sleepers
Austria [23] Hard polyurethane foam and glass fibres Standard sleepers Trial application
Germany [7] Mixed plastic consumer waste Standards sleepers R&D
United Kingdom [24] Recycled plastic sleeper Standard sleepers R&D
Japan [21] Hard polyurethane foam and glass fibres Standard sleepers Actual application
Australia [5,20,42] Polymer concrete with glass fibres composite sandwiches LVL Standard sleepers transoms Trial application Trial
with glass fibre wraps Turnout sleepers application R&D
India [39] FRP sleepers and Composite plastic sleepers Standard sleepers and bridge Trial application
transoms
South Africa [40] Composite polymer Underground railway Trial application
Thailand [38] Engineered natural rubber Standard sleepers R&D

Fig. 7. Timber sleepers wrapped in GFRP [17].

Transportation Technology Centre in Colorado, USA [48] evaluated layers of glass fibres is more economical than one layer of carbon
the performance of fibreglass fabric wrapped solid-sawn timber fibres as the increase in the load capacity of the concrete sleepers
sleepers and discovered that the fibreglass wraps improved the reinforced with carbon and glass fibres is almost equal. Ticoalu [20]
durability of the timber sleepers. However, metal cover plates were began the investigation on the development of fibre composite
provided to prevent damage to the fibreglass wrap under high turnout sleepers. In her work, laminated veneer lumber (LVL) with
loads. Furthermore, Humpreys and Francey in Australia [18] made carbon fibre laminates on top and bottom, wrapped with triaxial
a preliminary study on the rehabilitation of timber railway sleep- glass fibres (Fig. 9) were prepared and tested. Although the results
ers with fibre-reinforced materials. The results of their study indi- suggested that the concept is feasible for replacement railway
cated that the load carrying capacity of timber sleepers externally sleepers, the use of LVL has some maintenance issues as timber
reinforced with carbon can significantly increase if delamination of is not eliminated. Timber is a biodegradable material and requires
the carbon reinforcement did not occur prematurely. In another continued maintenance. While wrapping the LVL with fibre com-
study, Shokrieh and Rahmat [19] investigated the effect of reinforc- posites provided structural enhancement and environmental pro-
ing concrete sleepers with carbon and glass composites (Fig. 8). tection, the drilling of holes for spikes enables moisture and
According to the results, reinforcing concrete sleepers with two surface water to penetrate and can cause degradation of the LVL.
Development of a replacement sleeper made from fibre composite
materials which required low maintenance cost is promising.

Fig. 8. Strengthening of concrete sleepers with fibre composites [19]. Fig. 9. Fibre composite sleepers made of LVL wrapped with triaxial glass fibres [20].
 A. Manalo et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 603–611 609

better than the hardwood transoms. The trial test also confirmed
the very good ability to hold rail fasteners. The first FC transoms
were installed on top of a steel railway bridge located on a heavy
and busy haulage line in November 2007. The trial investigation
verified that the FC transoms are performing to expectations and
permitted on estimate that its serviceable life should be well in ex-
cess of 50 years.
In its continuous effort on providing innovative solutions to the
problems of the railway industry, a research project is being imple-
mented by the CEEFC in collaboration with an Australian railway
industry to develop an optimised fibre composite railway sleeper.
Fig. 10. Sleeper made of polymer concrete and fibre composites [22].
The initial stage of the study was conducted by Ticoalu [20] to eval-
uate the strength and stiffness properties of existing timber sleep-
ers used in Australian railways. The results of her experiment
confirmed that the modulus of elasticity of timber sleepers varies
5. R&D on innovative fibre composite sleepers
from 9000 MPa to 26,000 MPa. However, a sleeper with modulus
of 10,000 MPa showed no significant difference in bending mo-
Recent developments in the railway industry have focused on
ment, shear and deflection. This information is important in estab-
the use of fibre composite alternatives for innovative railway
lishing the design criteria for the development of fibre composite
sleepers. The Centre of Excellence in Engineered Fibre Composites
railway sleepers. Further development is underway, with the
(CEEFC) at the University of Southern Queensland Toowoomba, in
objective of developing and testing the performance of fibre com-
collaboration with different railway industries in Australia, has
posite sleepers.
been involved in a number of research and development projects
involving innovative fibre composite railway sleepers to replace
deteriorated hardwood sleepers in existing rail lines.
6. Challenges and possible solutions
One of the earliest technologies developed by CEEFC is a com-
posite railway sleeper (Fig. 10) that can be used as replacement
The major challenge in civil engineering is to develop an eco-
for timber, steel and concrete sleepers in existing or new railway
nomically competitive structure of suitable strength which will
tracks [5]. The sleeper is made of polymer concrete and glass fibre
satisfy the needs of the industry and all the requirements for ser-
reinforcement and weighs only 61 kg. This sleeper has excellent
viceability, durability, maintenance and ease of construction. These
electrical insulation properties and can be fitted with standard fas-
challenges need to be overcome for fibre composite sleepers to be-
teners. The revolutionary shape of the sleeper provides it with
come a suitable alternative to timber sleepers.
excellent resistance against lateral movement. A trial section of
The material and geometric properties have a significant effect
track was manufactured to determine if the rail clips could be in-
on the design and performance of railway sleepers. In the Austra-
stalled with sufficient accuracy in a production trial. The trial test
lian railway systems, timber sleepers need to satisfy specific
has shown that the sleeper performs well under actual service con-
requirements such as strength, durability and stiffness properties
ditions. However, this composite sleeper has not entered the mar-
based on AS 1720.1-1997 [50]. In addition, it should be within
ket to date as its cost is not competitive with that of the existing
the specified dimensions listed to meet the standard for railway
sleeper materials. Another development is the fibre composite
track timber [51]. Fibre composites could be an ideal material for
(FC) railway transom (Fig. 11) which is now being trialled on an ac-
the development of railway sleepers. This composite material typ-
tual railway bridge in Australia [49]. The FC railway transom is
ically consists of strong fibres embedded within light polymer ma-
made up of a new type of fibre composite sandwich panel with
trix offering high strength, lightweight, durability and low life-
additional fibre reinforcements. An extensive research and testing
cycle maintenance costs and may provide a suitable material for
program has shown that the FC transom behaved similarly, or even
the replacement of deteriorated timber sleepers.
One of the ways to reduce the cost of railway maintenance is
replacing only the damaged and deteriorated timber sleepers (spot
replacement). Thus, alternative material with strength and perfor-
mance characteristics similar to that of timber sleepers is more
suitable. Fibre composite is very appropriate as this material can
be engineered based on the required structural applications. Sleep-
ers produced from fibre composites could be manufactured with
almost the same size/depth and weight to that of hardwood tim-
ber. It has excellent durability requiring less maintenance. Like
timber sleepers, fibre composite railway sleepers can be inserted
under the track and provide flexibility to be drilled in situ for the
attachment of rail plates. Being lightweight, it offers easy installa-
tion and great flexibility in construction. Fibre composite sleepers
combine properties of being high strength and low weight thereby
making it competitive over other materials.
Most fibre composite sleeper developments still have a higher
costs compared to traditional sleeper materials. However, in spe-
cific applications such as transoms and turnouts, larger and longer
timber with higher grade is required. The cost of these special tim-
ber sleepers is higher than the mainline sleepers. The use of pre-
stressed concrete and steel sleepers for these special sleepers is
Fig. 11. Fibre composite railway transoms [49]. more expensive and difficult. A footprint of every single sleeper
610 A. Manalo et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 603–611

to be replaced had to be made. The replacement sleepers need to The many advantages of fibre composites support the develop-
be pre-measured on the site and then fabricated at the factory with ment of lightweight, high strength and more durable sleepers for
accurate bolt holes. Fibre composites railway sleepers could be replacing timber sleepers. Fibre composite sleepers have a longer
produced to specified lengths but basically with the same produc- service life and require minimal maintenance. They have similar
tion cost. The high proportion of replacement sleepers required for installation requirements to those of timber sleepers which reduces
bridge transoms and turnouts could further benefit from the devel- labour costs. Most importantly, fibre composite materials use less
opment of fibre composite railway sleepers. Furthermore, the pre- amounts of energy and release small amounts of greenhouse gases.
mium benefit of fibre composite sleepers will make this material a Fibre composite sleepers will find their place in the railway
viable alternative to existing timber sleepers. industry. There is a huge level of research interest in this material,
In most of the demonstration projects constructed to date, the however, the potential end-users are still reluctant to use this
design of structures using fibre composite materials has been dri- material because of issues such as security of supply, lack of mate-
ven by the stiffness requirement rather than strength [52]. This rial and design standards and approved performance requirements.
drawback of fibre composite materials has been overcome with Continued efforts are needed to improve their performance and fur-
the development of innovative materials and structures utilising ther innovations should be trialled to construct sleepers from these
the inherent advantages of this material. An example of this effi- materials that provide a suitable solution and cost effective alterna-
cient structure is the composite sandwich. The main benefit of tive to existing timber sleepers.
using the sandwich concept in structural components is its high Fibre composite alternatives for railway sleeper have the ability
bending stiffness and high strength to weight ratios [53]. The sig- to compete effectively with conventional sleeper materials. Several
nificant improvement in strength of the core structure of an inno- researches and developments on fibre composite sleepers have
vative fibre composite sandwich being developed in Australia [54] shown that this alternative material has physical and mechanical
presents an ideal opportunity to increase the use of this material properties comparable or even better than that of timber sleepers.
for civil engineering applications. The potential of this fibre com- However, the performance history of these new materials is rela-
posite sandwich for sleeper applications is now being explored. It tively short compared to timber sleepers. Continuous research
is anticipated that with optimum arrangement of fibre materials, and development are essential to develop the market and increase
the overall structure would achieve high flexural and shear rigidity confidence in using this alternative material. Field trials and in-ser-
with minimal deflection under service loads. vice performance evaluation will be very valuable in achieving this
There is currently no widely recognised standard on composite goal. Finally, development of national and international standards
sleepers and the standard for existing sleeper materials is being will encourage the adoption of fibre composites as an alternative
used to determine the required loads in the design of railway railway sleeper material.
sleepers. It is important therefore to determine the magnitude of
forces transferred to the sleepers and to understand more clearly
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