Training Material for SDH/WDM

Optical Transport Networks

ZTE Corporation
March 2003
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW OF OPTICAL TRANSPORT NETWORK.........................1

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................1
1.1 CONCEPT OF OPTICAL TRANSPORT NETWORK...........................................................2
1.2 POSITION OF OPTICAL TRANSPORT NETWORK............................................................2
1.2.1 Hierarchy in OSI.................................................................................................2
1.2.2 Position in the Telecom Network........................................................................2
1.3 FUNCTIONS OF OPTICAL TRANSPORT NETWORK........................................................3
1.3.1 Node Functions...................................................................................................3
1.3.2 Network Functions..............................................................................................3
1.4 EVOLUTION OF OPTICAL TRANSPORT NETWORK........................................................3
1.4.1 Obstacles in the Evolution Process....................................................................3
1.4.2 Technical Evolution............................................................................................4
1.4.3 Network Evolution..............................................................................................9
SUMMARY..............................................................................................................................10
EXERCISES.............................................................................................................................10

CHAPTER 2 BASIC PRINCIPLE....................................................................................11

INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................11
2.1 THE PRINCIPLE OF SDH............................................................................................12
2.1.1 Features of SDH...............................................................................................12
2.1.2 SDH Overhead Function..................................................................................19
2.1.3 The Logic Composition of the SDH Equipment...............................................26
2.1.4 The Physical Topology of the SDH Transmission network..............................28
2.1.5 SDH Self-Healing Network..............................................................................31
2.1.6 Timing Synchronization....................................................................................36
2.1.7 Transmission Impairment.................................................................................41
2.2 DWDM PRINCIPLE....................................................................................................48
2.2.1 Development of the DWDM Technology..........................................................48
2.2.2 Basic Concept of the DWDM Technology........................................................49
2.2.3 Technical Features of the DWDM Technology.................................................53
2.2.4 Key Technologies of DWDM............................................................................54
2.2.5 DWDM NMS.....................................................................................................62
2.2.6 Design Philosophy of the DWDM System........................................................67
2.2.7 New Development of the DWDM Technology..................................................74
SUMMARY..............................................................................................................................77
EXERCISES.............................................................................................................................78

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CHAPTER 3 ZTE OPTICAL TRANSPORT NETWORK SOLUTION......................81

INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................81
3.1 DEVICES AND COMPONENTS.....................................................................................81
3.1.1 Series ASIC.......................................................................................................81
3.1.2 Optical Module.................................................................................................82
3.1.3 Other Optical Devices......................................................................................82
3.2 PRODUCT SERIES.......................................................................................................82
3.2.1 SDH Series........................................................................................................82
3.2.2 DWDM Series...................................................................................................83
3.2.3 MAN Multi-Service Transport Product Series.................................................83
3.2.4 Network Management Product Series..............................................................83
3.3 NETWORK ADAPTABILITY.........................................................................................84
3.3.1 Adaptability to the Backbone Network.............................................................84
3.3.2 Adaptability to MAN.........................................................................................84
3.4 DEVELOPMENT IDEA AND PRODUCT SOLUTION.......................................................87
3.4.1 Hardware Platform Solution............................................................................87
3.4.2 Software Platform Solution..............................................................................88
3.5 DEVELOPMENT ROADMAP.........................................................................................88
3.5.1 The Evolution of Overall Products...................................................................88
3.5.2 Development Roadmap of MAN Products........................................................89
3.6 DISTRIBUTION OF R&D INSTITUTIONS.....................................................................90
3.7 ACCUMULATION OF CORE TECHNOLOGY..................................................................90
SUMMARY..............................................................................................................................91
EXERCISE...............................................................................................................................92

CHAPTER 4 PLANNING AND DESIGNING TRANSMISSION NETWORK..........93

INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................93
4.1 CUSTOMER’S NETWORK AND SERVICE REQUIREMENTS...........................................93
4.1.1 Network layer...................................................................................................93
4.1.2 Customer’s Service Requirements....................................................................94
4.2 OUR COMPANY’S SOLUTION.....................................................................................94
4.3 OUR COMPANY’S CONCEPTS OF NETWORKING PLANNING.......................................94
4.3.1 Network Topology.............................................................................................94
4.3.2 Network Self-healing Protection Switching Mode...........................................97
4.3.3 Network Services Allocation and Dispatch......................................................98
4.3.4 Network Service Clock Synchronization Mode................................................99
4.3.5 NMS Setting....................................................................................................100
4.4 CASE ANALYSIS.......................................................................................................100
4.4.2 Preparing for the Tender................................................................................101
4.4.3 Preparing Tender Documents.........................................................................102
SUMMARY............................................................................................................................105

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EXERCISES...........................................................................................................................106

APPENDIX A MAIN REFERENCE PROTOCOLS /STANDARDS.............................107

APPENDIX B ABBREVIATIONS...................................................................................111

Appendix C FAQ...................................................................................................................115

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 Chapter 1 Overview of Optical Transport Network

Chapter 1 Overview of Optical Transport

Network

Objectives
Synchronous optical digital transport network (SONET/SDH), a new generation transport network
system launched at a time when the existing plesiochronous system is in extensive use, is
noticeably superior to the latter. Such a highly flexible and standardized transport network will
eventually play a vital role in the future development of information infrastructure. This chapter
will give you some idea of the technical background, basic concepts, initial applications and
characteristics of the synchronous optical transport network and thus help you better understand
the advantages and applications of the transmission products developed by ZTE.

Introduction

The transmission system is an important part of the communications network. However, as the
transmission information and various support systems increase and as more and more switching
functions and intelligence are assigned to the transmission systems, people now often refer to the
transmission system as transport network, because, compared with transmission system, transport
network is more definite in meaning and contains more functions.

A clear idea of the difference between the following two pairs of terms is essential to
understanding the basic concept of SDH. The first is SONET and SDH. The essence of contents
and main specifications for SONET and SDH don’t differ much, but they are still different in some
minor aspects. For example, SDH currently works at four rates: 155M, 622M, 2.5G and 10G,
while SONET works at nine: 52M, 155M, 466M, 622M, 933M, 1244M, 1866M, 2.5G and 10G,
although the four rates of SDH are the most commonly used. SDH and SONET have the same
frame structure format in STM-1 rates, but their pointer arrangement and processing methods are a
little different. They also differ somewhat from each other in payload arrangement: SDH does not
support VT3 of SONET, while SONET does not support VC-12 and VC-3 of SDH. In addition,
they are different in the uses of some bytes, the specifications and parameter rules, and they have
incompatible clock specifications. Owing to the above differences, they cannot fully interwork and
are not completely compatible with each other.

Another pair of confusing concepts is transport network and transmission network. The basic
difference between them lies in the objects described. Transport concerns the functional process of
information transfer, while transmission concerns the physical transmission process of information
signals via specific physical medium. Therefore, transport network is a network in terms of logical
functions, i.e. a set of logical network functions, while transmission network is a physical network

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consisting of specific devices. Of course, in a definite context, transmission network (or transport
network) may also generally refer to both physical network and logical network.

1.1 Concept of Optical Transport Network

Optical transmission network, or optical network for short, is a physical layer network relying on
specific devices as NE entities to form various network topologies, thus providing transparent or
semi-transparent transmission of service-layer signals.

Physically it is called optical transmission network and logically it is called optical transport
network. In light of the increasing proportion of software in the optical network and the ever-more
attention paid by people to such concepts as intelligent control, end-to-end service configuration
and optical virtual private network, the name of optical transport network can better suit the actual
conditions of future networks and the high demands in the operation field.

Optical transport network has evolved from PDH to SDH and then to WDM, OADM, OXC
and OTN since the digital age began, and now it needs radical changes, as from “transport” to
“internetworking”, from “physical cross switching network” to “automatic switching network”,
from “centralized control” to “distributed control”, from “NM-dependent configuration” to
“customer network originating calls automatically”, etc.

1.2 Position of Optical Transport Network

1.2.1 Hierarchy in OSI

In the seven-layer structure of OSI, the optical transport network serves as the physical layer.
Although the optical transport network is now incorporating the technologies of the data link layer
and even those of the network layer, generally it still implements the functions of the physical
layer.

1.2.2 Position in the Telecom Network

Generally the optical transport network plays a central role in the telecom network. It is the
infrastructure of the telecom network, just as the telecom network is the infrastructure of national
economy. Any well-established operator should first consider optical transport network if they try
to build a set of advanced networks.

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1.3 Functions of Optical Transport Network

1.3.1 Node Functions

Adding/dropping signals

Mapping/demapping

Multiplexing/demultiplexing

Multiple cross-connect functions (optical/electrical, high order/low order)

Signal regeneration and amplification

1.3.2 Network Functions

Network topology configuration and modification

Network protection and recovery

End-to-end service configuration

1.4 Evolution of Optical Transport Network

1.4.1 Obstacles in the Evolution Process

At the turn of the century, as the network bubble blew up, the entire information industry,
including telecommunications (without sparing optical communications), has plumped into
unprecedented trouble. Against that background, telecom operators have begun to streamline their
battlefronts and adjust the speed of network infrastructure construction. However, one point is
sure: telecom operators have no choice but to take up the next generation network in the face of
external competition, service development momentum and internal technical development trend.
The current trouble only somewhat slows down, but will not hold back, their shift to the next
generation network.

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1.4.2 Technical Evolution

[Link] Evolution of SDH

[Link].1 Evolution to Multi-Service Transfer Node
The SDH system is the major transport system of the current telecom networks, but the functions
it implements and the role it plays have changed a lot since the emergence and development of
DWDM. The SDH system, while continuing to be the bearer technology of the core network, has
gradually degraded to serve as the client layer of DWDM and has begun to fade out to the edge of
networks.

Owing to the diversified and complex signals of the client layer at the network edge, SDH
must transit from the pure transport network to a multi-service transfer platform (MSTP)
integrating transport network and service network, primarily by making full use of the mature
SDH technology, especially its reliable protection and recovery capability and delay performance
and making some modifications, so that it can accommodate multi-service applications and
support layer-2 or even layer-3 data functions. The basic idea is: mapping multiple services to the
SDH channel via an optional encapsulation procedure and VC-N cascade mode so as to integrate
the TDM equipment and data equipment into one entity primarily located at the network edge.

The SDH multi-service platform not only simplifies the node structure, cuts down equipment
investment, improves the use efficiency of equipment room and simplifies circuit assignment, but
also speeds up service provision, enhances network scalability, reduces operation cost and
provides various VASs.

Evolution to 40 Gbps

Now the 10 Gbps systems have found extensive applications in the network, and quite a few
telecom operators have developed 40 Gbps systems. Core routers with 10 Gbps interfaces have
found their way into the networks, and their extensive applications make it necessary to process
multiple digital connections in a single wavelength so as to enhance the efficiency and functions
of the core network, therefore it is natural for the single-wavelength rate of the core network to
grow to 40 Gbps.

However, the transmission rate of a single wavelength is limited by the mobility ratio of the
electrons and holes of the “silicon” or “gallium-arsenic” material in the integrated circuits (IC), by
the “chromatic dispersion” and “polarization mode dispersion” of the transmission medium, and
by the cost performance of the system to be developed. Now the material is not the main
limitation, especially when the indium-phosphorus material with high electron and hole mobility
ratio has proved its excellent performance at rates above 40 Gbps and has other merits like
compactness and low power consumption, but the last two limitations have become the bottleneck
in putting this rate into practical applications.

Practically, direct-modulated light source is not yet available for 40 Gbps transmission

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systems, making external modulators necessary; the drive ICs with sufficient output voltage to
drive the external modulators are not mature enough; it is not yet certain whether the 10 Gbps-
minus NRZ modulation mode can effectively and reliably work at the rate of 40 Gbps, and other
modulation modes such as the ordinary RZ modulation mode, carrier-suppressed RZ (CS-RZ)
modulation mode, optical soliton modulation mode and pseudo-linear RZ modulation mode are
still on trial. Besides the above technical factors, economic feasibility must also be taken into
account: the system will not be put into extensive applications unless its overall cost is no more
than 3 times that of the 10 Gbps system.

[Link] Evolution of DWDM

[Link].1 Evolution toward Ultra-Large Capacity and Ultra-Long Distance
WDM has been developing rapidly thanks to significant technical breakthroughs and market
stimulation in recent years, and now 1.6 Tbps WDM systems have found wide applications. For
example, NEC and Alcatel have respectively implemented the record-setting total transmission
capacities of 10.9 Tbps (273 × 40 Gbps) and 10.2 Tbps (256 × 40 Gbps).

The wavelengths and transmission capacity of the WDM system have been expanding
constantly, and in order to reduce the number of regenerator nodes and with the introduction of
optical-layer internetworking capability, the WDM has had its all-optical transmission distance
extended greatly, from about 600 km at present to over 3000 km. The main technologies involved
include distributed Raman amplifier, extra-powerful forward error correction (FEC) technology,
dispersion management technology and strict optical equalization technology. Ultra-long
transmission requires less initial system investment (the longer the distance, the less the
investment), and needs smaller equipment room and operation cost.

[Link].2 Evolution to Metropolitan Area WDM

With the technical progress and service growth, WDM technology is extending from the long-
distance field to the metropolitan area. Of course such extension is not direct but needs some
modifications based on the special conditions of MAN.

First, low cost is the most important characteristic of the MAN WDM system; especially its
cost per wavelength must be much lower than that of the WDM system used in long-distance
networks. Fortunately, the transmission distance of MAN is less than 100 km, making it
unnecessary to use external modulators and optical amplifiers (OA) required in long-distance
networks. As OAs are dispensable, the increase of wavelengths is no longer restricted by OAs,
making it possible to use light source, optical multiplexer, optical demultiplexer and other
components with wider wavelength interval and lower wavelength precision and stability, thus
greatly cutting down the cost of components (especially passive components) and the whole
system.

Metropolitan area WDM systems enable network operators to provide transparent

wavelength-based services so that users can send signals of any formats without being restricted

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by the structure and format of SDH. Especially, the system used at the edge of MAN with direct
interfaces with users should be able to flexibly and rapidly support services of various rates and
signal formats, so its optical interfaces must be able to automatically receive and adapt to all
signals ranging from 10 Mbps to 2.5 Gbps, including SDH, ATM, IP, ESCON, FDDI, GE and
Fiber Channel. The system used at the core of MAN may be able to support 10 Gbps SDH signals
and 10 Gbps Ethernet signals in the future.

Coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM) system comes to the fore just in time to
help further cut down the cost of the MAN WDM system. The working wavelength of a CWDM
system ranges from 1280 nm to 1625 nm, the number of wavelengths range from 8 to 16 and the
wavelength interval is up to 20 nm, therefore the system needs much lower laser configurations.
Its requirements for the output power, temperature sensitivity, dispersion tolerance and
encapsulation of the laser are much lower than those for the DWDM laser, so that the cost of the
system is cut down considerably.

[Link].3 Evolution to OTN and ASON

Although the ordinary point-to-point WDM communications system has a huge transmission
capacity, it only provides primitive transmission bandwidth and so needs flexible nodes to
implement effective flexible networking capability. However, the existing electric DXC system is
rather complicated, its node capacity doubles every 2 to 3 years, obviously incapable of keeping
up with the growth of network transmission link capacity, which doubles every nine months. Then
people begin to shift their attention to optical nodes, i.e. optical add/drop multiplexer (OADM)
and optical cross connector (OXC), using the wavelength connection on the optical layer to extend
node capacity and make bandwidth particle grow from VC-4 to a wavelength and likewise make
the capacity of a single 1000-port node grow from 160 Gbps to 10 Tbps or even 40 Tbps.

The study on OXC, having been going on for years, is still at the stage of onsite
experimentation and small-scale trial operations. A major problem is that there is no optical
switching matrix with good cost performance, expandable capacity and high reliability, and the
core of the problem is the optical switch.

The latest development trend of optical network is automatic switching optical network
(ASON). At present, the connection between the client layer network (including the traditional
PSTN switch, ATM switch, IP router and even image processing equipment) and the transport
network is physical connection or “hard connection”, and the transport network merely transfers
the client layer signals from one end to the other in a simple and fool-like way. Such a bearer
channel, once established, will remain unchanged for several months, half a year, a year or even
longer. To implement intelligent signal transfer, the client layer network should send a request to
the transport network for the desired bandwidth, i.e. to establish a “soft connection”, and the
transport network should promptly respond to the request and provide the best connection channel,
which can change its route as desired and can be removed or reestablished at any time. Telecom
operation philosophy is changing, and some new operators want to lease some bandwidths (e.g.

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some SDH circuits or wavelength channels) from the well-established operators, especially in
metropolitan area transport network. Then, for the well-established operators, the new operators
are their customers, while for the new operators; the well-established operators are administrators
of the optical network. They need an intelligent, time-efficient, labor-saving and cost-effective
bandwidth allocation process. The ASON system can be used to introduce an intelligent, soft-
switching-signaling-based control plane to the transfer plane of the existing SDH/MSTP and the
future OADM/OXC/OTN, so as to provide dynamic SDH circuit configuration, optical
wavelength route configuration and the most flexible hierarchical bandwidth allocation. Take SDH
for example. As mentioned above, the traditional SDH circuit configuration is actually a
permanent connection (PC) established under the forced control of the NMS. It is time-consuming
(perhaps several days), labor consuming (needing some experienced equipment room maintenance
and commissioning technicians) and inefficient, and it does not allow for easy modification once
configured successfully. The essence of intelligent optical network is the modification of the
traditional PC into soft PC (SPC) and even switched connection (SC). The service-layer
equipment initiates a request for desired bandwidth via UNI signaling, and the respective
intelligent NEs on the control layer are configured with such components as call controller,
connection controller, route controller, protocol controller, policy controller and link resources
manager, which work together to implement intelligent control. Connection channels can be set up
quickly between intelligent NEs by means of I-NNI or E-NNI signaling protocol processing and
through such mechanisms as network topology automatic identification and automatic neighbor
discovery, and bearer channels can be set up rapidly for the service-layer network. The channels
already established can be released or removed or switched over to the new connection channels
as required by the network. Therefore, the whole transport network has changed radically, from
the original idiot static network to the switched intelligent optical network capable of direct
bandwidth lease and profit making. The NMS needs to manage both layers. For example, the
faults of NE hardware (boards, sub-racks, optical fiber interfaces, etc.) on the transfer layer should
be reported to the NMS and the control-layer faults (such as signaling network faults, call failure,
connection failure, timeout, etc.) should also be reported to the NMS. Thanks to the intelligent
control layer, the “configuration management”, one of the five major management functions of the
NMS can be weakened considerably. The intelligent optical network has the following merits:
supporting dynamic allocation of network resources to the routes, having expandable signaling
capability sets, supporting quick service provision and expansion, providing quick service
recovery capability for the optical layer, and introducing such new services as demand-based
bandwidth service, circuit/wavelength lease, bandwidth transaction, dynamic route allocation and
optical virtual private network (O-VPN).

[Link] Evolution of Optical Components

[Link].1 Evolution of Active Components
Active optical components are the heart of optical communications, and light source is the most
basic active component. The leading development trend at present is 40 Gbps application and
wavelength-adjustable lasers. At the rate of 40 Gbps, many new active components can be put to

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Chapter 1 Overview of Optical Transport Network

use. For example, two new types of InP components have very large attractive power in case of
super-speed transmission applications. One type is InP-based electro-absorption modulator and the
other is the pulse-generating laser (PGL), which can produce high peak output power while
maintaining a rational mean power. In addition to their applications on NRZ and RZ transmitters,
the above components are also ideal for the implementation of OTDM transmitter and receiver.

Wavelength-adjustable laser, another major development trend, plays an important role in

many fields, like WDM, OADM, OXC, optical switching equipment, etc. There are many plans
for the implementation of wavelength-adjustable laser, mainly including external cavity
wavelength adjustable laser and wavelength adjustable DFB/DBR laser. A major technical
breakthrough for the external cavity wavelength adjustable laser is that it uses dense reaction ion
erosion (DRIE) technology to manufacture MEMS drive. At present, DRIE technology can be
used to provide 20 mW output power in the 40 nm continuous adjustable range. One of the latest
DBR structural lasers is superperiod structure diffraction grating DBR laser (SSG-DBR), which
makes it possible to obtain a wavelength change rate greater than the change rate of valid
refractive index. The change range of wavelength is up to 100 nm, but the continuous change
range is only 30 ~ 60 nm, which is still unsatisfactory. Some new technical solutions are still under
research.

EDFA is the main enabling technology for WDM development, currently developing toward
broader band and lower cost. The super-broadband EDFA with total bandwidth 84 nm, noise
coefficient 6.5 dB and output power 24.5 dBm has now come into being. Furthermore, with the
development of ultra-long optical system and 40 Gbps system, Raman amplifier has become the
key enabling technology. As Raman gain greatly extends optical transmission distance when the
rate is very high, the overall cost of a high-speed large-capacity WDM system will be lower.
Thanks to Raman gain; the requirements for optical signal power at high rate become much lower,
so that non-linear effect of the system becomes smaller. Currently, with five pumping sources and
relevant technologies, 110 nm broadband work is possible. The birth and development of Raman
amplifier provides a powerful momentum for the development of super-capacity ultra-long WDM
system.

[Link].2 Evolution of Passive Components

Passive components are too diversified to be enumerated one by one. Following is a brief
description of 40 Gbps applications and optical switch development. The transition of passive
components from 10 Gbps to 40 Gbps is not completely transparent. The technologies suitable for
10 Gbps passive components are not necessarily suitable for 40 Gbps. The 40 Gbps passive
components require less chromatic dispersion, larger bandwidth and less polarization mode
dispersion than 10 Gbps passive components.

For the common WDM components used in typical 40 Gbps WDM systems, the traditional
dielectric film filter WDM components are hard to expand to more than twenty, and their typical
dispersion is about 50 ps/nm. The dispersion of Bragg fiber grating WDM components can be up

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to 200 ps/nm, not suitable for 40 Gbps applications. An integrated optical waveguide WDM
component works in a different way from the above two and shows smaller dispersion and
dispersion wave. Its dispersion is just 5 ~ 10 ps/nm, making it the most attractive component for
40 Gbps applications. In addition, the dispersion of such components is flat within the passband,
thus simplifying dispersion compensation. The major drawback is insufficient bandwidth and
further improvements have to be made. Melting cone fiber WDM components are integrated with
the transmission fiber and thus have excellent optical performance, which is essential to 40 Gbps
applications. In addition, such components have very small PMD value, making them a choice for
40 Gbps applications.

Optical switches are playing an ever-more important role in optical network protection and
recovery and in flexible networking. Not only can they serve as simple optical signal changeover
switches, but can also form the internal core switch matrix of OADM and OXC, flexibly allocate
wavelength channel, and serve other purposes. In terms of principle, optical switches may be
divided into three kinds: electronic optical switches, thermal optical switches and mechanical
optical switches. Mechanical optical switches are technically the most mature and have such
merits as excellent performance, simple designs and configurations, low cost and low
requirements for the working environment, and so they are widely used. But they are bulky, slow,
not very reliable and have small matrix, making them unsuitable for large-scale OXC applications.
On the other hand, thermal optical switches and electronic optical switches are more sensitive (to
microseconds) and more compact in structure, but their insertion loss and crosstalk are more
serious. Generally, optical switches are developing from mechanical to thermal and electronic, and
accordingly, the switches become more sensitive (from the magnitude of 100 ms to 5 ms and even
to hundreds of microseconds) and more compact in structure, and their switch matrix becomes
larger, but their performance is still not satisfactory enough and the matrix is still not large enough.
Recently, a new type of optical switch called microelectronic mechanical switch (MEMS) is
showing a great development potential. Such a mechanical-electronic integrated switch combines
the features of mechanical optical switch and solid waveguide switch: compactness, high
integration, excellent performance and large matrix, allowing mass production, and is becoming
one of the leading switch technologies of practical large-scale OXC. Technically, however, the
MEMS-based all-optical OXC leaves much to be desired, including such problems as long-term
reliability, the mutual operation standard and implementation of the optical layer, and the
implementation of PMD compensation technology.

1.4.3 Network Evolution

[Link] Evolution of Topological Structure

Evolving from point-to-point, chain, ring and simple hybrid networks to grid networks.

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[Link] Evolution of Network Protection

Evolving from point-to-point, chain and ring network protection to grid protection.

Evolving from pure SDH and WDM protection to multi-layer protection.

[Link] Evolution of Service Configuration

Evolving from the configuration mode of whole-course intervention by the NMS to the end-to-end
configuration mode.

Evolving from manual configuration, to semi-automatic or even automatic configuration, and

eventually to ASON.

Summary

This chapter introduces the background and basic concepts of SDH.

Optical transmission network is called optical network for short. Physically it is called optical
transmission network and logically it is called optical transport network.

Optical transport network serves as the physical layer in the seven-layer structure of OSI but
it is the core of the whole telecom network.

The functions of optical transport network can be described from two aspects: node functions
and network functions.

The development of optical transport network is a process of evolution. SDH technology is

gradually developing toward multi-service high-capacity transfer nodes and DWDM technology is
developing toward super-capacity ultra-long metropolitan area WDM and all-optical switching.
The development of the two technologies is based on the constant improvement of optical
components, while technical development in turn makes the optical transport network more
flexible and effective in networking topology, network protection and service configuration.

SDH is by far superior to the traditional PDH, most noticeably in synchronous multiplexing,
standard optical interfaces and powerful NM functions. As a new technical system, it is not
perfect, but the highly flexible and standardized SDH/SONET network can satisfactorily meet the
network market demands for the time being.

Exercises

1. Describe the position of optical transport network in the whole communications network.

2. In what aspects have SDH and DWDM network evolved?

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

Chapter 2 Basic Principle

Objectives
Communications services are growing every day, and various multiplexing technologies like
TDM, WDM and OTDM are developed in order to accommodate the expanding transmission
capacity of communications networks and meet the requirements for network interaction and
flexibility. These technologies have greatly enhanced the transmission efficiency of the
communications networks. All the applications implementing synchronous digital transmission are
based on unified network interfaces, and the first thing to do for standardization is to specify a
whole set of universal rate and data transfer format. This chapter deals with rate and frame
structure specifications and introduces the basic concepts and work principle of SDH and DWDM
to help you understand the product.

Introduction

Since the mid 1980s, optical fiber communication has found extensive applications in telecom
networks. Thanks to its cost-effective and excellent bandwidth, it has become the leading means of
transmission of telecom networks and the basic platform of modern communication networks.
Optical fiber communication system has undergone several development stages: the PDH system
at the end of 1980s, the SDH system in the mid 1990s, the big-noise DWDM system at present,
and even intelligent optical network technology in the future.

Constant research of optical fiber applications also contributes to the progress of the
transmission technology: from the traditional plesiochronous system to the synchronous system
and to the wavelength division system, leading to radical changes in its technical system and
technical framework. These changes involve the gradually unified rate and frame structure,
standard optical interfaces, compatible multiplexing and mapping modes, and open overhead and
NM bytes. The ITU-T has formulated a full range of standards, which help to standardize
transmission worldwide in such aspects as equipment manufacturing and networking applications.
Of course, the system standards are subject to change based on the accumulating experience in
actual applications and new standards will also come out if necessary, but it is very necessary and
useful to learn and understand the basic framework and the main specifications.

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2.1 The Principle of SDH

2.1.1 Features of SDH

[Link] A brief introduction to SDH

The full name for SDH is synchronous digital hierarchy. SDH stipulates such features of the
digital signals as frame structure, multiplexing mode, transmission rate level and interface code
type, etc., and offers a frame which is internationally supported, on which a flexible, reliable and
convenient for management world-class communications transmission network can be developed.
This transmission network is easy to expand, facilitates the development of new telecom services,
and makes it possible for the equipment of different manufacturers to be interconnected. These are
what the network constructors have been seeking after in all these years.

[Link] Disadvantages of PDH and the birth of SDH

Before the application of SDH, the transmission system employed plesiochronous digital
hierarchy (PDH). PDH adopts the bit filling and code digit interleaving method to multiplex the
low-rate grade signals to high-rate ones, capable of transmitting domestic toll call services and
local network services independently. To expand the capacity of a network, just add new PDH
equipment. However, with the development of the telecommunications networks and the increase
of the user requirements, disadvantages of the PDH are gradually uncovered:

1. There exist only regional digital signal rate and frame structure instead of international
standards. There are three signal speed rates in the world: European series, Northern American
series and Japan Series. Northern America and Japan adopt 1.5M system; Europe adopts 2M
system; China adopts European system. European rate standards are 2 Mbps (E1), 8 Mbps (E2),
34 Mbps (E3) and 140 Mbps (ET4). The Northern American standard: 1.5 Mbps (T1), 6.3 Mbps
(T2) and 45 Mbps (T3). The rate standards of Japanese system are 1.5 Mbps, 6.3 Mbps and 32
Mbps. The above-mentioned three signal speed levels are not compatible with each other, which
make it difficult for international interconnection.

2. There is no international standard optical interface specification. Private optical interfaces

developed by manufacturers independently are incompatible with each other. This limits the
interconnection of networks and increases the complexity and operation cost of networks.

3. PDH is a multiplexing structure based on the point-to-point transmission. It only supports

point-to-point transmission, and it forms section-by-section linear networks. Since PDH can only
perform protection to sections and cannot perform ring protection in a uniform and multi-route
way, its network topology is far from flexibility, the digital equipment has a low utilization, and it
cannot provide optimum routing.

4. Traditionally, the operation, management and maintenance of PDH are implemented

manually by means of digital signal cross-connection and service suspension for test. Since there
is no overhead bit for network operation, management and maintenance in the PDH signal frame

12
 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

structure, it is hard to build up an integrated transmission NM and meet the users’ requirements for
dynamic networking and access to new services.

5. In the PDH multiplexing structure, such low speed signals as 1.5 Mbps of the Northern
American system, 1.5 Mbps and 6.3 Mbps of the Japanese system and 2 Mbps of the European
system adopt synchronous multiplexing, other signals adopt asynchronous multiplexing, which
mean some extra bits are filled to synchronize signals of each tributary with the multiplexing
equipment and multiplex them into high speed signals. In this mode, it is difficult to identify and
extract the low speed tributary signals from the high-speed signals. To add/drop a voice channel,
the only way is to demultiplex the whole high-speed line signals step by step to low-speed line
signals to be extracted. After a voice channel is added/dropped, the low-speed line signals are to
be multiplexed step by step into high-speed line signals for transmission. For example, if you want
to drop 2 Mbps low-speed tributary signals from the 140 Mbps code stream by using PDH, first
the optical signals need to be converted into electric signals via optical/electric conversion, then
these electric signals will go through 140 Mbps to 34 Mbps (140M demultiplexed to 34M), 34
Mbps to 8 Mbps and 8 Mbps to 2 Mbps to drop the voice channel as 2 Mbps; These electric
signals will then go through 2 Mbps to 8 Mbps (2M multiplexed to 8M), 8 Mbps to 34 Mbps and
34 Mbps to 140 Mbps for transmission. You can refer to Fig1-1 for details. As you can see, the
PDH system has the following disadvantages: complicated multiplexing structure; lack of
flexibility; large amount of hardware, high add/drop service cost; complicated to implement the
digital cross connection function.

In order to satisfy the development need of the modern telecommunications networks and the
service requirement from the users, it can only get half the result with twice the effort if you plan
to solve the above problems based on the original system and technical structure. The best solution
to the problem is to conduct radical reform from the technical system. SDH, as a new system
integrating high-speed, large-capacity optical transmission technology and intelligent network
technology, comes into being in this occasion.

[Link] Advantages of SDH

The birth of SDH is to overcome the disadvantages of PDH, so the target goes before the
specifications and last is the equipment development. This process is just the opposite to that of
PDH. Obviously, it is possible to the greatest extent to define the system and equipment to the
ideal manner that will meet the requirements of the future telecommunications networks. The
following main features of SDH represent these requirements.

1. Unify the regional standards of North America, those of Japan and those of Europe at the
STM-1 level or higher levels. The digital signals do not need to be converted into other standard
when crossing the national boundaries for communications, so for the first time, the international
standard of the digital transmission system is achieved.

2. Standard optical interfaces allow compatibility of landscape orientation in the basic fiber
cable sections. Namely, equipment of different manufacturers can inter-work through the fiber
channels.

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Chapter 2 Basic Principle

3. SDH adopts the synchronous multiplexing mode and the flexible multiplexing mapping
structure. Code streams at various grades are arranged regularly within the frame structure
payload, which is synchronous with the network. Therefore high-speed signals can be
added/dropped to low-speed tributary signals at one time by using software. This is the so-called
one-step de-multiplexing characteristics. Refer to Fig2-1-1, you can compare the signal add/drop
process in the SDH system with that of the PDH system: After using the SDH add/drop
multiplexer ADM, software can be used to directly drop the 2 Mbps low-speed tributary signal
from the 155 Mbps code stream, which avoids the gradual demultiplexing and multiplexing
process over all the high-speed signals and saves the investment for the whole set back-to-back
multiplexing equipment. Hence, service add/drop becomes very easy with SDH, the network
structure and equipment will be greatly simplified. Furthermore, the digital cross connection
becomes very easy.

140/34Mbit/s 34/140Mbit/s

Optical/ PDH
electric Optical/ Demultiplex Electric/
electric 34/8Mbit/s Multiplex
optical
8/34Mbit/s

Demultiplex
Multiplex

Demultiplex
8/2Mbit/s Demultiplex Multiplex 2/8Mbit/s

2Mbit/s (Electric signal)

SDH
155Mbit/s 155Mbit/s
ADM
Optical Optical
interface interface
2Mbit/s (Electric signal)

Fig. 2-1-1 Add/Drop signal comparison between SDH and PDH

4. SDH adopts a lot of software to conduct network configurations and control so that the
flexible configuration and convenient deployment can be achieved.

5. Abundant overhead bits have been allocated in the SDH frame structure, which occupy 5%
of the total signals. Software can be employed to process the overhead bits so that the network
operation, management and maintenance ability can be greatly enhanced.

6. SDH network is completely compatible with the currently existed network and compatible
with various speeds of the current PDH, which means that SDH supports the built PDH network

14 14
 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

and can be conveniently upgraded to SDH. At the same time, SDH network is also compatible
with such new service signals as ATM cell, which indicates SDH enjoys perfect backward and
forward compatibility.

[Link] SDH rate

The speed level of SDH signals is denoted as STM-N, in which N is a positive integer. Currently,
SDH only supports such values as 1, 4, 16 and 64, in which STM-1 is the most basic and most
important module whose speed is 155.520 Mbps and the STM-N signals of higher levels are
obtained through interleaving the digits of the basic module signals of STM-1. The STM-4 speed
is 622.080 Mbps, the STM-16 speed is 2488.320 Mbps and the STM-64 speed is 9953.280 Mbps.

[Link] SDH frame structure

The SDH frame structure is as shown in Fig. 2-1-2:

9 x N Column (Byte)
261 x N Column (Byte)

1
Regenerator
Transmission
section overhead
(RSOH) direction
3
9 Row
Administrative unit STM-1 Payload (Payload)
4
pointer
(AU-PTR)
5
Multiplex section
overhead
(MSOH)
9

125¦ s
270 x N Column

Fig. 2-1-2 SDH frame structure

SDH performs transmission by bytes, and adopts the rectangle frame structure based on a
byte structure made up of 270 × N columns and 9 rows of 8 bytes. The rectangular frames of SDH
are transmitted row by row on optical fiber after parallel/serial conversion at the optical transmit
end and are recovered into rectangular massive ones for processing after serial/parallel conversion
at the optical receive end. In the SDH frames, transmission order of the bytes is from left to right.
After the first byte on the upper left corner has been transmitted, other bytes from the left to the
right, from the first row to the next row will be transmitted until the whole 9×270×N bytes have
been transmitted. The system will then start the transmission of the next frame and transmission
goes on like this frame after frame. 8000 frames can be transmitted per second and the constant

15
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

frame length is 125 µs. The SDH frame frequency is 8000 f/s, which indicates that a specific byte
in the signal frame will be transmitted 8000 times and the bit speed of this byte should be 8000 × 8
bit = 64 kbps, which is the transmission speed of a digital voice channel. Take for example the
STM-1 level, whose rate is 270 (270 columns/frame) × 9 (altogether 9 rows) ×64 kbps =155520
kbps =155.520 Mbps.

As you can see from Fig. 1-6, the STM-N frame structure consists of three parts: Se ction
overhead (including regeneration section overhead (RSOH) and multiplexing section overhead
(MSOH)), information payload and AU-PTR (administration unit-pointer).

1. Section OverHead (SOH) area

The SOH is obligatory additional bytes, which ensure that the information payload can be
normally and flexibly transmitted and is mainly used for network operation, management and
maintenance. The 1st~3rd rows and the 5th~9th rows in the SDH frame are allocated to section
overhead. The section overheads can be further divided into regeneration section overhead
(RSOH) and multiplexing section overhead (MSOH). The 1st ~3rd rows are allocated to the
RSOH, while the 5th~9th rows are allocated to the MSOH. RSOH can be accessed at both the
regenerators and the terminal equipment, while the MSOH will go through the regenerators
transparently and terminates at the terminal equipment.

2. Information payload area

The information payload area is used to store various service information in the SDH frame
structure. Horizontally the 10th×N ~270th×N columns and vertically the 1st ~ 9th rows all belong
to the information payload area, as part of the payload, the path overheads (POH) are also
included in this area and used for monitoring, management and control of the path performance.

3. AU-PTR (Administration Unit-Pointer) area

AU-PTR is a kind of indication symbol and is mainly used to indicate where first byte of the
information payload is precisely located in the STM-N of the so that information decomposition
can be correctly done on the reception end. It is located in the 4th row between the 1st and the
9th×N column in the STM-N frame structure. It is an important innovation to adopt pointer mode
in the SDH so that multiplexing synchronization in the plesiosynchronous environment and frame
location of the STM-N signals can be accomplished.

[Link] SDH multiplexing mapping structure and process

ITU-T stipulated a complete set of multiplexing structure (see Fig. 2-1-3), through which 3 series
of digital signals of the PDH can be multiplexed to STM-N. To make sure that every payload has
only one multiplexing and mapping path, a simple multiplexing and mapping structure is
stipulated as shown in Fig. 2-1-4, which is a subset of the standard multiplexing and mapping
structure stipulated by the specifications.

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

×N ×1
STM-N AUG AU-4 VC-4 C-4 139264kbit/s

×3 TUG-3
×1
×3 TU-3 VC-3
×7
44736kbit/s
AU-3 VC-3 C-3 34368kbit/s

×7 ×1
Pointer poccesing TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2 C-2 6312kbit/s
×3
Mutiplexing
×4 TU-12 VC-12 C-12 2048kbit/s
Location alignment

Mapping TU-11 VC-11 C-11 1544kbit/s

Fig. 2-1-3 SDH Multiplexing structure stipulated by ITU-T

×N ×1 139264kbit/s
STM-N AUG AU-4 VC-4 C-4
×3
×1 34368kbit/s
TUG-3 TU-3 VC-3 C-3
×7
TUG-2
Pointer ×3
poccesing VC- 2048kbit/s
TU-12 C-12
Mutiplexing 12
Location alignment
Mapping

Fig. 2-1-4 SDH multiplexing structure stipulated by China

Each signal loaded into the payload area of SDH frame structure needs to go through such
three steps as mapping, positioning and adjustment and multiplexing. The mapping process is
equal to the process of signal packeting, which synchronizes different tributary signals with the
relevant VC-n (Virtual Container-n). Alignment means adding justification pointer to correct the
frequency difference of the tributary signals and implement phase adjustment. Multiplexing refers
to byte-interleaving multiplexing, which is used to adapt signals from multiple low-order channels
or high-order channels to multiplexing section level.

Firstly, digital streams at various rate levels enter corresponding interface containers C,
which are an information structure used to load various rate service signals and perform mainly

17
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

the function of adaptation (for example, rate justification). Thus, the most commonly used
plesiochronous digital system signals can be made to enter finite standard containers and perform
an adaptation function such as rate justification. For example, for the 2M signals from various
channels, some may be 2.0481 Mbps while others may be 2.0482 Mbps because there is different
clock accuracy. These will receive error tolerance justification in C so as to be adapted to standard
signals at consistent rates. Currently there are five standard containers: C-11, C-12, C-2, C-3 and
C-4. The speed corresponding to container C-12, C-3 and C-4 is 2.048 Mbps, 34.368 Mbps and
139.264 Mbps respectively. The digital stream coming out of the standard containers and the POH
(path overhead) form the virtual container (VC). This process is called mapping.

VC (Virtual Container) is an important information structure in SDH. It is mainly used to

support connection on the channel layer. The VC (Virtual Container) enveloping rate synchronizes
with the network, so the enveloping of different VCs is synchronous; however, plesiochronous
tributary signals of different capacity are allowed inside the envelope. The VC transmission in the
SDH keeps intact except for the assembling point and the disassembling point (i.e., the meeting
place of the PDH network and the SDH network), so the VC can be extracted or added at any
point in the channel as an independent entity. It is also very convenient to perform synchronous
multiplexing and cross connection processing. VC can be divided into low-order VC and high-
order VC. Here, VC-12 and VC-3 are low-order virtual containers, while the VC-4 is a high-order
virtual container (the VC-3 in the AU-3 is a high-order virtual container; however, if you
multiplex the VC-3 into VC-4 through TU-3, the VC-3 here should be a low-level virtual
container). The digital stream coming out the VC then enters the administration unit (AU) or the
tributary unit (TU) via the specified route. In the SDH frame, VC-n is an independent entity and
cannot be split up during the transmission. So the conversion from VC-n to TU-n and from VC-n
to AU-n is a process of speed adaptation, which is also known as the alignment process in the
multiplexing structure.

AU is a kind of information structure that provides adaptation function to the high-order

channels and the multiplexing section layer, which consists of VC (virtual container) and AU-PTR
(administration unit-pointer). The AU-PTR is used to indicate the position of the high-order VC in
the STM-N frame so the position of the high-order VC in the STM-N can be floating, however, the
position of AU-PTR itself in the STM-N frame is fixed. One or several AU (administration units)
that have fixed locations in the STM-N frame form the administration unit group (AUG), which is
composed of three AU-3 or formed through byte interleaving of a single AU-4. AU is a kind of
information structure that provides adaptation function to low-order channel and the high-order
channels, which consists of VC (virtual container) and AU-PTR (administration unit-pointer). TU
PTR is used to indicate the position of the low-order VC in the frame structure. One or several
TUs (Tributary Units) that have fixed position in the high-order VC payload form the TUG
(Tributary Unit Group). At last, the N administration unit groups (AUG) and the attached section
overheads (SOH) form the final STM-N frame structure.

Let’s take the multiplexing and mapping process of the 2M tributary signals as an example.
Signals with a nominal speed of 2.048 Mbps first enter C-12 for adaptation process; the C-12 and
the POH form the VC-12 after they have been mapped; then, after the alignment, the PTR in the

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

TU-12 can indicate the VC-12 phase; after equal byte interleaving in the 3 TUG-3, they are
multiplexed to TUG-2; in the same way, 7 TUG-2 are multiplexed to TUG-3 after byte
interleaving process; after byte interleaving in the 3 TUG-3, the 3 TUG-3 and the high-order POH
form the VC-4 payload; after alignment, the VC-4 payload and the PTR form the AU-4; the single
AU-4 directly enters the AUG; through byte interleaving in the N AUGs, the N AUGs and the
attached SOH form the STM-N signals.

2.1.2 SDH Overhead Function

[Link] Overhead types

Two types of overheads----section overhead (SOH) and path overhead (POH) are arranged in the
SDH frame structure and are used for maintenance of the section layer and the path layer
respectively, which indicates that overheads in the SDH system are used by layer.

1. SOH

SOH contains frame information and is used for maintenance and performance monitoring
and other operation functions. The section overheads (SOH) can be further divided into
regeneration section overhead (RSOH) and multiplexing section overhead (MSOH). RSOH can be
inserted on both the regenerator and the terminal equipment. MSOH (multiplexing section
overheads) transparently go through the regenerator and can only terminate at the terminal
equipment, which is the AUG assembling and disassembling points. In the SOH frame structure,
the 1st ~ the 3rd rows are allocated to RSOH, while the 5th~ the 9th rows are allocated to MSOH.

2. POH

POH can be divided into two varieties: Low-order VC POH and high-order POH.

1) Low-order VC POH: VC-1/VC-2 can be formed by adding the low-order VC POH to C-

1/C-2. Its major functions include monitoring the VC channel functions, transmitting maintenance
signals and indicating the alarm status, etc.

2) High-order VC POH: Appending VC-3 POH to C-3 or the combination of several TUG-2
can form VC-3; appending VC-4 POH to C-4 or the combination of several TUG-3 can form VC-
4. The main functions of the high-order VC POH include monitoring VC path functions,
transmitting maintenance signals, indicating alarm status and multiplexing structure, etc.

[Link] SOH arrangement

1. Location of SOH bytes

The arrangement of each kind of SOH bytes in the STM-1 frame is as shown in Fig. 2-1-5:

19
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

9 Byte

＊ ＊
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 JO × ×
B1 △ △ E1 △ F1 × × RSOH
D1 △ △ D2 △ D3
Administrative Unit Pointer
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
D4 D5 D6
D7 D8 D9 MSOH
D10 D11 D12
S1 M1 E2 × ×

△ Characteristic bytes related to transmission media (used temporarily)

× Bytes reserved for domestic use
＊ Unscrambled bytes used domestically
All unlabelled bytes are to be specified in compliance with international
strandards (medium-related applications, additional domestic uses and other
uses)

Fig. 2-1-5 Byte arrangement in STM-1 SOH

In SDH, the SOH bytes of the STM-N frame are also the interleaving results of the SOH of
the N STM-1 frames; however, the SOH of only the first STM-1 is preserved completely, while
the SOH of other N-1 STM-1 frames only reserve the frame-positioning bytes such as A1, A2 and
B2, which means other bytes have all been omitted.

The location of a SOH byte in the STM-N frame can be denoted by a coordinates vector (a, b,
c), in which a indicates row number whose value range is from 1 to 3 or from 5 to 9. b indicates
multiple column numbers whose value range is from 1 to 9; c indicates the interleaving layer
number within the multiple columns, whose value range is from 1 to 64. The relationship between
the actual row number, column number of the bytes in the STM-N and a, b and c is shown as
follows:

Row number = a

Column number = N (b-1) + c

2. SOH functions

1) Frame-positioning bytes: A1 and A2

The A1 and A2 bytes in SOH can be used to identify the starting position of the frame. A1
and A2 have fixed binary values, which are 11110110 and 00101000 respectively. When 5
continuous frames cannot receive the correct A1 and A2 bytes, that is to say, 5 continuous frames
cannot be differentiated, the receiver will then enter “out of frame” status and generate an OOF
(Out Of Frame) alarm. If the OOF lasts for 3 ms, it will enter “lost of frame” status and the

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

equipment will generate LOF (Lost Of Frame) alarm and insert alarm indication signal (AIS) and
the whole service will be interrupted. Under the LOF status, if the receiving end is in frame
identifiable status for above continuous 1ms, the equipment will restore to the normal status.

2) Trailing byte of the regeneration section: J0

This byte can be used to repeatedly send the identifier of the section access point so that the
receiver of the section can make sure that it is in continuous connection with the specified sending
end. This byte within the network of the same operator can be any character; while on the network
edge between two different operators, the J0 bytes on the receiver and the sending end of the
equipment should be matched. Operators can detect and solve the problems in advance so that the
network resumption time can be shortened.

There is another usage for J0 byte. The J0 byte in each STM-1 of the STM-N frame is
defined as STM identifier C1 to indicate the position of the STM-1 in the STM-N, which indicates
which STM-1 (interleaving layer number) in the STM-N this STM-1 is and indicates which
column (multiplexing column) the C1 is in the STM-1 frame.

3) Data Communication Channel (DCC): D1~D12

The DCC in the SOH can be used to form the transmission link of the SDH management
network. Although there are control paths in the traditional PDH system, they are all dedicated
ones, which means that other equipment cannot access. Comparatively, the universal DCC is built
in the SOH. All of the network elements enjoy such feature, which means that uniform
management network can be conveniently formed and avoiding equipping each piece of
equipment with data communications channels. D1~D3 bytes are called the regeneration section
DCC, which is used for the OAM (operation, maintenance and management) information
transmission at 192 kbps (3×64 kbps) between the regeneration section terminals. D4~D12 bytes
are called the multiplexing section DCC, which is used for the OAM information transmission at
576 kbps (9×64 kbps) between multiplexing section terminals. The total 768 kbps data
communication channel provides powerful communications infrastructure for the management and
control of the SDH network. For example, one of the important targets of the SDH network
management control is to implement rapid distributed control. With the DCC, the best routing
table calculated from the network management system can be quickly transmitted to the network
elements via the DCC at any time.

4) Order-wire bytes: E1 and E2

These two bytes are used to provide the order wire communication voice channel. E1 belongs
to RSOH, which is used for the local order-wire path and can be accessed on the regenerator. E2
belongs to MSOH, which is used for direct order-wire path and can be accessed on the
multiplexing terminals. The order-wire speed is 64 kbps.

5) User path F1

This byte is reserved for users’ (often referring to a network provider) private use and can be

21
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

used to provide temporary data/voice connection for special maintenance purposes.

6) Bit interleaving parity-checking 8-digit code (BIP-8 code) B1

B1 byte (8 bits) is used to monitor error codes of the regeneration section, which is the bit
interleaving parity-checking code. BIP-8 code calculates all the bits of the previous STM-N frame
after the occurrence of the code interference, and places the result in the position of B1 byte before
the occurrence of the code interference.

This kind of error code monitor is one of the features of SDH and implements automatic error
code monitor of a regenerator section in a very simple way. However, this method does not
function when even error codes happen to occur in the same monitor code group. Fortunately,
there is little probability of such a case, therefore the overall error code detection probability is
very great.

7) Bit interleaving parity-checking N×24-digit code (BIP-N×24) B2

B2 byte is used to monitor error code of the multiplexing section. 3 B2 bytes (totally 24 bits)
are arranged in the section overhead for this purpose. B2 byte is the bit interleaving parity-
checking N×24-digit code that uses parity checking method, whose generation manner is similar
to BIP-8. BIP-N×24 calculates all the bytes except for the 1st to the 3rd rows in the previous
STM-N frame and places the result in the position of B2 byte before the occurrence of code
interference. There are N×3 B2 bytes in the STM-N, every 3 B2 correspond to a parity-checking
code of an STM-1 frame.

In addition to byte B1 and byte B2 arranged in the regeneration section and the multiplexing
section in the SDH for error code monitoring, 1 B3 byte in the POH of the VC-3/VC-4 high-order
path and the 1st and 2nd bit in the POH of the VC-1/VC-2 low-order path are also arranged for the
same purpose. As you can see, the monitoring of the error code performance is very thorough in
SDH. Each layer of the network that is divided into 4 different layers has performance monitoring,
in which error code monitoring can be done in place as small as a regeneration section or in place
as large as any VC-1/VC-2 path.

8) Automatic protection changeover (APS) path K1 and K2 (b1~b5)

K1 and K2 are used as the APS signaling for multiplexing section protection. Because K1
and K2 (b1~b5) are built-in signaling path dedicated for protection purpose, the protection
response speed can be implemented rapidly. K1 and K2 (b1~b5) provide network protection mode,
whose working principles are described as follows: When a failure occurs on a working path, the
down stream will rapidly detect the failure and sends the K1 byte including the serial number of
the failure path via the protection fiber in the upper stream direction. After the upper stream end
has received byte K1, it will bridge the down stream working path with the down stream
protection fiber; and at the same time, sends out protection bytes K1 and K2 (b1~b5) via the
protection fiber in the down stream direction, in which byte K1 works as the changeover
requirement and K2 serves as validation. After receiving byte K2 (b1~b5), the downstream end

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

confirms the serial number of the path and bridge the working path in the downstream direction
with the protection fiber in the downstream direction. At the same time, based on the K1
requirement, it bridges the working path in the upstream direction with the protection fiber in the
upstream direction. The downstream end sends out byte K2 (b1~b5) via the protection fiber in the
upstream direction so as to accomplish bi-directional changeover. After receiving byte K2
(b1~b5), the upstream end will bridge the working path in the upstream direction with the
protection fiber in the upstream direction so as to switch the two working path fibers to two
protection fibers and accomplish the automatic protection changeover.

9) Synchronous status S1 (b5~b8)

In the STM-N frame structure, the bits 5 ~ 8 of the first byte S1 (9,1,1) in the first STM-1
frame indicate the synchronization information, and there are 16 codes available for the four bits.
So 16 classes of synchronization quality are available, and the smaller value of S1 (b5 ~ b8)
indicates the lower class of the corresponding clock quality. Thereby, the equipment determines
the quality of the received clock signal and decides whether to switch the clock source, i.e. switch
it to a higher-quality clock source.

10) Indication bytes for remote error code block of the multiplexing section (MS-REI): M1

M1 byte is actually a notification message and is returned by the receiver to the sending end,
whose contents are the block numbers of the error code on the receiver detected by the BIP-N×24
(B2) so that the sending end can have an overview of the error code status on the receiver.

11) Some special bytes related to transmission medium

These bytes are used for special purpose related to transmission medium, such as the early
stage alarm of protection changeover in SDH, automatic sending of the power control, rapid
harmless changeover control and transmission monitoring, etc.

[Link] Arrangement of high-order path overhead

1. Location of high-order POH bytes

The VC-3 structure consists of 9 rows and 85 columns, in which the 9 bytes in the first
column are used as VC-3 POH. The VC-4 structure consists of 9 rows and 261 columns, in which
the 9 bytes in the first column are used as VC-4 POH. The 9 bytes contained in the VC-3/VC-4
POH are denoted with J1, B3, C2, G1, F2, H4, F3, K3 and N1 respectively.

2. High-order path overhead (POH) function

1) VC-3/VC-4 POH path tracing byte: J1

This byte can be used to repeatedly send the high order path access point identifier (HO
APId) so that the receiver of the path can make sure that it is in continuous connection with the
specified sending end, as a result, the path connection status can be traced. The operator can detect
and handle the failure in advance by using byte J1 and prevents the transmitted services from

23
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

being influenced so that the network resumption time can be shortened.

2) Path BIP-8 code: B3

B3 byte (8 bits) is used to monitor error codes of the path, which is the bit interleaving parity-
checking code. The BIP-8 code calculates all the bits of the previous VC-3/VC-4 and places the
result in the position of the B3 bytes in the VC3-C/VC-4.

3) Signal flag byte: C2

C2 byte is used to indicate the composition or maintenance status of the VC-3/VC-4, the
corresponding hexadecimal code of this byte and their meanings are listed in Table 2-1-1.

Table 2-1-1 C2 coding regulation

C2 8-bit Coding Hexadecimal code Meaning

Signals not loaded or monitored signals that have not been
00000000 00
loaded
00000001 01 Loaded common payload
00000010 02 TUG structure
00000011 03 Locked TU
34.368 Mbps and 44.736 Mbps signals asynchronous
00000100 04
mapping into C-3
00010010 12 139.264 Mbps signals asynchronous mapping into C-4
00010011 13 ATM mapping
00010100 14 MAN (DQDB) mapping
00010101 15 FDDI
11111110 FE 0.181 test signal mapping
11111111 FF VC-AIS (only used in serial connection)

4) Path status byte: G1

G1 is used to send back the terminal status and performance information on the path
destination to the source of the VC-3/VC-4 route so that any end or any point in the path is
allowed to monitor the status and performance of the full duplex paths.

5) User path bytes F2, F3

The two bytes provide communications between path units, which has nothing to do with the
payload.

6) Location indicator byte: H4

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

The byte not only provides common location indication for the payload, but also provides
special payload location. For example, it can be used to indicate the location for the VC-1/VC-2
multi-frame.

7) Automatic protection changeover (APS) path K3 (b1~b4)

These bits are used as APS signaling for the high-order path protection.

8) Network operator byte: N1

The byte provides tandem connection monitoring (TCM) function for the high-order path.

9) Standby bits: K3 (b5~b8)

These bits are reserved for future, and the receiver should ignore their values.

[Link] Arrangement of low-order path overhead (POH)

1. Location of low-level POH bytes

The VC-1/VC-2 POH consists of V5, J2, N2 and K4 and is located in the first byte of the 4
continuous VC-1/VC-2 frames respectively, which means that every 4 frames (500µs) can
accomplish a complete transmission of the VC-1/VC-2 POH.

2. Low-order path overhead (POH) function

1) V5 byte

V5 byte can provide such information as the error checking, signal flag and path status of the
VC-1/VC-2. The 1st and the 2nd bits of the V5 byte accomplish the performance monitoring of
the path error code; the 3rd bit is used for path remote error indication (REI); the 4th bit is used for
path remote failure indication (RFI); the 5th, the 6th and the 7th bits provide VC-1/VC-2 with
signal flag function; the 8th bit is used for path remote deficiency indication (RDI) of the VC-
1/VC –2.

2) Path trace byte: J2

This byte can be used to repeatedly send the low-order path access point identifier (LO APId)
so that the path receiver can make sure that it is in continuous connection with the specified
sending end.

3) Network operator byte: N2

The byte provides tandem connection monitoring (TCM) function for the low-order path.

4) Automatic protection changeover (APS) path K4 (b1~b4)

These four bits are used to provide APS signaling for the lower-order path protection.

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Chapter 2 Basic Principle

5) Reserved bits K4 (b5~b7)

The path source end that generates K4 decides whether to use these reserved random bits.

6) Standby bits: K4 (b8)

These bits are reserved for future, and the receiver should ignore their values.

2.1.3 The Logic Composition of the SDH Equipment

SDH transmission network is composed of different types of network elements that are connected
via optical fiber. The functions accomplished by different network elements are: Add/drop service,
cross connection service, self-healing of the network failure. The usual network elements in the
SDH network are terminal multiplexer (TM), add/drop multiplexer (ADM), regenerator (REG)
and digital cross connection equipment (DXC).

[Link] Termination multiplexer (TM)

The terminal multiplexer is used on the terminal station of the network as shown in Fig. 2-1-6.

STM-N
TM
140Mbit/s
34Mbit/s

STM-M
2Mbit/s

Fig. 2-1-6 Model diagram of the terminal multiplexer

Its function is to multiplex the low-speed signals on the tributary port into the high-speed
STM-N of the line port or to drop low-speed signals from the STM-N. Its line port can
input/output a route of STM-N signals, while the tributary port can output/input several routes of
low-speed tributary signals. When the low-speed tributary signals are being multiplexed into the
STM-N frame of the line signals, the location of the tributary signals in the line signal STM-N can
be randomly appointed.

[Link] Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM)

ADM is used at the transfer site of an SDH transmission network, for instance, the middle node of
a link or a node in a ring, and is the most important NE used most frequently in an SDH network,
as shown in Fig. 2-1-7.

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

STM-N STM-N
ADM

140Mbit/s
34Mbit/s

STM-M
2Mbit/s
Fig. 2-1-7 Model diagram of the add/drop multiplexer

The ADM has two line ports and one tributary port. Each of the two line ports is connected
with the respective optical fibers (receiving fiber and sending fibers for each side). For convenient
description, we classify them into west line port (W) and east line port (E). The function of an
ADM is to multiplex the low-speed tributary signals to the line or to drop low-speed signals from
the received line signals on the line ports. Additionally, the STM-N signals on the East/West side
line can be cross connected. The ADM is the most important network element in the SDH and can
work as other equivalent network elements, which means that the ADM can accomplish the
functions of other network elements, for example, An ADM can be equivalent to two TMs.

[Link] Regenerator (REG)

There are two regenerators in the optical transmission network. One is the pure optical regenerator
that is mainly used to amplify the optical power so as to lengthen the transmission distance; the
other kind is the electric regenerator used for shaping of pulse regeneration, in which such
processing as O/E conversion, sampling of the electric signals, judging, regeneration shaping and
E/O conversion will be done so that line noises are not accumulated and the transmitted signal
wave shape is in perfect condition. Here, we refer to the later regenerator, which has only two line
ports as shown in Fig. 2-1-8.

STM-N STM-N
REG

Fig. 2-1-8 The model diagram of the regenerator (REG)

The function of the REG is to have the received optical signals go through such processing as
O/E, sampling, judging, regeneration shaping and E/O and then send them out from the opposite
end.

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Chapter 2 Basic Principle

A real REG only needs to handle the RSOH in the STM-N frame and doesn’t need any cross
connection function. Whereas both ADM and TM need to add the low-speed tributary signal to the
STM-N, so they not only need to handle RSOH, but also need to handle MSOH. Additionally,
both ADM and TM enjoy cross connection function.

[Link] Digital cross connection equipment (DXC)

The digital cross connection equipment (DXC) is to mainly accomplish the cross connection of the
STM-N signals, which is actually equal to a cross matrix completing the cross connection between
each signal. Please refer to Fig2-1-9 for its model diagram.

DXC N
M channel channel

Fig. 2-1-9 Model diagram of the digital cross connection equipment (DXC)

The DXC can cross connect the inputted M routes of STM-N signals to the outputted N
routes of STM-N signals, whose core part is the matrix that can implement low-level crossing of
the high-speed signals.

DXCm/n is often used to indicate the type and performance of a DXC (m ≥ n), in which m
indicates the highest DXC speed level that can be accessed, while n indicates the lowest speed
level at which cross connection can be done in the cross matrix. The larger the m value, the larger
the DXC bearing capacity; the smaller the n value, the more flexible that the DXC crossing will
enjoy.0 indicates the circuit rate of 64 kbps; 1, 2, 3 and 4 indicate T-1~T-4 rates respectively in the
PDH system, and 4 also indicates STM-1 in the SDH system; 5 and 6 indicate STM-4 and STM-
16 respectively in the SDH system. For example, DXC1/0 indicates that the highest rate at the
accessing port is PDH primary block signal, and the lowest rate of cross connection is 64 kbps.
DXC4/1 indicates that the highest rate at the accessing port is STM-1, and the lowest rate of cross
connection is PDH primary block signal.

2.1.4 The Physical Topology of the SDH Transmission network

The physical topology of the network generally refers to the network outline, that is to say, the
geometric arrangement of the network nodes and the transmission lines, which reflects the
physical connectivity of the network nodes. The efficiency, the reliability and the economy of the

28 28
 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

network are, to great extent, related to the network structure. There are five network topologies,
which are shown in Fig. 2-1-10 when they are used for the SDH network.

a) Line topology TM ADM ADM TM

b) Star topology TM DXC/ADM TM

TM TM TM

c) Tree topology DXC/ADM ADM ADM TM

TM TM

TM

ADM
d) Ring topology

ADM ADM

ADM

e) Mesh topology
DXC/ADM DXC/ADM

DXC/ADM DXC/ADM

Fig. 2-1-10 The physical topology for the SDH transmission network

1. Line-shaped topology

Connect all the nodes in the network in serial order and keep the first and the last nodes open
to form the line-shaped topology. In this topology, in order to complete connection of two non-
neighboring nodes, all the nodes between the two nodes should be connected. Line topology is a

29
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

relatively economical network topology of the early SDH application. This structure cannot solve
the problem of node and link failures and its viability is very low.

2. Star topology

Connect a special hub node with all the rest nodes in the communications network, which
cannot directly connect with each other to form the star topology network. In this topology,
connection between any two random nodes except the hub node is implemented via the hub node,
which performs routing selection for the passing information flow and accomplishes the
connection function. The hub node can connect many optical terminals and form a uniform
network so that integrated bandwidth management can be implemented. This structure extremely
depends on the hub node, so the bottleneck and failure may occur to the hub node.

3. Tree topology

Connecting the end node of the point-to-point topology units with some special nodes forms
the tree topology. The tree topology can be considered as the combination of the line topology and
the star topology. This topology is suitable for broadcasting mode service; however, it experiences
bottleneck problem and optical power budget limit, etc. It is not suitable for provision of bi-
directional communications service.

4. Ring topology

You can connect all the nodes in the network in serial order and keep the first and the last
nodes connected to form the ring topology. If you connect to first and last open node of the line
topology network, a ring topology network will form. In the ring network, to accomplish the
connection of two nodes, all the nodes between the two nodes should be connected. The best thing
about ring topology is that it enjoys very high viability, which is extremely important for large-
capacity fiber network, so ring network is paid special attention in the SDH network.

5. Mesh

The mesh network can be formed by directly connecting many nodes in the communications
network. If all the nodes are inter-connected with each other, it is called the ideal mesh network. In
the non-ideal mesh network, the connection between two nodes without direction connection can
be implemented via connection nodes of other nodes. The mesh network is free from being
influenced by node bottleneck and node malfunction, there are multiple routings for selection,
hence the network enjoys high reliability; however, it is complicated in structure and is costly and
so it is only suitable for backbone network with heavy traffic.

Conclusively, all the above network topologies have their own characteristics, which can be
employed to different extent in the network. What network topology to be selected depends on
numerous factors. For instance, a network should be of high survivability and easy to configure.,
and the net architecture should be fit for the introducing of new services. In the actual network, the

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

network topology varies with the network characteristic. For the local network (i.e. the access
network or subscriber network), the ring topology and star topology are employed usually and the
bus topology is used sometimes. For the urban inter-exchange network, the ring topology and bus
topology are used. For the toll network, the mesh topology is used.

2.1.5 SDH Self-Healing Network

[Link] Network viability

The network viability has become a very important design index since the modern society is
becoming more and more heavily dependent on telecommunications.

The so-called self-healing network can automatically resume the carried services from the
failure without being felt by the users, whose basic principle is to enable the network to enjoy such
capabilities as detecting failure and re-establishing communications. The self-healing network is
only responsible for re-establishing the communications instead of repairing and replacing the
malfunctioned parts that still need to be done manually.

[Link] Types and principles of the self-healing network

According to the definition of the self-healing network, multiple means are available to implement
a self-healing network. The following common factors should be considered in the realization of
various self-healing networks: the initial cost, traffic proportion needed to be recovered, extra
capacity used to recover tasks, service recovery speed, flexibility of upgrade or node adding and
ease for operation and maintenance, etc. The realization of the self-healing network is divided into
the line protection changeover and the self-healing ring network, and the latter falls into multiple
types. The protection modes and realization approaches of various self-healing networks are
described as below.

1. Line protection changeover

The line protection changeover mode---the simplest way, which is usually adopted by the
traditional PDH system, can be also employed in the SDH system. The operating principle is that
when the service transmission in the working fiber breaks off or the performance deteriorates to a
certain degree, the system changeover equipment will automatically switch the signal to the
standby optical transmission system so that the receiver will still receive normal signals without
being aware of the fault with the network. This protection mode enjoys very short service
resumption time (can be shorter than 50 ms), which is very effective to the optical/electric part
failure of the network node. However, when the optical cable is cut off, all fibers (including the
active fibers and standby fibers) in the same cable are usually cut off at the same time, so the
above protection mode doesn’t work.

The improvement method is to physically employ the route backup, that is, the active and
standby fibers are laid by way of different physical routes. In this way, when the fiber cable for the
active path is cut off, the fiber cable for standby path will not be influenced, which means that the

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Chapter 2 Basic Principle

signals can still be safely transmitted to the other side. This method enjoys such advantages as
convenient configuration, simple network management requirement and rapid service resumption
capability. However, the solution need at least double fibers and line equipment and usually the
standby routing is very long, so the cost of this solution is high. Additionally, the protection
measure is only suitable for transmission link---protection of point-to-point application since it
cannot provide malfunction protection of the network nodes. For two points between which stable
and heavy service traffic are transmitted, the standby routing line protection method proves to be
very effective.

2. Self-healing ring network

Connecting the network nodes to form a ring can further improve the network viability and
cost. The network node of the self-healing ring network may be the DXC or the ADM. Usually
ADM are adopted, whose intelligent add/drop capability is used to form the self-healing network.
This is one of the SDH characteristics. Active research work is also being conducted currently in
this area.

Typically the self-healing ring network can be divided into the path protection switching ring
and MS protection switching ring. From the point of view of pure functional structure, the channel
switching ring and multiplex section switching ring belong to the subnet connection protection and
the path protection respectively. For the path protection changeover ring, protection of the service
information is based on each path. It decides whether to conduct changeover based on the signal
quality of each path in the ring. For multiplexing section changeover ring, the protection of the
service traffic is based on the multiplexing section. Changeover is conducted according to the
signal quality of the multiplexing section. When a failure occurs, all the signals of the
multiplexing section need to be switched over to the protection loop. An important difference
between the path protection changeover ring and the multiplexing section protection changeover
ring is that the former one usually uses dedicated protection, which means the protection section is
also transmitting service signals in normal situation; while the latter one usually uses the sharing
protection, which means that the protection section is usually idle in the normal situation, the
protection time-slots are shared by each node pair.

The self-healing ring can be classified as co-directional self-healing ring and bi-directional
self-healing ring according to the transmission direction of the information between the nodes in
the ring. In normal situation, the receiving and sending of all the service signals in the co-
directional ring are transmitted in the same direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise) in the ring;
while the receiving and sending of all the service signals in the bi-directional ring are transmitted
in the opposite direction in the ring.

The self-healing ring network includes 1:1 protection and 1+1 protection based on the
utilization status of the service path and protection path. In the 1:1 protection mode, the service
signals are connected with only the working path during the normal hours and extra service signals
are transmitted in the protection path; when failures occur on the working path, the node will give
up all the extra service signals on the protection path and switches to service signal transmission
so that protection of the service signals can be achieved. In the 1+1 protection mode, the service

32 32
 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

signals are connected simultaneously with the work path and the protection path, the node in
charge of service reception receive the better service signals from the work path and the protection
path, which means when a failure occurs on the work path, the node will automatically switch to
the protection path to receive the service signals and vice versa.

The self-healing ring can also be classified into 2-fiber ring and 4-fiber ring according to the
minimum amount of fibers used between each pair of nodes in the ring.

Different self-healing ring structures can be obtained from the above classification methods.
Usually, the path protection changeover ring adopts co-directional 2-fiber mode; multiplexing
section protection changeover ring can adopt both co-directional mode and bi-directional mode, so
it can be 2-fiber mode and it also be 4-fiber mode. Let’s take the following 4 nodes as an example,
4 typical, practical self-healing ring structures are described respectively.

1) 2-fiber co-directional path protection changeover ring

The 2-fiber co-directional path protection changeover ring is as shown in Fig. 2-1-11.

CA AC CA AC

S1 S1
P1 P1

A A
D B D B
C P1 C
P1
S1
S1
Switching
CA AC
CA AC

Fig. 2-1-11 2-fiber co-directional path protection changeover ring

The 2-fiber co-directional path protection changeover ring adopts 1+1 protection mode.
Service signals are sent out on both the work path and the protection path, and only the signals
with good quality can be received. PATH-AIS is the changeover criterion. APS protocol is not
needed. It has two fibers, one is the S fiber used to transmit service signals, while the other one is
the P fiber for protection. It adopts “bridge connection on the front end and changeover on the
end” structure, which means that in node A and node C, signals are simultaneously sent to S fiber
and P fiber, and signals of the tributary node are obtained by changeover. As shown in Fig2-1-11,
in node A, the incoming tributary signal AC whose destination is node C is send simultaneously to
both fiber S1 and fiber P1. The service signals in fiber S1 are sent to the tributary node C in the
clockwise direction, while signals in fiber P1 are sent to the same destination in the anti-clockwise
direction. The tributary node C on the reception end receives tributary signals from two directions

33
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

simultaneously, and then node C will decide signals from which path to be the selected tributary
signals according to its quality. Usually, signals sent from S1 fibers are considered as the active
signals. When the cables between node B and node C are cut off, on node C, because the AC
signals coming from A via S1 are lost, according to the changeover rules, the changeover will
switch from S1 to P1, the AC signals coming from node A via P1 will be used as the tributary
signals so that the service signals can be maintained. After the failure has been removed, the
switch will return to its original place.

2) 2-fiber co-directional multiplexing section protection changeover ring

The 2-fiber co-directional multiplexing section protection changeover ring is as shown in Fig.
2-1-12.

CA AC CA AC
S
S1 P
1
P1 1
A A
D B D B
C C
P
P1 S
1
S1 1
Switching
CA AC CA AC

Fig. 2-1-12 2-fiber co-directional multiplexing section protection changeover ring

As shown in Fig. 2-1-12, in the 2-fiber co-directional multiplexing section changeover ring, a
protection changeover switch is installed on each high-speed line before the tributary signal
add/drop function of the node. During normal hours, the low-speed tributary signals are added and
dropped on S1 and P1 is idle. Signals from A to C or from C back to A are transmitted in the
clockwise direction in fiber S1, so it is a co-directional ring. When the cables between node B and
node C are cut off, the changeover switch between node B and node C will use APS protocols to
execute loop back function. On node B, the AC signals on S1 return to P1 via the changeover
switch, and transmitted in the anti-clockwise direction through node A and node D and reaches
node C, finally, the signals will return to S1 via the changeover switch on node C and drop out.
The loop-back changeover function can guarantee the continuity of the ring even under the failure
circumstance and the low-speed tributary signals will not be interrupted. After the failure has been
removed, the changeover switch returns to the original position.

3) 4-fiber bi-directional multiplexing section changeover ring

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

The 4-fiber bi-directional multiplexing section changeover ring is as shown in Fig. 2-1-13.

CA AC CA AC
S1 S1
P1 P1
S2 S2
P2 P2
A A
D B D B
P2 C C
P2
S2 S2
P1 P1
S1 S1

CA AC CA AC Switching

Fig. 2-1-13 4-fiber bi-directional multiplexing section changeover ring

As shown in Fig. 2-1-13, two fibers of the 4-fiber bi-directional multiplexing section
changeover ring are corresponding to service fibers S1 and S2 in the receiving and the sending
direction, and the other two fibers are corresponding to the protection fiber P1 and P2 in the
receiving and the sending direction. During the normal hours, the low-speed tributary signals
whose destination is node C entered into the ring via node A and are transmitted in the clockwise
direction in S1; while the low-speed signals that return back from node C to node A are
transmitted in the anti-clockwise direction in S2, so it is a bi-directional ring. Whereas the
protection fibers P1 and P2 are idle. When the cables between node B and node C are cut off, the
two changeover switches on both node B and node C will execute the loop-back function by using
the APS protocols so that the ring continuity can be maintained. Fiber S1 and P1 can be connected,
fiber S2 and P2 can also be connected. The AC signals follows S1 return back to P1 via the
changeover switch on node B, and travel to node C in the anti-clockwise direction via node A and
node D, and finally return to S1 via the changeover switch on node C and drop out. It works
similarly with CA signals. The principle is similar to that of two-fiber co-directional MS switching
ring. After the fault is removed, the changeover switch returns to the original position.

4) 2-fiber bi-directional multiplexing section changeover ring

As you can see from the above diagram, the service signals on S1 and the protection signals
on P2 are transmitted in the same direction, the clockwise direction. By using time-slot switching
technology, we can place signals of the S1 and P2 on the same fiber, which is called the S1/P2
fiber. On the fiber, half of the time slots (the odd number time slots) are used to transmit the
service signals, while the other half of the time slots (the even number time slots) are used to
transmit protection signals. It’s the same with the S2/P1 fiber. The time slots of the protection
signals on S1/P2 can protect the service signals on S2/P1, while the time slots of the protection
signals on S2/P1 can protect the service signals on S1/P2. So, the 4-fiber ring can be simplified to
a 2-fiber ring. We usually adopt odd/even time-slot protection in the 2-fiber bi-directional

35
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

multiplexing section changeover ring. We also adopt other mode, such as using the first half
timeslot to transmit service signals, and the second half timeslot to transmit protection signals. The
2-fiber bi-directional multiplexing section changeover ring is as shown in Fig. 2-1-14.

CA AC CA AC

S1/P2 S1/P2
S2/P1 S2/P1

A A
D B D B
C C
S2/P1 S2/P1
S1/P2 S1/P2

CA AC CA AC Switching

Fig. 2-1-14 2-fiber bi-directional multiplexing section changeover ring

When the cables between node B and node C are cut off, the changeover switches in node B
and node C will, connect fiber S1/P2 with fiber S2/P1 based on the APS protocols, and move the
service signals from fiber S1/P2 and fiber S2/P1 to the protection time slot of another fiber by
using time-slot switching technology so as to accomplish the changeover function, whose
changeover time is less than 30 ms. For example, the service signal odd timeslots on S1/P2 can be
shifted to the protection signal even timeslots on S2/P1. That is, all service signals are transmitted
in a piece of optical fiber and the timeslot interchange like this is needed in the four sites A, B, C
and D. When the faults are removed, the switches return to their former states.

2.1.6 Timing Synchronization

The network synchronization is an important part in the network planning, which is more
important for SDH network based on the synchronization transmission. The best synchronization
between NEs can be obtained only when the network synchronization is planned reasonably. SSM
can be used to ensure that the NE selects the effective timing source with synchronization of the
highest quality, so as to avoid the ringing of the clock and ensure the synchronization performance
of the network.

[Link] SSM function of an SDH interface

The service add/drop and rerouting capabilities of an SDH network enable a network to be applied
with unprecedented flexibility and high survivability and makes selection of network
synchronization timing more complex. In an SDH network, the timing reference allocation
between nodes is made by means of a great number of low-level SDH network clocks, therefore

36 36
 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

the quality of the timing reference must be labeled by some means. SSM is right used to display
the information of the timing reference quality.

SSM is transferred by the 5th~8th bits of S1 byte in an SDH multiplex section overhead, as
shown in Fig. 2-1-15.

b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8

SSM

Fig. 2-1-15 Contents of S1 byte

These four bits have 16 different kinds of codes representing 16 different synchronization
quality grades, as shown in Table 2-1-2.

Table 2-1-2 SSM code

S1 (b5~b8) Descriptions of SDH synchronization quality grades

0000 Unknown synchronization quality (existing synchronization network)
0001 Reserved
0010 G.811 clock signal
0011 Reserved
0100 G.812 transit exchange clock signal
0101 Reserved
0110 Reserved
0111 Reserved
1000 G.812 local exchange clock signal
1001 Reserved
1010 Reserved
1011 Synchronous Equipment Timing Source (SETS)
1100 Reserved
1101 Reserved
1110 Reserved
1111 Not to be used as synchronization

In an SDH network, the timing reference allocation between nodes is made by means of a

37
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

great number of low-level SDH network clocks. With the adding of NEs over the synchronization
link, the quality of the timing reference signal deteriorates gradually. Therefore, if multiple
synchronization paths with the same quality grade can be selected by an NE, the synchronization
path passing the minimum of NEs is used to be helpful to improve the timing performance of the
SDH network. On this principle, ZTE designs S1 byte patent algorithm to enable an NE to select
the clock reference signals of the highest quality grade and with the shortest synchronization path.

1. If multiple effective clock sources are available for an NE, the NE first selects the clock
with the highest quality grade according to the quality grade information of clock sources.

2. If the multiple clock sources of the NE have the same quality grade, the NE selects the
clock source that passes the minimum of NEs.

3. The NE transfers the quality grade information of clock sources and number of passed NEs
to the downstream NE through S1 byte, and sends the “unavailable” information to the upstream
NE. (The upstream NE and downstream NE are relative, if NE B obtains the clock from NE A,
then NE A is the upstream NE of NE B, and NE B is the downstream NE of NE A.))

Fig. 2-1-16 is an application example of SSM.

PRC

PRC

PRC

Uavailable
A Uavailable

B D

PRC PRC
C
PRC

Uavailable

Synchronization
PRC
path (In use) SSM
Uavailable
Synchronization path
(Not in use)
(a)

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

PRC

PRC

PRC

Unavailable
A Unavailable

B D

PRC
C PRC

Unavailable

PRC

Synchronization path
PRC
(In use) SSM
Synchronization path Not in use
(Not in use)
(b)

SETS

SETS

Unavailable
A
Unavailable

B D

SETS SETS
C
SETS

Unavailable

Synchronization path (In

use) SETS
SSM
Synchronization path Unavailable
(Not in use)
(c)

Fig. 2-1-16 Application of SSM

From Fig. 2-1-16, you can see that each NE has two synchronization clock sources to be

39
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

selected, and settings of the synchronization sources of each NE are listed in Table 2-1-3.

Table 2-1-3 Setting of NE synchronous source

NE Clock source list

NE A External clock source and internal clock source
NE B Line clocks 1 and 2
NE C Line clocks 1 and 2
NE D Line clocks 1 and 2

In the conditions of normal work: the synchronization sources available for choice in NE A
include the external accessing clock PRC and the internal clock source. In line with principle 1,
NE A selects PRC automatically and delivers its synchronization quality degree information to
other NEs. The synchronization sources available for choice in NE B include the external A-B line
clock and A-D-C-B line clock. In line with principle 2, NE B selects A-B automatically and by the
same token NE D automatically selects A-D line clock as the synchronization source. NE C can
either select A-B-C line clock or A-D-C line clock. In Fig. 2-1-16 (a), NE C selects A-B-C line
clock. Each NE sends the “Unavailable” information to the upstream NE according to principle 3.

When the Line is disconnected: As shown in Fig. 2-1-16 (b), when the line between NE B
and NE C is cut off, NE C will select the A-D-C line clock and send the “Unavailable”
information to the upstream NE D.

Lack of external clock source: As shown in Fig. 2-1-16 (c), when the external clock source
connected to the NE A is interrupted, the NE A enters the clock holding mode, after which the
mode will be free-oscillation mode. In this case, various NEs are still synchronous with the NE A
and the clock source degrades as the Synchronous Equipment Timing Source (SETS) of the NE.

[Link] SSM function of a synchronous interface

The SSM function of the 2 Mbps synchronous interface is used to transport the PDH
synchronization message. SSM information is transmitted via one (what bit to be used depends on
the user) of idle bits San (n being 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8, and representing the 4th~8th bits in TS0 timeslot)
in TS0 timeslot of odd frames in G.704 multi-frame. Four odd frames are considered as a group
and one San bit in each odd frame forms four and a half bit bytes from San1 to San4, as shown in
Fig. 2-1-17. Then, they are used to define synchronization quality grades and both their bit
patterns and synchronization quality grades are defined as S1 byte in SDH is (please refer to Table
2-1-3).

San1，San2，San3、San4
（n=4，5，6，7，8）

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

Fig. 2-1-17 Diagram of Sa bit organization

2.1.7 Transmission Impairment

[Link] Characteristics of the error code

1. Concept of the error code

The so-called error code means that some bits of the digital stream encounter some errors
after the reception and regeneration so that quality of the transmitted information has been
impaired. Generally, long-term mean Bit Error Rate (BER) is used to evaluate the quality of
information transmission, that is, the ratio between the number of error bits and the total number
of transmitted bits within a specific period of observation time is considered as BER.

The influence of the error code on various services in mainly determined by service variety
and distribution of the error code. For example, in voice communication, the effect of random
error code is only the click of the receiver, whose influence on conversation quality can generally
be tolerated. However, information in data communication almost has no redundancy and the
whole block will be out-of-service if errors occur to one bit in a block. Besides, errors occurring to
a bit or multiple bit strings in a block may produce the same effects. Therefore, it can be
considered that voice communication can tolerate of random error code distribution while data
communication can tolerate burst error code distribution.

2. Generation and distribution of the error code

1) Internally generated error code

Error codes of this kind in the system includes those produced by various noise sources, those
resulting from location jitter, those produced by a multiplexer, cross-connection equipment and
exchange and those resulting from inter-symbol interference produced by optical fiber dispersion.
Error codes of this kind can be shown by long-time system error code performance.

2) Error codes generated by pulse interference

They are the error codes generated by burst pulses such as electromagnetic interference,
equipment failure and transient power interference, etc. Error codes of this kind are of burst nature
and occur on a large scale. When a great number of error codes occur in the system, the short-term
error code performance of the system will show this.

3. Specifications for error code performance

Currently, ITU-T specifies 3 high-bit-rate channel error code performance parameters:

1) Error code second ratio (ESR)

41
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

If there are one or more error blocks or at least one defect in one second, the second is
referred to as Erroneous Second (ES). Main network defects include LOS, LOF, LOP, alarm
indications of various levels, signal flag mismatch, etc. The ratio between the ES within a
specified period of measurement time and the total time used is called error code second ratio
(ESR).

2) Serious Error code second ratio (SESR)

If error blocks are more than 30% or at least one defect appears in one second, the second is
referred to as Severely Erroneous Second (SES). The ratio between the SES within a specified
period of measurement time and the total time used is called severity error code second ratio
(SESR). SESR are usually the burst error code block caused by pulse interference, so SESR
usually reflect the anti-interference capability of the equipment.

3) Background Block Error Rate (BBER)

The background block error (BBE) refers to the error blocks after deducting the unusable
time and the error blocks appearing in the SES period. The ratio between the BBE numbers and
total block numbers after deducting the unusable time and all the blocks during the SES period is
called the BBER. Because during the calculation the heavily burst error code that brought about
SES and unusable time, the value of this parameter can generally reflects the background error
code level of the system. The measured BBER can usually reflect the error code information
inside the equipment, which has something to do with the stability of the parts adopted in the
equipment.

The performance parameter of the error code is meaningful only when the path is in usable
status. In ITU-T standard, the “Unavailable” time is counted from the beginning time that 10 SES
events appear continuously, and this 10s is included in the “Unavailable” time. If 10 non-SES
events occur continuously, the “Unavailable” time is ended and the “Available” time begins,
which is counted from the beginning of this 10s.

[Link] Jittering characteristics

1. Definition and influence of jitter

The timed jittering (or jittering) refers to the short-time deviation of the digital signals at
specified time (such as the best sampling time) to the ideal time. The so-called short-time
deviation refers to the phase change whose frequency change is higher than 10 Hz, while the phase
change lower than 10 Hz is called wandering. The damage that the timed jittering may bring about
to the network performance lies in the following aspects:

1) For the digital coding analog signals, the random phase jittering of the digital stream after
decoding will make the resumed sampling values have irregular phase, as a result, the output
analog signals are distorted, and the so-called jittering noises are then generated.

2) In the regenerator, the irregularity of the timing makes the effective judge point deviate

42 42
 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

from the center of the reception eye-diagram so that the S/N ratio redundancy has been decreased
until error codes burst out.

In the SDH network, the network units like the synchronous multiplexer equipped with a
buffer, too large jittering may cause overflow or depletion of the buffer, and finally error codes are
generated.

The influence that the jittering has on different services: The voice signals with digital coding
can endure very great jitter and allow of root-mean-square jitter of up to 1.4 μs. However, because
human eyes are sensitive to phase changes, a color TV with digital coding can tolerate much less
jitter.

2. Generation of jitter

1) Jitter of line system

Jitter of a line system can generally be categorized as random jitter and systematic jitter. The
former is the non-correlated jitter component generated by each regenerator, and the latter refers to
the correlated jitter generated by each regenerator, which is usually related to the signal pattern, so
it is called the pattern-related jitter. Because the optical synchronization line system has no line
coding, and depends on simple scrambling codes, the pattern-related jittering will increase to some
extent so that accumulation of the systematic jittering will become faster.

 Random jittering source

Various noise sources: In the optical fiber cable system, there are avalanche noise, quanta
noise, knot noise, mode distribution noise and reflection noise, etc besides the generic heat noise.
Although these noises have different mechanisms, the outcome is to make the signal pulse wave
shape generate random aberration, and the output signal wave shape of the timed filter generates
parasitic phase modulation, and as a result, jittering is generated.

Detuned timing filter: When the timed filter is experiencing mistuning, anisomerous output
wave will be generated which is equivalent to modulation of anisomerous webbing leading to
modulation on the clock component and phase, in which phase modulation will generate timed
jittering.

Completely non-correlated pattern jitter: The pattern-related jitter is composed of two

orthogonal components, which are the completely correlated pattern jitter and completely non-
correlated pattern jitter. Compared with the normal random jittering, the latter one has different
mechanism. However, the accumulation rules are the same, so it can be included in this kind.

 Systematic jittering source

In an ideal regenerator, the signal pattern has no influence on the phase of the output timed
signals. However, a practical regenerator has always various deficiencies, which causes the phase
change of the timed signals and generates jittering.

43
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

Intersymbol interference: A few intercode interference is allowed in order to decrease the

equalizer cost. However, with the temperature change and the component aging, the inter-code
interference will increase so that random deviation of the output pulse peak value position is
generated after the signals go through the non-linear component, and timed jittering forms.

Action of limited pulse width: Because it is impossible that the pulse width can be infinitely
narrow, its frequency near the clock has a section of oblique continuous chart, whose gradient
varies with the change of the transmitted information content, this inclination will form phase
modulation towards timed signals, as a result, jittering is generated.

The threshold wandering of the amplitude limiter: The threshold of the amplitude limiter will
deviate with the temperature and the aging of components. When signals with different amplitudes
are added onto the amplitude limiter, different junctions will form to force the output pulse
position to change with the amplitude of the input signals. However, the amplitude of the input
signals is related with the pattern of the transmitted information, as a result, pattern related
jittering is generated.

Pattern effect of a laser: In the high bit-rate system, because the pulse repetition period
becomes short, the influence of the limited on-off time of the laser diode on the pattern of the
transmitted signals is swelling. The influence varies with the pattern of the transmitted signals ; as
a result, pattern related jittering is generated.

Conclusively, the jitter source and the physical mechanism are very complex in the optical
cable system. Currently, the root mean square (RMS) of a typical random regenerator is 0.5°~1.5°;
the root mean square (RMS) of a typical systematic regenerator is 0.5°～3.5°; the total root mean
square (RMS) is 1°~4° If 360° is 1 unit interval (1UI), then the RMS of a typical regenerator is
0.003UI~0.010UI.

2) Multiplexer jitter

The jittering mechanism of the multiplexer (including DXC) in the SDH network is greatly
different from that of the multiplexer in the traditional PDH. In the PDH multiplexer, the main
jittering comes from the insertion jittering inducted by the code speed adjustment. Because the
adjustment is performed by bit, it exerts minor influence on the system. In an SDH network,
tributary signals are synchronized by means of so-called pointer justification. That is,
increase/decrease in pointer value is used to adjust the phase change and frequency change of low-
speed tributary signals and this is conceptually very similar to traditional positive/zero/negative
justification. In the PDH network, the jittering frequency generated in the quasi-synchronous
multiplexing process is from decades Hertz to hundreds of Hertz, so jittering and floating power at
very low frequency is very small, which provides a relatively clean path for tracing and
controlling the phase change of the primary reference clock. However, in the SDH network,
because the pointer justification is performed by byte, each byte includes 8 bits, each byte
justification will generate 8UI phase abrupt change. For 140 Mbps tributary signals, the pointer
justification is performed by 3 bytes as unit; so one justification will generate 24UI abrupt phase
change. The digital with these abrupt phase changes will generate very long phase transition

44 44
 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

process when passing the band-limiting circuit. On the other hand, the pointer justification in the
SDH network that is in normal synchronous running status is mainly generated by the random
noises during the synchronization distribution process, so appearing time of the abrupt phase
change generated is not regular, which means that the time interval of the abrupt phase change has
no upper limit, and the whole phase justification time may be very long. So, integration of the
pointer justification with the network synchronization will generate jittering or wandering with
very low frequency on the boundary between the SDH and the non-SDH.

The output jittering of the multiplexer is closely related to whether the equipment is
synchronous and its synchronous mode. When in normal synchronous work, the output jittering
and wandering are determined by the filtering feature of the internal clock and the performance of
the synchronous timed basic reference. What should be worthy of special notice is that in a cross-
connection equipment and add/drop multiplexer, a high-frequency STM-N clock sometimes may
be obtained from a low-frequency one after frequency doubling. In this case, the jitter on the
original low-frequency clock will increase by the same times in linear mode, which is shown the
output jitter of STM-N, namely, so-called jitter multiplication. The jittering on the low-frequency
clock most probably takes place during the transition period from the active equipment to the
standby equipment and phase transient process will be generated at this moment and finally results
in clock timed jittering. The possible solutions include adoption of harmless conversion,
independent transmission of SDH synchronous timing and strict filtering the jittering clock, etc.

3) Quasi-synchronous tributary output jitter of SDH/non-SDH boundary

SDH is gradually developed from the original PDH network, on the boundary of the two
network systems, the original PDH system has clear specifications, after introduction of SDH,
quasi-synchronous tributary output jittering on the SDH/non-SDH boundary must also follow the
relevant specifications. Because some new jittering mechanisms have been introduced into SDH,
special measures should be taken to meet the above index.

 The mapping jittering of the quasi-synchronous tributary

The mapping jittering of the quasi-synchronous tributary is that when the input quasi-
synchronous tributary signals have no jittering or pointer justification, the terminal will output
jittering of the signals.

SDH adopts bit-inserting method to map the quasi-synchronous tributary signals into the
STM-1 frame structure and transmits them further. At the SDH gateway, you can get rid of the
insertion bit and path overheads to resume tributary signals. However, the resumed tributary
signals contain the generated space after the removal of the above bits. In order to smooth phases
of these signals that bear space and decrease jittering, usually buffer and phase-smoothing circuit
that is called the de-synchronizer are needed in the SDH, this is actually implemented by the phase
lock loop bearing buffers, certainly, the de-synchronizer can decrease other jittering from the de-
multiplexing process.

 Pointer justification jittering

45
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

The SDH network has two work modes, namely, the non-deterioration mode and the
deterioration mode. Under the non-deterioration mode (i.e. the normal work mode), the clocks of
all the network units will finally locked on the primary reference clock, there will be no pointer
justification in the ideal case, however, synchronous distribution process of noises is unavoidable,
so a little random pointer justification may still be generated. Under the deterioration mode, when
the source end or the terminal end of the SDH network loses the clock reference, the frequency
deviation of the clock is the main source of the pointer justification. No matter in which case, the
pointer justification process is finally reflected as the output jittering of the quasi-synchronous
tributary. Because pointer justification is achieved by the single byte or three bytes while mapping
is by the stuffed single bit, pointer justification will have much greater influence on phase jump.
And it is the main jitter source of SDH/non-SDH boundary and some measures must be taken to
suppress it.

3. Jitter performance

The usual parameters of the measurement jittering performance in the SDH network are
described as follows:

1) Tolerance of input jittering

The input jittering tolerance includes PDH input interface (tributary interface) and the STM-
N input interface (line interface) input jittering tolerance. For PDH input interface, the input
jittering tolerance refers to the maximum input jittering value on the input interface on condition
that the equipment does not generate any error code. To implement that the SDH network element
can transmit PDH services in the transmission network, the tributary input interface of this SDH
network element must accommodate the maximum jittering of the PDH tributary signals, which
means that the jittering tolerance of the tributary interface can tolerate the jittering of the
transmitted PDH signals.

The tolerance of input jitter at a line interface (STM-N) is defined as sine peak-peak jitter
value, which enables optical equipment to produce 1dB optical power penalty. This parameter is
used to specify that the tolerance of input jitter of an NE at this level should be able to contain the
output jitter of an NE at an upper level when SDH NEs are interconnected to receive any STM-N
signals.

2) Tolerance of output jittering

Similar to the input jitter tolerance, it also includes two types of output jitter tolerances of the
PDH tributary interface and STM-N line interface. It can be defined as the maximum signal
jittering on the output port when there are jittering on the equipment input end.

The output jittering of the PDH tributary interface of the SDH equipment should guarantee
that when the SDH network element is transmitting the PDH services, jittering of the output PDH
signals should be within the tolerance of the equipment that receives the signals; the output
jittering of the STM-N line port should guarantee that the opposite SDH network element that

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

receives the STM-N signals can bear.

3) Mapping jitter and combined jitter

Special SDH jittering will be generated due to the pointer justification and mappings on the
PDH/SDH network boundary. Mapping jittering and combined jittering is adopted to describe and
specify the jittering.

After inputting PHD signals with different frequency deviations at the PDH tributary port of
the SDH equipment, if the STM-N signals have not pointer justification, the maximum jittering of
the output PDH tributary signals on the PDH tributary port of the SDH equipment is the mapping
jittering.

After inputting the pointer testing signals in compliance with G.783 at the line port of the
SDH equipment, pointer justification takes place on the SDH equipment, then change the
frequency deviation of the input signals, now, the maximum jittering of the output PDH tributary
signals measured on the PDH tributary port of the equipment is the combined jittering.

4) Jittering transferring function---The jittering transferring characteristics

Jitter transfer function is defined as how the ratio between the jitter of equipment output
STM-N signals and that of equipment input STM-N signals vary with jitter frequency. This
characteristics aims at normalizing how the jitter of equipment output STM-N signals suppress
that of input STM-N signals (namely, jitter gains) to control jitter accumulation of a line system.

[Link] Wandering characteristics

Float is defined as the long-time deviation of the specified moment of the digital signals (For
example, the best sampling moment) to its ideal time. Here so-called long-term wander means the
phase change whose change frequency is lower than 10 Hz.

Wander causes both transmission signal bits and input signal bits to deviate from ideal time
locations and makes input signal bits unable to be recognized in a judgment circuit. In this case,
error code will occur. One way to reduce error code of this type is to add caches to the interface
between transmission lines and terminal equipment to synchronize data one more time. The
method is to write data into a cache by means of the clock extracted from receiving signals and
then perform read operations of the cache with a same reference clock so as to forcedly
synchronize various data streams of different phases. It is certain that in order not to overflow or
be vacant, the capacity of the cache must be greater than the maximum possible input peak-peak
wander, which is hard to achieve in practice. Therefore, in projects, a cache is generally required
to contain any possible change in transmission delay within one day. However, those large-scale
wanders with very low frequency are allowed to exceed the cache threshold, transform into slip
damage and become part of uncontrolled slip indices allowed in a network. It’s obvious that small
float can be absorbed by the buffer, while the floats with large amplitude will finally be converted
to slipping.

47
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

Influence of the slipping on various services is to great extent determined by the service
speed and the information redundancy. The higher the speed, the smaller the information
redundancy will be, and the greater influence that the slipping will have. The information
redundancy of the voice services is large, so the influence from slipping is small. The float
influence is similar to the pulse noise generated by error codes. The data signals can hardly have
much redundancy, so they are greatly influenced by the slipping. For example, for the grouped
data with fixed length, the slipping will cause out of multiframe in 64 kbps channel. Slipping may
also lead to out-of-frame in the free-of-error-control fax services, resulting in the bad deterioration
of image quality. For fax services with error control, one slip may cause the loss of two scanning
lines at most, which are automatically substituted with the previous two error-free scanning lines.
Thus, definition is slightly worsened. In the digital coding image services, slipping may lead to
“freezing” of images.

The most common cause for wandering is the change of ambient temperature, which may
lead to first the change in transmission characteristics of optical cables and then slow change of
transmission signal delay. Therefore, wander can be understood simply as slow change of signal
transmission delay and this transmission damage cannot be thoroughly solved by optical cable
system itself. In the optical synchronization line system, there is another float generated by
combination of the pointer justification and network synchronization, which can be lowered by
adopting some extra measures.

2.2 DWDM Principle

2.2.1 Development of the DWDM Technology

Communications services are growing every day, and various multiplexing technologies like
TDM, WDM and OTDM are developed in order to accommodate the expanding transmission
capacity of communications networks and meet the requirements for network interaction and
flexibility. These technologies have greatly enhanced the transmission efficiency of the
communications [Link], the DWDM technology has been developing extremely
rapidly since the mid-1990s. The DWDM system is extensively used in the optical cable trunks of
China and some provincial trunks. In the wake of worldwide state-of-the-art technologies and in
compliance with the market demand, ZTE actively launches a series of DWDM equipment.

The history of DWDM can be traced back to the invention of the laser. In 1960, Maiman
invented the first laser in the world, i.e. the ruby laser, a solid laser that was not applicable to the
optical fiber communication system. Nevertheless, it gave rise to the optical communication
technology and started a journey of hope. In 1966, [Link], a British Chinese, published a
historic article, which analyzed the primary cause of loss and suggested that it is possible to lower
the loss to 20 dB/km by removing the impurity in the glass. In 1970, Hayashi and several other
persons successfully developed a semiconductor laser that could continuously work in the room
temperature for only a few hours. In the same year, three researchers headed by Maurer in the
American Corning Company developed an optical fiber with the transmission loss of 20 dB/km

48 48
 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

for the first time, and the predictions of [Link] and other persons came true. It was because of
the advent of the room-temperature semiconductor laser and the low-loss optical fiber that the year
1970 was known as the “The First Year of Optical Communication”, and the technology
breakthrough of this year laid a good foundation for the fast development of future optical
communication technologies. In 1977, the room-temperature semiconductor laser gained an
operating life enabling it to continuously work up to tens of thousands of hours, about ten years.
Two years later, the optical fiber loss was further lowered to 0.2 dB/km, very close to the
theoretical boundary.

In 1977, a commercial optical fiber communication system was cut over for the first time
between Chicago and Santa Moniea of America, and 8,000 telephones could operate at the same
time (at a transmission rate of 45 Megabit/sec). In 1988, a transoceanic submarine optical fiber
cable (TAT-8) system was laid between America and Britain and France, with a span of 6,700 km,
thus entering the age of using optical fiber cable in the submarine communication system. In 1989,
a transpacific submarine optical fiber cable (with a span of 13,200 km) system was also
successfully constructed. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Doctor [Link] of AT&T Bellcore
enthusiastically advocated the DWDM technology. In 1985, the Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier
(EDFA) was first invented by the University of Southampton in England. In 1990, Pirelli
developed the first commercial EDFA. In 1995, the first set of commercial DWDM system was
applied in Florida of America. In 1997, China established the first DWDM trunk (Xi’an-Wuhan),
which is also the first DWDM transmission line constructed in the area outside of America. Up to
2000, the DWDM technology had been used globally and extensively, and it is forging ahead
toward the autumn and harvest.

In the past two decades, the optical fiber communication has developed beyond imagination,
and the optical communication network also becomes the basic platform of modern
communication networks. The optical fiber communication system has undergone several
development stages with rapid updating, from the PDH system in the late 1980s to the SDH
system in the mid-1990s, the recent DWDM system like a rising wind and scudding clouds, and
even the future intelligent optical network technology.

2.2.2 Basic Concept of the DWDM Technology

The WDM technology began with the optical fiber communication, and the dual wavelength
WDM (1,310/1,550 nm) system has been used in the American AT&T communication network
since the 1980s, with the rate of 2 × 1.7 Gbps. However, the WDM system had not developed
rapidly until the mid-1990s mainly because the TDM technology was quite sophisticated while the
WDM technology was restricted by the device development level. It was in the early 1990s that
the wave division multiplexer/demultiplexer and the optical amplifier became commercialized.
However, it was in the mid-1990s that the EDFA-based DWDM system of the 1,550 nm window
developed into the fast lane.

DWDM has been developed rapidly mainly owing to the following reasons: the rapid
development of photo-conducting devices, especially the sophisticated and commercialized

49
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

EDFA, makes it possible to employ the DWDM technology in the 1,550 nm window area; the
systems over TDM10 Gbps are challenged by electronic components and devices, and the TDM
mode is increasingly approaching to the boundary of the Si and GaAs technologies; and the high
dispersion of the 1,550 nm window, in which the G.652 optical fiber is laid, restricts transmission
of the systems over TDM10 Gbps, with increasing bad effects of the chromatic dispersion of the
optical fiber and the polarization mode dispersion. In the technological and economical point of
view, the DWDM technology is the most economically feasible means of capacity expansion
technology at present.

In brief, the DWDM technology is a technology to couple the different wavelengths bearing
different service signals near the 1,550 nm window into one optical fiber for transmission, then
demultiplex them at the receiving end and receive them respectively. In terms of the current
technology development level, the DWDM technology can be regarded as a “virtual optical fiber”
technology.

Seen from the development of optical fiber communication, all the technologies applied are
closely related with the optical fiber. As a frequency division multiplexing technology practiced
on the optical fiber, DWDM is more inseparably related with the optical fiber. The current
DWDM system is a multi-wavelength multiplexing technology practiced in the 1,550 nm
window, therefore it is necessary to discuss the optical fiber features, especially the optical fiber
bandwidth, loss, dispersion as well as its nonlinear effects before an in-depth discussion on the
DWDM technology.

[Link] Basic features of the optical fiber

Loss and bandwidth of the optical fiber

Most optical fibers used in the modern optical communication are silica single mode ones.
Without considering the optical communication device factors, the applicable bandwidth of the
optical fiber generally depends on the optical fiber loss. Usually, the single mode fiber has three
low-loss windows: 850 nm, 1,310 nm and 1,550 nm, and usually the last two are used. The
typical values of most international commercial optical fibers in the two windows are: 0.3 ~ 0.4
dB/km of attenuation in the 1,310 nm window, and 0.19 ~ 0.25 dB/km of attenuation in the 1,550
nm window. The silica single mode fiber has an OH- absorption peak in the 1380 nm, with great
loss. Recently, LUCENT launched the ALLWAVE optical fiber without the OH- absorption peak,
making the whole band more flat. CORNING also launched the METROCOR optical fiber,
which has very low loss at the OH- absorption peak. Theoretically, the DWDM technology can
use the single mode fiber with a bandwidth up to 200 nm, i.e., 25 THz bandwidth. In this way,
the DWDM system of more than 200 wavelengths can be put into service theoretically if
calculated with a wavelength interval of 0.8 nm (100 GHz), therefore, the current fiber
bandwidth is far under utilization. The DWDM technology sufficiently avails itself of this
bandwidth; meanwhile the broad bandwidth and low loss features of the optical fiber offer a
more capacious development stage for application and development of the DWDM system.

Optical fiber dispersion

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

Optical fiber dispersion will result in spreading the optical pulse, thus generating intersymbol
interference. In the system point of view, the optical fiber dispersion is in direct proportion to the
optical fiber length, that is, it is accumulative. Therefore, in design of the optical communication
system, there is a transmission distance restriction decided by optical fiber dispersion.

Besides, optical fiber dispersion is combined with some fiber nonlinear effects such as self
phase modulation and cross phase modulation, and it will transform the optical pulse phase
variation incurred by these nonlinear effects into intensity variation, thus deteriorating the signal
quality after transmission. Under some conditions, however, the existence of certain optical fiber
dispersion is favorable and can suppress some nonlinear effects such as the four wave mixing
effect.

The originally developed silica single mode fiber is a normal single mode one, that is, the
G.652 optical fiber, with its zero dispersion point at 1,310 nm and about 17 ps/[Link] of
dispersion in the 1,550 nm window used by the DWDM technology. The G.652 optical fiber is the
one used in China most widely at present. For the DWDM technology, the great dispersion of
G.652 optical fiber at 1,550 nm limits the current-free transmission distance, which is particularly
obvious when the single channel transmission rate is high. Then follows the G.655 optical fiber,
i.e. the non zero dispersion shifted fiber. The zero dispersion point of G.655 optical fiber is near
the point of 1,550 nm, and this fiber has a little dispersion (usually 1 ~ 6 ps/[Link]) in the DWDM
window of 1,550 nm, greatly reducing restriction of the dispersion restricted districted
transmission distance on the current-off relay distance. In addition, the existence of a little
dispersion can lessen influence of the nonlinear effects such as the four wave mixing effect on the
system performance. The major manufacturers of the G.655 optical fiber are LUCENT and
CORNING, whose non-zero dispersion shifted fibers represent two different genres. The
TRUEWAVE optical fiber (LUCENT) has a small dispersion slope, applicable to the currently
used C-band window of 1,530 ~ 1,565 nm as well as the future L-band window of 1,570 ~ 1,610
nm. The LEAF optical fiber (CORNING) has a large dispersion slope, and it costs much for
dispersion compensation at L-band. It is designed in view of the severe influence of nonlinear
effects when the signal is transmitted in the optical fiber for a long distance due to the small fiber
core area and small dispersion of the G.655 optical fiber. Therefore, the LEAF optical fiber is
mainly advantageous in its large effective fiber core area and small nonlinear coefficient as well as
good suppression on the hazard nonlinear effects. Currently, both the LEAF optical fiber and the
TRUEWAVE optical fiber are prevailing products on the G.655 optical fiber market. Other G.655
optical fiber manufacturers include ALCATEL, PIRELLI and SUMITOMO.

Nonlinear effects of the optical fiber

As a big question for discussion, the nonlinear effects of the optical fiber are only briefly
described in this article due to limited space. The DWDM technology mainly features application
of the high-power optical fiber amplifier, and some nonlinear features occurring in the high optical
power condition become the factor that restricts the transmission system performance. Generally,
the nonlinear effects of the optical fiber consist of the following types:

1. Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)

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The origination of SRS concerns molecular vibration in the optical fiber materials. When two
or more wavelength channels, with Stokes frequency as the frequency interval, are input into the
optical fiber for transmission, the short wavelength channel will transfer the energy into the long
one. Consequently, it is the short wavelength channel that generates large signal attenuation and
incurs channel interference, thus limiting the number of multiplexing channels.

SRS is related with the number of wavelength channels, single channel power and
wavelength interval.

2. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)

SBS is related with phonon vibration. The SBS peak gain is two orders greater than that of
SRS, and the gain bandwidth (less than 100 MHz) of SBS is much smaller than that of SRS (about
15 THz). In addition, SBS only appears in the backscattering direction.

SBS can be regarded as the single channel effect, which is irreverent of the number of
channels in the system. The narrower the channel line width is, the lower the SBS threshold value
is.

Self Phase Modulation (SPM)

The nonlinear phenomena that the optical fiber refractive index varies with the optical
intensity is called the Kerr effect. For the single wavelength channel, the front/back phase of the
optical pulse is modulated in intensity, hence the spectrum will be spread, and the time domain
pulse will be spread when combined with the optical fiber dispersion. SPM is accumulated with
the optical fiber length, which is the basic nonlinear damage of the DWDM system.

Cross Phase Modulation (XPM)

In the multi-wavelength channel system, Kerr effect enables the phase of the signal in certain
channel to be modulated by signals in other channels, which is called XPM, resulting in inter-
channel crosstalk consequently.

3. Four Wave Mixing (FWM)

The FWM effect is the major nonlinear damage of the DWDM system. When multiple
optical waves of certain intensity are mixed in the fiber, the nonlinear effect among different
wavelength channels will result in new wavelength, energy transfer among different wavelength
channels, and crosstalk interference.

The FWM effect is related with the parameters such as channel interval, number of channels
and optical fiber dispersion.

Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

PMD is resulted from the random double refraction of the fiber. In the time domain, it
spreads the pulse waveform and generates intersymbol interference due to different group delay

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

between different states of polarization. PMD originates from the ellipticity of the fiber core,
internal stress, external stress, etc.

Thanks to improvement on the production technology, the newly produced optical fiber has a
small PMD value, which usually can be ignored for the optical communication system of low rate
(below 10 Gbps) while is an important restriction factor for the communication system of high rate
and must be carefully treated.

[Link] Optical fiber amplifier

The low-loss optical fiber and long-life room temperature semiconductor laser start the optical
communication industry; the emergence and development of EDFA overcomes restriction on the
high-speed and long-distance transmission, which is an important milestone in the optical
communication development history; while the gain flattening high-power EDFA laid the
foundation of the DWDM system.

The basic principle of EDFA is simple:

When the high-power pumping source is input into the erbium-doped optical fiber, erbium
ions are formed in the population inversion distribution. Then if there are optical signals of 1550
nm wavelength enter the erbium fiber with population inversion to generate stimulated radiation,
the high-level particles will return to the low level and release photons the same as incident
wavelength, thus forming optical amplification.

Mentioned above, the bandwidth used for the optical fiber is very broad, and the bandwidth
actually used for the optical fiber in the DWDM system is mainly restricted by the gain flattening
bandwidth of the optical fiber amplifier. The gain flattening bandwidth of the current commercial
EDFA is about 1,530 nm ~ 1,565 nm, which is called the C-band optical fiber amplifier, and the
EDFA that is to be commercialized with a gain bandwidth of 1,570 nm ~ 1,610 nm is called the L-
band optical fiber amplifier.

The constantly increasing multiplexing wavelengths demand higher and higher output power
and small noise figure for the fiber amplifier in view of the system performance.

2.2.3 Technical Features of the DWDM Technology

1. Tremendous bandwidth resources of the optical fibers can be put into full use. For example, by
adopting DWDM technique the transmission capacity of the same optical fiber increased by
tens or even hundreds times as compared with that in the single-wavelength transmission.

2. A large amount of optical fibers can be saved in the case of large-capacity and long-distance
transmission. The optical fiber exhaustion phenomenon can also be relieved effectively. With
the WDM technology, expansion can be made easily without much modification to the original
system.

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Chapter 2 Basic Principle

3. As the wavelengths of the signals transmitted in one optical fiber are independent of each other,
the signals with completely different features can be transmitted to implement multiplexing and
demultiplexing of various teleservice signals, including digital signals and analog signals, and
PDH signals and SDH signals.

4. The WDM channel is transparent in terms of the data format, that is, it has nothing to do with
the signal rate and the electrical modulation. A DWDM system may bear the “service” signals
in many formats, such as SDH, ATM, IP or other signals that may come forth in the future. For
the “service” layer signal, each wavelength of the WDM is like a "virtual" optical fiber.

5. In the network expansion and development, the DWDM technology provides not only an ideal
measure for expansion but also a convenient way of introducing new bandwidth services (such
as CATV, HDTV and B-ISDN), which enables us to introduce any desired new services or
increase the capacity only by adding an extra wavelength.

6. The WDM technology is employed for routing to implement network switching and recovery,
thus making it possible to develop a transparent and highly survivable optical network in the
future.

7. In the case of long-distance electrical relay-free transmission, the application of EDFA can
reduce a great number of SDH repeaters in the long-distance trunk system and thereby lower
the cost. The longer the distance is, the more the cost is saved.

At the end of this section is how to distinguish the DWDM system and the WDM system.
WDM and DWDM employ the same technology but are different terms of the WDM system in
different development periods. Both are closely related to the development history of the WDM
technology. At the beginning of the 1980s when the optical fiber communications just debuted,
people came to and applied the idea that the two low-loss windows, i.e., 1,310 nm and 1,550 nm
windows, each transmitted one line of optical wavelength signal. For a long time, people kept the
idea that the WDM system was a system with a wavelength interval of tens of nm, such as the
system of 1,310 nm / 1,550 nm wavelengths, whose interval was more than 200 nm. This is
because it was impossible to implement the wavelength interval of only several “nm” in the
condition then. With the commercial use of the EDFA in the 1,550 nm window, the WDM system
enters a new application era. As the interval is narrow (usually less than 1.6 nm) between the
adjacent wavelengths in this kind of WDM system, and the wavelengths working in the same
window share one EDFA, this kind of WDM system featured by more dense wavelengths is
termed as Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) system, in order to be distinguished
from the traditional WDM system. At present, some still feel like terming the DWDM system as
the WDM system. In essence, DWDM is only a form of WDM, and the former is not clearly and
definitely defined, while the latter is a general term. Generally, unless the 1,310 nm / 1,550 nm
WDM system is specially specified, the WDM system people talk about is the DWDM system.

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2.2.4 Key Technologies of DWDM

In the DWDM technology, the optical waves are taken as the carriers of the signals, and the optical
carriers of the signals stipulated with different wavelengths are multiplexed with the wavelength
division multiplexer at the transmitting end into one optical fiber for transmission. Then these
optical carriers of different wavelengths and bearing different signals are demultiplexed with a
wavelength division demultiplexer at the receiving end. The wavelengths to be multiplexed vary
with the wavelength division multiplexer.

The optoelectronic devices in the DWDM system mainly include the laser, wavelength
division multiplexer and fiber amplifier.

[Link] Laser
The DWDM system is featured most importantly by different wavelengths used for each system,
with the usual wavelength interval of 100 GHz or 200 GHz, which raises high requirements on the
laser. Other than the accurate working wavelength, the wavelength deviation should remain within
certain range during the whole life, so as to avoid interference of different wavelengths. That is,
the laser must work in the standard wavelength as well as with good stability.

On the other hand, the current-free regenerative relay distance of the DWDM system is
greatly prolonged thanks to the optical amplifier. Every 80 km ~ 120 km in the DWDM system
there is an EDFA capable of amplification only, without shaping and timing functions. The
unfavorable influence resulted from line dispersion and refraction cannot be effectively
eliminated. The system performs optoelectronic regeneration after 500 ~ 600 km of transmission,
which demands much prolonged dispersion restricted distance of the optical source, and this raises
much higher requirements on the optical source. Generally, the optical source applied on the
DWDM system is prominently featured in two aspects: (1) Large dispersion tolerance value, (2)
Standard and stable wavelength. In order to obtain large dispersion tolerance as well as standard
and stable wavelength, the optical source of the DWDM system employs two technologies:
external modulation technology and wavelength stabilization technology.

1. External modulation technology

In the case of direct modulation, the chirp noise incurred by the single longitudinal laser has
become the major factor that restricts the transmission distance, and the maximum dispersion
restricted distance is around 120 km for transmission of 2.5 Gbps on the G.652 optical fiber.
Theoretically, it is difficult to eliminate the chirp noise resulted form the direct modulation.

In the case of external modulation, which is different from direct modulation, the high-speed
electrical signals will no more modulate the laser directly. Instead, they are loaded on a certain
medium. Through the physical features of this medium, the optical wave features of the passed
laser signals will change, so as to indirectly establish the modulation relationship between the
electrical signals and the laser. With external modulation, the laser unit generates stable high-
power laser, and the external modulator will modulate it in low chirp, so as to obtain a dispersion
restricted distance much longer than that in the case of direct modulation. At present, there are

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Chapter 2 Basic Principle

mainly two types of modulators in use: electroabsorption external modulator and waveguide
lithium niobate Mach-Zehnder modulator.

1) Electroabsorption external modulator (EML laser)

The electroabsorption external modulator is a kind of intensity modulator, also the first type
of mass-produced InGaAsP optoelectronic integrated device. It integrates the laser and the
modulator on one chip. The laser band of the EML laser chip works in the constant power or the
continuous wave (CW) mode. The input signals are added to the modulator. Therefore, the
modulator functions like a switch to let in the light or to block it. This makes the chirp noise very
low for the generated signals, and the signals can be transmitted for a long distance on the
standard optical fibers with little distortion. The typical EML laser supports the distance over 600
km.

The electroabsorption external modulator is small and well integrated, which is its most
outstanding advantage. In addition, the products of most companies employ this type of external
modulator in the existing DWDM land system in virtue of its low slaving voltage and power
consumption.

2) Mach-Zehnder external modulator

The waveguide Mach-Zehnder external modulator is another kind of intensity modulator. It

consists of a separate single longitudinal mode DFB laser and an external modulator. The laser
also works in the CW state. In the applied modulation electric field, the refractive index of
waveguide changes due to the good electro-optic effect of LiNbO3, and the optical intensity
through the waveguide changes correspondingly, thus implementing amplitude modulation of the
light output by the waveguide. Theoretically, the chirp parameter of Mach-Zehnder modulator can
be zero, which means the modulator has a very high modulation rate, almost without restriction of
fiber dispersion. The modulation line width is very narrow and the extinction ratio is high. The
disadvantage is that the polarization maintaining fiber must be used in order to connect the laser
and the modulator, for the modulator is related with the polarization state.

In addition, the recently emerging Ⅲ-V modulator is positive-negative controllable with its
chirp, and it has been widely commercialized for it is easy to employ the pre-chirp technology in
the 10 Gbps DWDM system.

2. Wavelength stabilization technology

An important feature of the DWDM system is that all the signals input at the optical
wavelength division multiplexer are optical signals with the fixed wavelength, the signal
wavelength varies with the channel, and the carrier deviation is strictly regulated. Great
wavelength deviation between two adjacent channels will incur noisy crosstalk, thus generating bit
error. By the current technology, the easiest way is to stabilize the laser temperature and ensure the
bias current. But this method cannot solve the problem of wavelength change due to laser aging
and temperature change. More strict wavelength control technology must be used if the

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wavelength demands high precision.

[Link] Wavelength division multiplexing device

The wavelength division multiplexing device is an important part of the wavelength division
multiplexing system. An optical multiplexer is a device that combines the signals of different
optical source wavelengths to be output via one transmission optical fiber, whereas an optical
demultiplexer is a device that demultiplexes the multi-wavelength signals sent from the same
transmission optical fiber into individual wavelengths to be output separately.

The DWDM devices can be manufactured in multiple ways, and those that have been widely
commercialized fall into four types: the grating type of device, the interference filter, the melted
twin-cone type of wavelength division multiplexer, and the arrayed waveguide grating type of
device. They will be introduced respectively as follows.

1. The grating type of wavelength division multiplexer

The grating type of wavelength division multiplexer is an angular dispersion type of device.
When the incident light is exposed onto the grating, the optical signals of different wavelengths
will exit in different angles due to the angular dispersion effect of the grating, then they will be
converged to different output optical fibers via the optical lens, and the wavelength will be
selected as desired.

Generally, the grating type of WDM device is featured by excellent wavelength selection
performance, which can narrow the wavelength interval to several “nm” or even around 0.51 nm.
The grating device works in a parallel mode, and the insertion loss will not increase with the
increasing multiplexing channels. It can multiplex 32 ~ 131 wavelengths but demands unusual
attention to temperature stability, therefore, it is necessary to take the temperature control
measures.

Recently, great importance has been attached to the optical fiber grating. With flat in-band
frequency response, high out-band suppression ratio and low insertion loss, the optical fiber
grating has a very stable performance. The temperature coefficient at 1,560 nm is 0.0l nm/℃, and
the out-band suppression ratio can reach up to 50 dB. The band pass filter and band stop filter with
very small channel interval can be manufactured in virtue of the ideal filtering performance,
convenience in design and manufacturing as well as high efficiency, etc.

2. The dielectric thin film (DTF) filter type of wavelength division multiplexer

The DTF interference filter combines tens of layers of dielectric films of different materials,
different refractive indexes and different thickness as designed. Each layer is 1/4 wavelength in
thickness. The high refractive index layer and the low refractive index layer are overlapped by
turns. When the light enters a high refractive index layer, the reflected light has no phase shift.
When the light enters a low refractive index layer, the reflected light undergoes a phase shift of
180°. As the layer thickness is 1/4 wavelength (90°), the light reflected through the low refractive
index layer undergoes a phase shift of 360°, then co-phases and overlaps with the reflected light

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through the high refractive index layer. In this way, the reflected light of various layers near the
central wavelength overlaps and forms very strong reflected light in the front face of the filter.
Outside the high reflecting area, the reflected light suddenly steps down, and most of it becomes
transmitted light. Hereby, it emerges a passband within certain wavelength range while a stopband
within other wavelength ranges, thus forming the desired filtering performance. Such an
interference filter featured by the specific wavelength selection performance can serve to
demultiplex or multiplex different wavelengths.

The DTF interference filter type of DWDM device is most advantageous in that the design
hardly concerns the applied optical fiber parameters, making it possible to develop the
miniaturized device with flat signal passband independent of polarization, as well as with low
insertion loss and good temperature property below 0.00l nm / ℃, but there will not be so many
channels. Currently, most of the demultiplexers in the DWDM system under 16 waves employ the
DTF interference filter type of wavelength division multiplexing device.

3. The melted twin-cone type of wavelength division multiplexer

The melted twin-cone type of optical fiber coupler is formed by stretching multiple optical
fibers into a conical shape under the hot melting condition, then slightly twisting and melting them
together. As the fiber cores of different optical fibers are very close to one another, a desired
coupled power can be obtained by coupling the elapsed waves of the cone area. It is easy to
manufacture the DWDM device in mass production; therefore it is more widely used.

The melting cone DWDM device is featured by low insertion loss, dispensing with the
wavelength selector, as well as good optical channel bandwidth/channel interval ratio and
temperature stability. Its shortcomings are the large size and poor channel isolation (about 20 dB),
and it is usually used as a multiplexer in the dense wavelength division multiplexing system under
16 waves.

4. The arrayed waveguide type of DWDM device

The arrayed waveguide type of DWDM device is a slab guide type of device based on the
optical integration technology, and it possesses the potential advantages of all slab guide
technologies, such as mass production advantage, good repeatability, small size, capability of
implementing complex optical channels during the optical masking process as well as easy
alignment with the optical fiber. Therefore, it is an advanced DWDM device technology. AWG is
a waveguide array, and the difference between two adjacent waveguide lengths is a constant. The
wavelength division multiplexer is formed by integrating the AWG, input/output waveguide and
two slab guides on a supporting base. The center of curvature at the edge of the slab guide is on
the center of the relative edge, and all ports of respective waveguides on AWG point to the center
of curvature of the slab guide. The arrayed waveguide ports are distributed on one circle, with the
center of circle at the end of the center input waveguide. Such a structure is identical with that of
the concave lens.

Operating principle: The composite light entering from the optical fiber enters one of the

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input waveguides, then is diffracted via the slab guide, and the waves are coupled into the arrayed
waveguide grating in the same phase. The arrayed waveguides are separated from one another, and
the light is independently propagated in multiple waveguides, and then converged at the end of the
second slab guide after it passes the AWG. Phase difference is obtained at the waveguide exit due
to the length difference of the adjacent arrayed waveguides, and such a phase shift will result in
inclination of wave front in the second slab guide. As the phase shift scale is related with the
wavelength, the convergence location will depend on the input optical wavelength, and the light
input to DWDM will be decomposed to the corresponding output waveguides. The arrayed
waveguide grating is widely used in the DWDM system over 32 waves.

[Link] Optical amplifier

So far, people have researched and developed three types of optical amplifiers: semiconductor
laser amplifier, nonlinear optical fiber Raman amplifier, and rare-earth-doped fiber amplifier. The
rare-earth-doped fiber amplifier mainly includes the EDFA and the Praseodymium-Doped Fiber
Amplifier (PDFA). EDFA is suitable for amplification of the optical signals in the long wavelength
1,550 nm window, while PDFA is suitable for the optical signals in the 1,310 nm window. EDFA
has reached the utility level and is used in the DWDM system. PDFA is not up to the commercial
level yet. The Semiconductor Laser Amplifier (SOA) is featured by good integration, but the big
noise of the amplifier is a problem that demands urgent resolution. The optical fiber Raman
amplifier has a wide application prospect in the high rate system and submarine communication
system.

In the DWDM system, the optical amplifiers fall into three types based on the positions they
are used: the optical amplifier that amplifies signals behind the wavelength division multiplexer at
the transmitting side, i.e. the power amplifier; the optical amplifier on the line, i.e. the line
amplifier; and the optical amplifier before the demultiplexer at the receiving side, i.e. the
preamplifier.

1. Basic principles of the optical amplifier

A typical EDFA consists of the erbium-doped optical fiber, the pumping source and the
wavelength division multiplexer. The erbium-doped optical fiber is only for amplification, the
pumping source provides strong enough pumping power, and the wavelength division multiplexer
mixes the signals and the pump light.

EDFA amplifies the optical signals of the 1,550 nm band via stimulated radiation of the
erbium-doped ion (ER3+) in the laser pumping silica fiber. With the gain flattening technology,
the available band can be made as broad as 1,530 nm ~ 1,565 nm usually, called the C-band.
Meanwhile, the EDFA band can be further spread to 1,570 nm ~ 1,610 nm, called the L-band.
EDFA is featured by “transparent transmission”, with the signal amplification independent of the
signal code rate and the signal format, and the signal light of various wavelengths is amplified at
the same time.

The erbium-doped optical fiber has two pumping sources: the 980 nm type and the 1,480 nm

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type. The 1,480 nm pumping source can obtain high pumping efficiency and high output power.
While the 980 nm pumping source has low noise figure. In actual application of the line amplifier,
the single pumping amplifier usually employs the 980 nm pumping source. A high power
amplifier usually employs more than two levels of pumping, 980 nm pumping source for the first
level and 1,480 nm or 980 nm pumping source for the second level, improving the noise figure as
well as increasing the output power.

2. Gain flatness of EDFA

The unflat wavelength feature of EDFA results in the gain difference of different
wavelengths. In the multi-wavelength cascade EDFA system, the Amplified Self-Emission (ASE)
noise within the signal band is accumulated in each EDFA, and the accumulated ASE noise will
bring phase noise to the signals due to Kerr effect, thus spreading the signal spectrum. If there are
many EDFA cascades, the gain curve of the multistage EDFA will become very unflat, the
optional gain area will narrow, and the gain of different wavelength signals will be out of balance,
thus demanding equalization measures.

To solve the gain equalization problem, first flatten the gain spectrum. Generally, the methods
fall into the filter type and the intrinsic type. The filter type of method is to insert a passive filter in
EDFA, so as to lower the gain peak of 1,530 nm, or to design a special optical filter whose
transmission spectrum is opposite to the gain spectrum of the erbium-doped optical fiber, so as to
scrapple the gain spectrum. However, due to the complicated structure technology and high,
additional losses, the output power is correspondingly affected. The intrinsic type of method is to
employ the high-alumina-doped optical fiber or the fluoride optical fiber. This method is most
advantageous in that it is unnecessary to manufacture and apply added devices. The alumina-
doped optical fiber can expand the amplification spectrum range of the amplifier. However, the
incompatibility between the fluoride optical fiber and the silica optical fiber materials incurs many
troubles in the amplifier technology and reliability. At present, the two methods are usually used at
the same time.

3. Gain equalization technology of EDFA

The gain equalization of EDFA is an important problem. The DWDM system is a multi-
wavelength working system. When the signals of some wavelengths are lost, their energy will be
transferred to the existing signals due to the gain competition, so as to improve the power of other
wavelengths. At the receiving end, the sudden increase in level will result in bit errors. Besides, if
31 of the 32 wavelengths are lost in the case of limit, all power will be centralized to one
wavelength, and the power will reach around +20 dBm, which bringing strong nonlinearity or
receiver overload as well as bit errors.

There are many gain control technologies of EDFA, and the typical one is to control the
pumping source gain. The observation circuit inside EDFA controls output of the pumping source
by monitors the input power/output power ratio. If some signals of the input wavelength are lost,
the input power will decrease, and the output power/input power ratio will increase. It lowers the
output power of the pumping source via the feedback circuit, and the (output/input) gain remains

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unchanged, so as to lower the total output power of EDFA and keep the output signal level stable.

In addition, there is a method applying the saturated wavelength. At the transmitting end,
besides the working wavelength, the system will transmit another wavelength as the saturated
wavelength. Normally, the output power of this wavelength is very low. If some signals on the line
are lost, the output power of the saturated wavelength will automatically increase, so as to
compensate energy of the lost signals of various wavelengths, thus keeping constant EDFA output
power and gain. When the multi-wavelength signals on the line are recovered, the output power of
the saturated wavelength will correspondingly lower. This method directly controls output of the
saturated wavelength laser, and it is quicker than controlling the pumping source.

[Link] Configurable OADM

Officially launched in 1998, the ZXWM-32 project of ZTE is almost completed with the R&D
work as scheduled in June 1999, and it has been granted with the network access license of the
Ministry of Information Industry and that of the State General Administration for Radio, Film and
Television. When the ZXWM-32 project was launched, OADM was taken into consideration, and
the fixed wavelength Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer (OADM) was accepted by ZTE during
improvement of the project. The rapid development of both market and technology is beyond
imagination, and this trend is witnessed by the National 863 communication field expert group as
well as ZTE, and the launch of China High-Speed Information Demonstration Network
(CAINONET) speeds up the development of OADM and the all-optical network. ZTE has
associated with Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications (BUPT) and successfully
applied for the OADM research project of CAINONET.

It is widely known that the all-optical communication network is the hotspot and forward
position in the current optical fiber communication field due to its broadband, high capacity, as
well as reconstructing capability, expandability, transparency, compatibility, integrity and
survivability. Sufficiently absorbing the research findings of the modern photon communication
technology and network technology, it presents a cost-effective solution for the future high-speed
broadband communication network. The developed countries compete for research of it with
tremendous investment human resources and material resources, setting off a great upsurge
internationally in the all-optical communication network research. However, OADM can
selectively add or drop a certain wavelength or some from the DWDM transmission equipment,
without affecting transmission of other wavelength channels, and meanwhile it is capable of
network protection. That is to say, in the optical domain, OADM fulfills the functions of the
traditional electrical SDH add/drop multiplexer in the time domain, overcoming the electronic
bottleneck problem of the node in the traditional network meanwhile, and it is one of the key
technologies for all-optical communication. The current technical conditions suffice for the fixed
and controllable single/multi-wavelength OADM.

So far, ZTE has successfully developed the configurable OADM equipment.

The following features the configurable OADM equipment of ZTE:

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OADM node performance:

It can configure the add/drop waves 1-8 and further expand the number of configurable
wavelengths.

It has power gain and is capable of power equalization.

It can provide the network fault monitoring and protection switching equipment.

It can provide relevant equipment for network element management and network
management.

It provides the order wire channel, and corresponding local test interface.

It provides the interface of network management channel protection route.

It provides the add wavelength repeater, the drop wavelength repeater and add/drop assigned
equipment (optional).

It provides online upgrade function for the board software.

It provides the node channel monitoring function.

It implements the APR function.

The node equipment can be upgraded.

OADM network management system (NMS)

The OADM NMS develops and improves the original ZXWM-NMS system, with its design
in compliance with the standards and recommendations of SDH, OTN and TMN. It ensures
complete downward compatibility of the system, meanwhile fully considers the future version
expansion requirement of the system. It stresses the tailorability, transportability, reliability and
utility of the network management software.

OADM-NMS is capable of the standard management functions of the network element layer,
network element management layer, and some network management layers of the ITU-T TMN
recommendations.

The management at each layer has perfect functions such as fault (maintenance)
management, configuration management, performance management, security management and
system management.

The focus of the system is at the network element management layer.

Multiple network management platforms: It supports portable/desktop PC/workstation,

Windows95, WindowsNT, UNIX operating systems, and multiple relation database systems.

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Friendly user interfaces: It provides graphic operating interfaces, and perfect help system as
well as report generating and printing.

Good expandability, reliability and security.

Real-time performance.

OADM networking technology (including link, OADM ring and the future OXC looping).

Analysis and diagnosis of the system performance.

Network self-healing and protection switching.

2.2.5 DWDM NMS

[Link] Relationship between DWDM and SDH NMS

Both SDH and DWDM are technologies based on a physical medium, i.e. the optical fiber, which
serves as the transmission means. However, there is an essential distinction between the two.
DWDM is a system more approaching to the physical medium layer (optical fiber and optical
cable), and it is multiplexed in the optical domain, in the point-to-point application mode at
present, and it will form an “optical transport network” with additional OXC and OADM in the
future. Whereas SDH is an “optical synchronous transport network” technology implemented at
the circuit layer, and it presents a full set of international standards for the transport network,
specifying the multiplexing method and describing the networking principles. Compared with the
DWDM technology, the SDH signals, like the PDH and ATM signals, are only the services that the
DWDM system bears. That is to say, the relationship between SDH and DWDM is that between
the client layer and the service layer.

At present, almost all signals borne in the client layer of the DWDM system are SDH signals,
i.e. the signals of N (8, 16, 32) × 2.5 Gbps (10 Gbps) SDH system, which does not mean the
DWDM system can only bear SDH signals. The most important feature of the DWDM system is
that it is independent of the service, i.e., transparent to the service. It can bear the signals of
various formats, including standard SDH signals as well as any other unrestricted digital signals or
analog signals. Therefore, the NMS of DWDM should be separated from the NMS of the
transmitted signals. The NMS of the DWDM system is independent of network management of its
bearer system, and for the current trunk project, it is the NMS independent of SDH. The NMS of
the DWDM system only serves to manage the optical line system, including the wavelength
division multiplexer, optical amplifier, supervision channel, etc. SDH NMS is responsible for
configuration management, fault management and performance management of the equipment
such as ADM and repeater, without involving the optical transmission system.

In addition, the DWDM system is a part of the future optical network. With rapid
development of the optical network, there will be more and more overheads and network
management information, and the NMS will increasingly become huge. To adapt to the huge

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Chapter 2 Basic Principle

optical network system in the future, now it is necessary to set up an independent DWDM NMS,
which shall be parallel to the SDH network layer management system, taking into consideration
the relationship of the two NMSs at a higher level.

[Link] DWDM NMS configuration

Leastwise, the current DWDM system should be set with its own EM management system layer. It
should be capable of managing EDFA, wavelength division multiplexer, wavelength transformer
(OUT) and supervision channel, as well as management of performance, fault, configuration and
security of the equipment. For configuration of the EM management system in the DWDM
system, each DWDM optical multiplex section (i.e. the SDH regenerator section) can be set with
an EM management system, or several adjacent optical multiplex sections can share one EM
management system.

If the manufacturer can provide both the SDH equipment and the DWDM system, and if the
DWDM network element and the SDH network element have the same Q interface, SDH and
DWDM can employ the same EM management system. At present, some manufacturers use the
same NMS for their own SDH and DWDM products, so as to manage them on one NM platform.
However, it should be noted that the DWDM NMS must be capable of separation and independent
running as well as bearing the SDH systems of other manufacturers.

At present, the physical centralized maintenance and management method is available for the
NMS of SDH and DWDM. That is, the network management platforms of SDH and DWDM are
established in one equipment room for convenient fault handling. When a fault occurs, there will
be a problem of how to divide responsibilities of DWDM and SDH systems. Usually, the DWDM
NMS serves to monitor the end-to-end wavelength route, optical cable and optical signal quality,
without involving the signal format of the service layer. SDH NMS is responsible for performance
monitoring of the end-to-end VC-4 and VC-12 channels as well as alarm related with the SDH
equipment.

[Link] EM management system

The EM management system manages the network elements in the authorized area, and it provides
part of the network management function. All the network elements of the managed network
should be managed on one management software/hardware platform. It should be able to monitor
the managed area network on the user window interface of the workstation, and to display the
whole managed network topology structure. Through the man-machine interface in the WIMP
(window icon, menu, and cursor), the EM management system should be able to monitor and
control each network element in the whole managed network, with the alarm and event records
tracking to each circuit board of the WDM system.

At the transmitting end and the receiving end, besides the EDFA and Optical Supervision
Channel (OSC), the network elements also include the wavelength division
multiplexer/demultiplexer, and they also should be controlled under the network element level
management of the DWDM system. In this way, the network element management boundary is
clearly divided between the SDH system and the DWDM system, one for the SDH system

64 64
 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

terminal equipment and the other for the DWDM line system equipment.

The network elements of the DWDM system are interconnected via the DCC channel in the
OSC for transfer of the supervision network management information. The OSC works in the
1,510 nm wavelength at the rate of 2 Mbps. In the 2 Mbps frame structure, the DCC data link
similar to the D1 ~ D12 of the SDH system is specified, dedicated for transmission of the network
management information of the DWDM system. Therefore, the DCC channel in the OSC is the
physical bearer layer of the DWDM network management information. In addition, two bytes are
defined in the 2 Mbps frame structure to bear the order wire telephones between the EDFA relay
stations, thus solving the problem to contact the EDFA line amplifier station.

The EM management system should be provided with the Q interface and the Q3/CORBA
interface at the same time. EM is connected with the network element via the Q interface, and it is
connected with the upper level management system via the Q3/CORBA interface.

[Link] Management functions of the EM management system

The DWDM EM management system includes the management functions of fault management,
performance management, configuration management and security management.

1) Fault management

Fault management is to diagnose, locate, isolate, and correct the faults of the transmission
system as well as to test the path.

Alarm function

The EM management system supports the following alarm functions:

It can identify all faults via the internal diagnosis program and locate them to the board. It
can report all alarm signals and the recorded details such as the time, source, property and alarm
level. It should provide visual and audible alarm indication, and it should be easy to view and
make statistics of the alarm history records. It can set the fault severity level and the laser life pre-
alarm.

In the DWDM system, the alarm parameters under supervision of the fault management
include:

A. OTU

Deficit or overload value of the laser output optical power

Loss of the input signal (LOS)

Transmitter deterioration

Laser transmitting failure

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Chapter 2 Basic Principle

Alarm of the laser life

Alarm of the modulator output optical power (when the LiNbO3 modulator is used)

Excessively high or low optical input signal level

B. Optical amplifier

Loss of the input multiplex signal

Loss of the input single wavelength

Excessively high bias current of the pumping laser

Excessively high temperature of the pumping laser

Monitoring failure

C. Receiving unit ODU

Loss of the input multiplex wavelength signal

Loss of single wavelength

Alarm of the demultiplexer temperature control (for temperature-sensitive demultiplexer

device)

D. OSC

Laser transmitting failure

Loss of the optical signal

Loss of the optical signal frame

E. External event alarm management function (e.g. the door-open alarm and fire alarm of the
unattended relay station).

2) Performance management

The basic parameters that must be monitored in fault management are also the parameters
that must be monitored in performance management. In addition, performance management has
the following management functions: Automatically collecting and analyzing the bit error
performance parameters of OSC, and sending them in an ASCII code file to the external storage
equipment. Monitoring the performance of all terminal points at the same time. Setting the
performance monitoring threshold at the same time (e.g. the pumping source power and the laser
bias current). Storing and reporting two types of performance event data (15 min and 24 h) of the
supervision channel. Reporting two types of performance monitoring data (“current” and “recent”

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

data)

3) Configuration management

Network element configuration: Initialization setting of the network element (including the
composition NEs). Establishing and modifying the network topology map. Configuring the NE
status, NE status and control. The actual network configuration should be completed on the NE
management system screen in the graphic mode as requested by the user. Currently, the point-to-
point DWDM system does not have so many configuration functions, and the wavelength is added
or dropped in the back-to-back mode via the multiplexer/demultiplexer. It is incapable of direct
wavelength adding/dropping and cross-connect, and the configuration function is weak. With
introduction of OADM and OXC, the configuration function will be greatly enhanced.

4) Security management

Security management provides the following management functions: operation level and
authority division, user logging management, the password management, operation record,
security check, (e.g. password verification), security alarm. The unauthorized user cannot access
to the management system, and the user with restricted authority can only access to the
corresponding authorized part.

5) Local maintenance terminal LCT

The local maintenance terminal LCT provides the local maintenance capability for the
supplied equipment, and the management capability accords with the management functions of the
NEs in the four items. The DWDM terminal station without EM management system can be
equipped with the LCT for normal test and maintenance of the DWDM system.

6) Data channel protection of the network element system

It is important to protect the DWDM system in view of its large bearing capacity. If the OSC
in a certain optical fiber section is disconnected in both direction (e.g. both optical fibers in the
optical fiber section are disconnected), the EM management system will not be able to obtain the
supervision information of the network element, and the NMS can not perform configuration and
real-time performance monitoring on the whole DWDM system. To avoid such a severe aftermath,
the DWDM system must be capable of protecting the OSC, and it is necessary to protect the data
channel of the EM management system.

Usually, the DCC channel in the OSC bears the NM information. In addition, the two
terminal stations of the DWDM system also provide the data channel network (DCN) of the
protection route in the DCC channel. DCN can be X.25, IP or data leased line. Usually the IP or
data leased line is used as the protection route of DCC at present. In this way, the EM management
system set at the terminal station of the DWDM system can access any NE in the line system via
DCN and the DCC in OSC, even if both optical fibers in the line are disconnected.

DWDM NMS is the greatest challenge to the DWDM system and the optical network.

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Chapter 2 Basic Principle

Without access of the electrical signals, it will be difficult for the operator to assess the signal
quality and the system transmission performance, and a technology awaits further development to
add overheads and optical signal processing in the optical domain. Before a DWDM NMS with
perfect functions comes forth, the DWDM system cannot be called a sophisticated optical
transmission system.

So far, the NMSs of the DWDM systems of various manufacturers are not so perfect, with a
great deal of difference between the functions. To a great extent, this is due to lack of definite and
unified specifications for TTU-T. In addition, it is because of the “elementary stage” of the
DWDM system development. With the recommendations of ITU-T “optical networking” growing
to maturity and with development of the optical overhead processing technology, the NMS of the
DWDM system is sure to be gradually perfected.

2.2.6 Design Philosophy of the DWDM System

In design of the DWDM system, the following factors should be taken into consideration:
dispersion, PMD restriction, system optical signal-noise ratio, influence of the nonlinear effect,
etc. The influence of the PMD can be ignored in this project of 322.5 Gbps DWDM system.

[Link] Dispersion restricted distance

Optical fiber dispersion is one of the causes to generate waveform distortion after optical fiber
transmission. Due to different transmission rates in the optical fiber, the different frequency
components or modes of the optical signals will arrive at the terminal of the optical fiber at
different time, thus generating waveform distortion. In manifestation of this distortion, when a
pulse signal is transmitted, the optical pulse will become wider and wider with extension of the
transmission distance.

For the dispersion restricted object transmission distance near the 1,550 nm wavelength in the
DWDM system, the dispersion of the G.652 optical fiber per kilometer is 20 ps / ([Link]), then
the dispersion restricted distance is theoretically calculated as follows:

Dispersion restricted distance = Dispersion tolerance / Dispersion coefficient

[Link] OSNR, BER and Q values

For the DWDM system, the optical signal-noise ratio is the major index to reflect the system
performance. The optical signal-noise ratio of each channel in the system is specified as follows:

OSNR = Pout – 10 logM – L (G) + 58 dBm - NF- 10 logN

Pout is the total incoming optical fiber power, M is the number of channels, L is the line loss,
NF is the EDFA noise figure, and N is the number of optical regenerator sections. The above
formula is mainly used in the DWDM system with uniformly spaced amplifier cascade.

To accurately calculate the optical signal-noise ratio of the DWDM system with multilevel

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

optical amplifiers, use the following formula:


 1 

OSNR  POUT _ 1  10 Log h 0   10 log10 0.1NFi (Gi  1)  

 i 1 j  i 1 G j 1 L j 


where POUT_1 is the single channel output optical power (dBm) of the first level of EDFA,
Gi

Lj
is the gain of the i level of EDFA, is the line attenuation between the j-1 level of EDFA output

and the j level of EDFA input,  o is the bandwidth of the optical filter, h is the Planck’s

constant,  is the optical frequency, and NFi is the noise figure index (dB) of the i level of
EDFA.

However, the above formula is heavy and complicated for calculation in project design. In
actual project configuration, the optical fiber amplifier compensates loss of the previous optical
fiber section, and a simplified formula can be used for calculation.

The major parameters for calculation are as follows:

OSNR [dB]: optical signal-noise ratio (dB value), defined as OSNR [dB] = PSIG (dBm) –
PASE (dBm)

P (dBm): optical power, dBm value

PSIG (dBm): signal optical power, dBm value

PASE (dBm): noise optical power, dBm value

P: optical power, truth value

PSIG: signal optical power, truth value

PASE: noise optical power, truth value

NF [dB]: noise figure, defined as NF = OSNRIN [dB] – OSNROUT [dB]. OSNRIN [dB] and
OSNROUT [dB] respectively refer to the signal-noise ratio of the input and output signal of the
amplifier.

NF: noise figure, defined as NF = OSNRIN / OSNROUT. OSNRIN and OSNROUT

respectively refer to the signal-noise ratio of the input and output signal of the amplifier, and both
are truth values (multiple values).

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Chapter 2 Basic Principle

G: optical amplifier gain, multiple value

G [dB]: optical amplifier gain, dB value

L: optical fiber loss, multiple values

L [dB]: optical fiber loss, dB value

The dB value and the multiple values have the following relationship:

G = 10 log (10 G [dB] / 10)

The following schematic diagram shows the DWDM system with the optical fiber amplifier:

G1 PASE(1) L1 G2 L2 G3 L3 Gn PASE(1)'

When all the line amplifiers compensate loss of the previous optical fiber section,

OSNR [dB] = Pout [dBm] - 10 logM + 58 dBm – 10 log (10NF1/10G1 + 10NFk + 1/10L
(k) + 10NFn/10L (n-1))

(k=1n-2)

10NFn/10L (n-1) represents influence of the pre-amplifier on the system signal-noise ratio,
NF1 is the noise figure of the power amplifier, NFn is the noise figure of the pre-amplifier, NF2 ~
NFn-2 are the noise figures of the line amplifiers. Judging from this formula, there is fine
distinction between the system signal-noise ratios for the multihop line in the two transmission
directions.

For the ZXWM-32 system of ZTE, the power amplifier and the line amplifier have the same
noise figure, which is 5.5 dB. To further simplify the calculation method, assume the noise figure
of the pre-amplifier (5 dB for ZTE) is the same as those of the power amplifier and the line
amplifier (both 5.5 dB for ZTE), i.e. 5.5 dB for all. Such a change hardly affects the calculation
result, and the signal-noise ratio obtained will be slightly lower (0.X dB lower) than the accurate
calculation value, which completely suffices for the project design. In actual project, the line
amplifier gain should completely compensate loss of the previous optical fiber section, and the
specific formula is as follows:

OSNR [dB] = Pout [dBm] – 10 logM + 58 dBm – NF [dB] – 10 log (G1 + L (i))

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

(i=1n-1)

Pout [dBm] is the total output power of the first EDFA (power amplifier), M is the number of
channels, L is the loss of the optical fiber section, NF [dB] is the EDFA noise figure, G1 is the gain
of the power amplifier, and L is the sum of various fiber sections loss (linear value).

Usually, high quality signal transmission demands an optical signal-noise ratio (OSNR) up to
20 at the receiving end and the system signal-noise ratio up to 20 dB at the receiving end. In this
project, all the multiplex sections have the signal-noise ratios higher than 20 dB, and the
exceptional multiples sections not up to this standard can be compensated with the out-band FEC
technology.

Relationships among the Q value, BER and OSNR:

Assume that the electrical noise in the receiver is mainly from the beat noise between the
signal and ASE, and the relationships among OSNR, BER and Q value are as follows:

S1 Bo
Q  OSNR
N1 Be
Q2 OSNR*Bo
1  1 
BER  e 2
 e 2 Be

2 Q Bo
2 * OSNR
Be

The corresponding Q value and BER value can be deduced from the OSNR value.

[Link] Out-band FEC

For the OUT supporting out-band FEC, the rate is increased by 15/14 times, i.e. an increase of 7%.

The out-band FEC employs the (255, 239) Reed-Solomon code for the coding mode, i.e.
RS(255,239) code, in compliance with the G.975 specifications of ITU-T. Reed-Solomon code is a
kind of non-binary code, a linear cyclic code in the block coding mode, and the generating
functions of the RS code are as follows:

15

G( z)   z   i 
i 0

 is the root of the binary primitive polynomial x8  x4  x3  x2  1, each data byte (d7, d6,

71
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

..., d1, d0) is defined as an 8-bit code element d7  7  d6  6    d1  1  d0 in the GF

(256) of the 28 Galois domain, and there are 256 code elements of this kind in the GF (256)
domain. It must be emphasized that Reed-Solomon code is a kind of block coding mode, and each
block is 255 bytes long. Both coding and decoding are based on such a block. For the RS
(255,239) code, there are 238 information bytes in each block of 255 bytes long. With the added
redundancy bytes, 8 bytes of error code elements can be corrected. In this way, the line rate will be
increased by 255/238, i.e. 15/14 times after coding. For the STM-16 system, the out-band FEC
rate is increased from 2.488320 Gbps to 2.6660571 Gbps, and for the STM-64 system, the rate is
increased from 9.953280 Gbps to 10.6642286 Gbps.

As the out-band FEC is the block-based code, synchronous bytes of the FEC frame must be
used to define the boundary of each block. The following diagram shows the FEC frame structure,
where Column 1 is the FEC frame synchronous bytes, Columns 2 ~ 239 are information bytes, and
Columns 240 ~ 255 are additional redundancy bytes. To be downward compatible with the future
digital encapsulation technology, the FEC frame synchronous bytes of the out-band FEC of ZTE
can be flexibly set with shorter length, and the OAM information of these bytes can be used.

subframe length = 255 bits

MSB subframe 1
subframe 2
subframe 3
Data byte
subframe 4
from FEC encoder #1
subframe 5
subframe 6
subframe 7
LSB subframe 8
subframe 9
COLUMN 1

COLUMN 255
COLUMN 240

MSB

Data byte
from FEC encoder #n

LSB subframe 8  n

FEC 8 n 8 n + 1 16  n 1912  n 1920  n 2040  n

1
frame
column 1 column 2 column 239 column 240 column 255
FRAMING
STRUCTURE STM-16 DATA REDUNDANT DATA

T1520680-96
n Number of interleaved codecs

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

The following diagram shows the improvement on BER with the RS (255, 239) out-band
FEC:

Briefly listed in the following table are several types of BER before and after the out-band
FEC decoding:

BER before decoding BER after decoding

10-4 5*10-15

10-5 6.3*10-24

10-6 6.4*10-33

[Link] Considerations of the nonlinear effects

The nonlinear effects in the optical fiber mainly include scattering effects (SRS and SBS),
refractive index effects (FWM, SPM and XPM), etc. Generation of most of these effects is related
with the optical power input to the optical fiber. Presented below is discussion of the effect of each
factor on the system performance.

◆ SRS effect

SRS is generated by molecular vibration of the materials in the optical fiber. Molecular
vibration modulates the incident intensity, with the generation interval exactly equal to the

73
Chapter 2 Basic Principle

sidebands of molecular vibration frequency. The sidebands are capable of mutually transferring
the energy, thus causing optical wave distortion and attenuation. The threshold power generated is
about 1W, therefore, this effect does not cause a problem for the single channel 10 Gbps or 2.5
Gbps DWDM system.

◆ SBS effect

Though the threshold power is only several milliwatts with narrow linewidth and continuous
wave, it can be raised by one order of magnitude if the linewidth of the optical source is
adequately expanded, thus the influence can be ignored. In fact, with the integrated
electroabsorption modulator, the residual reflection of the optical source can raise this threshold
over 50 mW.

◆ FWM effect

FWM effect rapidly diminishes with increase of the effective area of the optical fiber as well
as dispersion, dispersion slope and the channel interval. It has been proved in theory and
experiment that there will not be remarkable FWM with the G.652 and G.655 optical fibers.

◆ SPM effect

In the positive dispersion area of the G.652 and G.655 optical fibers, SPM will compress the
optical pulse width. Opposite to the dispersion spread pulse effect, SPM can be used to
compensate it to a certain degree.

◆ XPM effect

XPM also will spread the signal spectrum, and its effect is related with the dispersion
coefficient, channel interval and the optical power of the near channels. Analysis shows that for
the 5 mW optical power per channel in the G.652 optical power, a channel interval of 100 GHz is
enough to suppress the XPM effect. Therefore, XPM can be ignored for the transmission system
of the 6*22 dB G.652 optical fiber. While for the transmission system of the G.655 optical fiber,
the dispersion compensation optical fiber can be added to a proper position of the system, so as to
reduce the XPM effect.

[Link] Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) restriction

The PMD of the optical fiber was seldom considered in construction of the optical communication
system before because it has little effect on the low rate system. PMD is generated by the random
double refraction of the optical fiber. That is, the refractive index of the optical fiber varies with
the polarization state, thus bringing different phase shift. In manifestation on the time domain, the
group delay varies with the polarization state, finally spreading the optical pulse waveform. The
generation mechanism is due to the fiber core ellipticity, asymmetric mechanic thermal stress,
external bending and twisting generated during the manufacturing process. For the 10 Gbps
DWDM system, the PMD restricted distance satisfies the following formula:

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 Chapter 2 Basic Principle

B2 * PMD2 * L < 104

Assume 0.4-ps/ km1/2 for the optical fiber PMD, and about 10,000 km for the PMD
restricted distance of the corresponding 32/402.5 Gbps DWDM system, and it can be seen that
the PMD effect can be ignored for the single channel 2.5 Gbps DWDM system. For the single
channel 10 Gbps DWDM system, the average delay of DGD should be lower than 10 ps as
stipulated in the ITU-T (see Appendix I of G.691 for the detailed description). The DGD delay
calculation formula is as follows:

The DGD value of a single optical fiber section

DGD (ps) = PMD × L1/2

As the DGD value of the dispersion compensation fiber (DCF) varies with the compensation
rate, the DGD value of the whole system is calculated as follows:

Average DGD (ps) of the optical multiplex section = [Σ (PMD2 × L + DGDDCM2)] 1/2

2.2.7 New Development of the DWDM Technology

It cannot be foreseen yet whether the ETDM method is feasible for the system over 40 Gbps due
to the microelectronic technique limit. The 4 × 40 Gbps system with the OTDM method will
probably be launched earlier than the 160 Gbps system with the ETDM method. However, it can
well be imagined how difficult it will be for realization as the single wavelength bit rate is so high
that it will raise strict requirements on PMD and compensation of the dispersion slope. At present
and even within a period in the future, it is the DWDM technology that should be employed to
improve the transmission capacity, making it feasible and expandable.

With the advent of the DWDM technology, a new era comes forth for increase of the
transmission capacity. In 1997, the 8 × 2.5 Gbps system was just launched, while in 1999 the 16 ×
10 Gbps system entered the trunk project. The 32 × 10 Gbps or 40 × 10 Gbps systems will be
extensively popularized in 2000, and application of the 160 × 10 Gbps system will be included in
the agenda in 2001. It takes only five to six years to develop the total capacity from the Gbps level
to the Tbps level.

As well as increasing the basic rate, the capacity of the DWDM system can be increased
mainly by adding the number of the multiplex wavelengths. This depends on narrowing the
wavelength interval. For example, if the interval is narrowed from 100 GHz to 50 GHz, the
wavelengths arranged in the gain bandwidth 35.2 nm of EDFA can be increased from 40 to 80.
However, the dense wavelength interval will raise strict requirements on the wavelength stability
of the optical source and the filter bandwidth. Another way to increase the multiplex wavelengths
is to develop more available wavelengths. Besides the normal EDFA wavelength band (i.e. C-
band), the EDFA currently working in the L-band can be commercialized. Research on the S-band
has started, while there is lack of unanimous standards for the ranges of C-band, L-band and S-
band. The approximate ranges are as follows: C-band: 1,530 ~ 1,565 nm; L-band: l,570 ~ 1,610

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Chapter 2 Basic Principle

nm; and S-band: 1,460 ~ 1,490 nm. S-band cannot be commercialized yet for the sophisticated
performance and price of the Raman amplifier.

Important development has been achieved in recent years in terms of extending the
regenerator section distance of the DWDM system. It is reported that the 64 × 10 Gbps system
links of the American Corvis Company consist of 32 EDFAs in cascade connection, with the
amplifier interval of 100 km, and the non-generative transmission distance can be up to 3,200 km.
The American Qtera Company has completed the 2,400 km non-generative transmission test, and
the key to the long generator section distance is dispersion compensation, gain equalization and
nonlinearity control. It is said that the DCF is not used in the long distance test by some
companies, whereas an amplifier with gain equalization and dispersion compensation is installed
every three ordinary EDFAs (e.g., the advanced EDFA and Raman amplifier).

Like the SDH system, which has ring and mesh network application as well as point-to-point
linear application, the high-capacity DWDM system presents itself in the linear, ring, and mesh
network topological structures as required in application. The optical network mainly consists of
the OADM and the optical cross-connect equipment OXC, both of which work on the basis of
wavelength adding and dropping. The current technology does not suffice for the all-optical
wavelength transformation, without satisfactory application flexibility and reasonable allocation of
the wavelength resources. However, with the wavelength adding/dropping function leastwise it
can form the all-optical self-healing ring and survivable optical network. SDH falls into two-fiber
ring and four-fiber ring. In terms of implementation options, there are path rings (unidirectional
and bidirectional) and multiplex section rings. It can also be divided into dedicated protection ring
and shared protection ring. In principle, OADM can also form the rings of multiple types listed
above. Most of those tested and tried are optical dedicated path protection rings, and there are also
subnetwork connection protection rings.

For all the similarities between the SDH ring and the DWDM optical ring, some problems
must be pointed out in organizing the DWDM ring. The optical ring responds to the line fault by
reselecting the path, and the new path differs from the normal path in length, configuration, etc..
This involves the optical channel power budge as well as dispersion penalty and compensation. In
organizing the ring, any normal path and the corresponding protection path should suffice for the
optical power budge and dispersion management, and if necessary, PMD compensation and
nonlinear control are required. In addition, to organize an optical ring similar to the multiplex
section shared ring, it will be difficult to complete self-healing protection if there is no wavelength
transformation function because it is difficult to avoid wavelength conflict when selecting the
path.

For an optical network, its configuration and performance monitoring are very important for
network running. Such monitoring must be performed respectively at the SDH channel layer,
multiplex section layer, regenerator section layer, optical path layer, optical multiplex section,
optical transmission layer, etc., so as to detect performance of each layer in time and mediating the
protection switching measures of different layers. Therefore, ITU-T intensifies research on the
layered structure of the optical transport network and normalizes the necessary functions for each

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layer.

At the optical path layer, the NM message needs a dedicated transmission channel (similar to
the DCC in SDH). It has been researched with the pilot tone modulation method to form a
supervision channel, which, however, has limited bandwidths and a short generative distance with
shallow modulation, whereas the effect on the main channel SNR cannot be ignored. Therefore,
the bullish supervision channel employs the digital encapsulation mode for transmission. That is,
use the electricity time division multiplexing method to add enough overhead bits based on the
optical channel signal payload, so as to form a digital encapsulation frame, whose overhead can
provide the NM supervision channel and the order wire communication channel, as well as the
out-band FEC capability.

As mentioned above, SDH can improve the bit error performance by about 2 dB with the in-
band FEC. For more improvement, it must employ the out-band FEC at the same time. For non-
SDH payload, the out-band FEC is more necessary for the high-bit-rate optical system as it is
impossible to employ the in-band FEC plan of C.707 recommendations without the SDH frame.
The out-band PEC was previously used only in the submarine optical fiber cable system. For
example, with a penalty of 6% of bit rate increase, the FEC of RS (255, 239) code stipulated in the
G.975 recommendations can improve the OSNR performance by 2.3-7.3 dB according to the
complexity of the decoder in the case of bit errors in poisson distribution. The bit rate of the
terrestrial system has risen to 10 Gbps and it will soon reach 40 Gbps. Despite the complexity,
FEC can gain improvement of several “dB” or extend the regenerator section distance by about 30
km. Therefore, many companies use the out-band FEC if the terrestrial trunks they develop
employ high-bit-rate systems.

To sum up in the technology development point of view, the DWDM technology is still in the
initial stage, and it is developing in the networking direction at the system networking level in
addition to its constant development to high rate, large capacity and long distance. The market
grows more and more extensive along with development of the DWDM technology from
backbone network to metropolitan area network. It is hoped that, with your cooperation, the
DWDM products of ZTE will be developed to a new stage.

Summary
SDH part

1. The advantages of SDH: (1) It unifies the European and North American systems at the rate
over 155M; (2) It specifies the standard optical interface; (3) It employs the synchronous
multiplexing mode, making the multiplexing and mapping more flexible; (4) It has abundant
overhead bytes and provides perfect NM functions.

2. The rate levels of SDH: 155 M, 622 M, 2,500 M, 10 G, and 40 G.

3. The frame format of SDH mainly consists of three parts: payload, administration unit pointer
and overhead.

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4. The SDH multiplexed structure mainly includes the following processing sectors: various
containers (C)  various virtual containers (VC)  various tributary units (TU)  various
administration units (AU).

5. The NEs of SDH fall into four types: TM, ADM, REG, and DXC.

6. Topological structure types of the SDH network: chain network, star network, ring network, and
mixed network.

7. Protection mechanisms of the SDH network: network self-healing ring switching, including
path switching and multiplex section switching, and path protection and subnetwork
connection protection.

Wavelength division part

1. The WDM technology began with the optical fiber communication, and the dual wavelength
WDM (1,310 / 1,550 nm) system has been used in the American AT&T communication
network since the 1980s, with the rate of 2×1.7 Gbps. Compared with the SDH technology,
however, the DWDM technology is still in the developing stage.

2. What are closely related with the wavelength division technology are basic features of the
optical fiber, including its loss and bandwidth, dispersion, nonlinear effect and PMD, etc.. The
low-loss optical fiber and long-life room temperature semiconductor laser start the optical
communication industry. The emergence and development of EDFA overcomes the restriction
on the high-speed long distance transmission, which is an important milestone in the optical
communication development history, while the gain flattening high-power EDFA laid the
foundation of the DWDM system, making it possible to widely use the wavelength division
technology.

3. With distinct technological features such as high rate, large capacity and long-distance
transmitting capability, the DWDM technology becomes the best approach to solve the
problem of optical fiber resources in short supply.

4. Key technologies of DWDM: laser external modulation technology and wavelength

stabilization technology, multiple wavelength division multiplexer technologies such as the
grating type, DTF filter type, melted twin-cone type and arrayed waveguide grating type, and
EDFA technology.

5. The DWDM NMS is capable of managing EDFA, wavelength division multiplexer, wavelength
transducer (OTU) and supervision channel on one platform in terms of management of the
performance, fault, configuration and security of the equipment.

6. In design of the DWDM system, the following factors should be taken into consideration:
dispersion, PMD restriction, system OSNR, nonlinear effect, etc.

7. The DWDM technology is developing in the networking direction at the system networking

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level in addition to its constant development to high rate, large capacity and long distance.
Along with development of the DWDM technology from backbone network to metropolitan
area network, its advantage and utility will gain more and more attention.

Exercises

Select and fill in the blanks:

1. Please select the correct answer for the composition of the frame of SDH. ___

A. MSOH, RSOH, AU-PTR [Link], AU-PTR, Information Payload

C. MSOH, AU-PTR, Information Payload

D. RSOH, AU-PTR, Information Payload

2. Which bytes are used to perform the APS command of the multiplexing section? ___

A. K1 B.K2 C.K1 and K2 D.K3 and K4

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3 Which bytes are used to perform the error code monitoring function of the multiplexing section?
___

A B1 B.B2 C.B3

4. How many numbers of the 2 Mbps traffic in the STM-1 signal? __

A. 21 B. 32 C.63 D. 64

5. Which kind of the multiplexing method is used in SDH?__

A Byte interleaving multiplex B. Bit interleaving multiplex

C Byte interleaving multiplex and Bit interleaving multiplex

6. The function of the front four bits of the S1 byte is __

A. Transmitting the information payload

B. Monitoring the fault

C. Avoiding the timing loop

D. Cooperating with the AU-PTR

7. The function of the AU-PTR is __

A. To indicate the position of the first byte of the information payload.

B. Additional bytes used for the transmission of information payload.

C. Additional bytes used for the network management system.

D. Administrating the path overhead.

8. Which bytes are used for the NMS (Network management system) of SDH system produced by
the ZTE? __

A. D1-D3 B.D4-D12 C.D1-D3 and D4-D12

9. Which SDH systems can implement the adding/dropping traffic functions? __

A. TM B. ADM C. REG D. Both A and B

10. Which kinds of the cross-direction we can implement? __

A. Uni-direction B. Bi-direction C. Broadcast D. Above all

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11. The corresponding rate of the STM-64 is__

A. 2.5 G B. 622 M C. 10 G D. 155 M

12. Which synchronization clock modes are supported by our system?__

A. Synchronous mode B. Holdover mode

C. Free oscillation D. Above all

1. What is the difference between the 2 MHz signal and the 2 Mbps signal?

Answer: The 2 MHz signal is analog, while the 2 Mbps signal is digital and can record the
route information.

2. Is there any difference between the input signal and the output signal in the tributary re-timing
circuit?

Answer: Yes, there is. The output signal is more precise than the input signal.

[Link] should there be not more than 16 nodes on the multiplexing section protection ring?

Answer: Because the APS protocol employs the 4 bit of K1 byte as the node number, there
should not be more than 16 nodes on the ring.

4. What is the wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) technology? What are WDM, DWDM
and OFDM?

Answer: The WDM technology is a kind of technology by which the multi-wavelength optical
signals are transmitted in one optical fiber at the same time. The basic principle is that it
combines (multiplexes) the optical signals of different wavelengths at the transmitting end, then
couples them into the same optical fiber on the optical cable line for transmission; then it
divides (demultiplexes) the optical signals of the combined wavelengths at the receiving end,
and makes further processing, so as to restore the original signals and send them to different
terminals.

WDM----Wavelength-division Multiplexing

DWDM---Dense Wavelength-division Multiplexing

OFDM---Optical Frequency-division Multiplexing

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Chapter 3 ZTE Optical Transport Network

Solution

Objectives
SDH optical transport network is virtually the means of transmitting digital information at a given
bit rate. The key parameters and specifications of the devices and the line media are closely related
to the transmission quality of information. This chapter discusses the design idea of ZTE
transmission equipment and various technological means to overcome line faults under different
transmission media.

Introduction

Transmission media is in a progression of constant discovery and optimization. Single mode-

optical fiber is currently the most widely used. In the design of regular synchronous optical fiber
line, factors such as transmitting optical power, receiving sensitivity, overload point, line code
pattern, working wavelength need to be taken into consideration; and there are different
requirements for related devices, modules, equipment and networking modes. Generally speaking,
there are different optimum parameter combinations for the applications under different rates.

For the purpose of networking flexibility and economical benefits, SDH equipment should be
carefully and reasonably standardized. ZTE has excellent design in this regard. In the following
chapters and sections, more details will be introduced.

3.1 Devices and Components

3.1.1 Series ASIC

[Link] SDH Part

Tributary mapping chip

Overhead processing chip

Multiplexing and demultiplexing chip

Cross-connect chip

[Link] MTP
Data encapsulation chip: link access procedure based on SDH (LAPS), Generic Framing
Procedure (GFP)

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Ethernet L2 switching chip

Resilient Packet Ring (RPR)-related chip.

3.1.2 Optical Module

[Link] SDH Series

1. 155 Mbps-622 Mbps optical module

2. 2.5 Gbps optical module

3. 10 Gbps optical module

[Link] DWDM Series

4. 155 Mbps-622 Mbps optical module

5. 2.5 Gbps optical module

6. 10 Gbps optical module

7. 10GE optical module

3.1.3 Other Optical Devices

8. Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier

9. Raman Amplifier

3.2 Product Series

3.2.1 SDH Series

Overall trademark Trademark Product name

Unitrans ZXSM-10 Intelligent PCM products
Unitrans ZXSM-150/600 (V2) Compact SDH 155M/622M products
Unitrans ZXSM-150/600/2500 Standard SDH 2.5G products
Unitrans ZXSM-2500 (V10.0) Enhanced SDH 2.5G products
Compact SDH 2.5G products (under
Unitrans ZXSM-2500 (V11.0)
development)
Unitrans ZXSM-10G Standard SDH 10G products

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3.2.2 DWDM Series

Overall trademark Trademark Product name

Unitrans ZXWM-32 Standard 32×2.5G DWDM products
Enhanced 32×2.5G/10G products
Unitrans ZXWM-32 (V2)
compatible with DWDM
Unitrans ZXWM-E160 Standard 160×10G DWDM products
Unitrans ZXOADM Standard OADM products

3.2.3 MAN Multi-Service Transport Product Series

Overall trademark Trademark Product name

MAN 64 kb/s, N×64 kb/s private line
Unitrans ZXMP-S310
access products
MAN compact 155M/622M MSTP
Unitrans ZXMP-S320
products
MAN compact 2.5G MSTP products
Unitrans ZXMP-S330
(under development)
Unitrans ZXMP-S360 MAN standard 2.5G MSTP products
Unitrans ZXMP-S380 MAN enhanced 2.5G MSTP products
Unitrans ZXMP-S390 MAN standard 10G MSTP products
Unitrans ZXMP-S390 MAN standard 10G MSTP products
Unitrans ZXMP-M800 MAN standard OADM MSTP products
Unitrans ZXMP-F900 MAN standard OXC MSTP products

3.2.4 Network Management Product Series

Overall trademark Trademark Product name

Element Management System (EMS)
Unitrans ZXONM-E100
that manages SDH equipment
Element Management System (EMS)
Unitrans ZXONM-E400
manages DWDM equipment

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Overall trademark Trademark Product name

Element Management System (EMS)
that manages both SDH and DWDM
Unitrans ZXONM-E300
equipment and has some functions of
NMS
Unitrans ZXONM-N100 NM Layer NMS

3.3 Network Adaptability

3.3.1 Adaptability to the Backbone Network

[Link] SDH Part

Smoothly upgradeable from 2.5G to 10G;

T-MUX functions can save optical sources to the greatest extent and bring about the
interconnection of various manufacturers’ equipment;

Logic subnet functions bring about the best service dispatching and protection;

[Link] DWDM Part

Smoothly upgradeable from 80G to 320G/400G, or from 800G to 1.6T;

Super-strong outband FEC, entire power control, dynamic dispersion compensation, EDFA
and Raman comprehensive amplification technology can achieve ultra long haul transmission.

3.3.2 Adaptability to MAN

[Link] Overview of MAN

In light of the relationship between MAN transport network and MAN services, if the transport
network only accomplishes the function of transparent transmission of service signal, i.e. without
the ability of dynamic bandwidth allocation and certain intelligence, the service layer itself will
then face huge pressure. In this respect, old operators know this quite well. In the past, data
equipment mainly depended on direct optical connection for networking, and transmission
equipment could not do anything about it. Now the old operators are correcting their ideas of
networking, new operators are turning their eyes to MAN and the convergence layer for sharing
the service pressure by directly adopting multi-service transmission equipment. To a certain
extent, this can cut the equipment investment and improve the network performance-to-price ratio.

Generally speaking, MAN service network can be divided into three layers: the backbone
layer built with MSPP, the convergence layer built with MSCP and access layer built with MSAP.

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Correspondingly, according to the capacity, the access layer and the convergence layer of MAN
can adopt Multi-Service Transport Platform (MSTP) of SDH 2.5 Gbps rate or below; the backbone
layer can flexibly use MSTP of about SDH 10 Gbps. Some developed areas can use MAN WDM
system or OADM system.

[Link] Adaptability of MSTP to MAN

MSTP can be accomplished by relying on multi-line rates including 155/622 Mbps, 2.5G b/s and
10 Gbps, etc. On one hand, MSTP has retained its inherent TDM cross-connect ability and the
traditional SDH/PDH service interface so as to continue meeting the needs of voice services; on
the other hand, MSTP provides ATM processing, Ethernet transparent transmission and Ethernet
L2 switching function in order to meet the needs of converging, grooming and integration required
by data services.

MSTP may provide ATM processing module. In light of ATM service access, such as multi-
point access of DSLAM to the application situation (also including the future BTS of 3G access to
Node B, or the access of Node B to RNC application situation), the functions of 1:N service
convergence can be achieved by converging several 155 Mbps time slots accessed at several nodes
to a 155 Mbps timeslot of the SDH ring through VP/VC cell switching and statistical multiplexing
function so that bandwidth sources are saved and at the same time all services can share ATM’s
VP-Ring protection. If SDH channel or multiplex section protection is enabled, ATM’s VP-Ring
protection can be shielded. In addition, ATM processing module can also provide PVC private line
and ATM multicast service.

MSTP can provide Ethernet transparent transmission function. It maps the Ethernet signals
from customers directly into the virtual container (VC) of SDH without L2 switching, and then
performs point-to-point transmission through SDH network. At present, 10 Mbps, FE or even GE
services can be transmitted over the network by different means, for example, 10 Mbps and FE
services can be loaded by adopting virtual concatenation mode of VC-12 or VC-3, while GE
service can be loaded by adopting contiguous concatenation mode of VC-4 or VC-3/STS-1. In
addition to the adoption of PPP/HDLC or LAPST, the mapping protocol of Ethernet over SDH
also supports Generic Framing Procedure (GFP).

Besides transparent transmission, MSTP provides L2 switching function, i.e. MSTP provides
Ethernet MAC-based switching between one or more users’ Ethernet interfaces and one or more
independent SDH VC-N-based links, implementing the functions of port-based VLAN, ID Tag-
based VLAN and Virtual bridge, full duplex flow control, bandwidth sharing, port converging and
corresponding STP processing and protection, etc.

The New Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS) in MSTP can be achieved: even when
some of the VC-N channels of SDH break down or the Alarm Indication Signal (AIS) shows up, it
can automatically reduce the bearer bandwidth according to mutual handshake protocol,
meanwhile, the data services being loaded cannot be severely damaged, that is, the loss rate and
the time delay can be reduced to the least extent; If the alarm goes off and the fault is recovered,
the borne data service should be recovered to their originally-configured bandwidth.

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The Resilient Packet Ring (RPR) is essentially a kind of technology that SDH uses to
compete with the prevailing MSTP in an all-round way. But MSTP can integrate RPR technology
to a certain degree. For instance, RPR can be designed into a functional module so that the
bandwidth statistical multiplexing, fair bandwidth allocation, strict classification of service (CoS)
and quality of service (QoS) and user isolation function in real sense can be accomplished.
Furthermore, RPR has its own protection strategies, such as loopback and active mode. If it is
coordinated with SDH protection, it must also be ensured with the delay mechanism.

[Link] The Adaptability of MAN WDM to MAN Transport Network

MAN OADM system can satisfy the needs of large-capacity and saving optical fiber resources to
the greatest extent. However, if it is put into commercial use, low cost must be provided on one
hand while on the other hand, the wave-length configurability, self adaptation/multi-service OUT,
sub-rate multiplexing and the perfect protection switching function, etc. must also be provided.

The basic structure of MAN OADM includes series connection, parallel connection and the
mixture of both. The structure of parallel connection on the nodes performs optical multiplexing
and demultiplexing processing of add/drop wavelength and pass-through wavelength, etc. on a
equal basis. So, there is a problem of sequence for the add/drop wavelength. The mixed mode of
series and paralleling is the comprehensive processing of the former two. Generally speaking,
compared with series mode, paralleling mode is more advantageous for the online upgrade of
wavelength. Moreover, the add/drop mode of the wavelength of MAN OADM can be fixed or
configurable to meet the specific needs.

MAN OADM system should provide self-adaptive OUT unit, including 100 Mbps, ESCON,
FICON, Fiber channel, GE, 2.5 Gbps and 10 Gbps, etc. For example, ESCON can be used for
interconnection of large mainframes of Intranet. Fiber Channel is mainly for the connection of
large storage systems and it is getting ready for the future rise of Storage Area Network (SAN).
No matter what interface it is, the interface property of any transponder under 2.5 Gbps can be
configured by means of software instead of replacing hardware circuits. Thus it is very convenient
and flexible when upgrading or modifying the interface configuration, in addition, the operators’
investment can be saved to the greatest possible extent.

MAN OADM’s sub-rate multiplexing function can multiplex four 622 Mbps rates into one
2.5 Gbps wavelength channel, two GE into one 2.5 Gbps wavelength channel, or sixteen 155
Mbps rates into one 2.5 Gbps wavelength channel. Similarly, eight GE can be multiplexed into
one 10 Gbps wavelength channel, or four 2.5 Gbps into one 10 Gbps wavelength channel, etc.
Thus the bandwidth is saved to the greatest possible degree and operators’ investment is protected.

MAN OADM can provide two-fiber bidirectional optical path shared protection, two-fiber
unidirectional optical multiplex section protection and two-fiber bidirectional multiplex section
shared protection, etc. In the light of present circumstances, the technological bottleneck of optical
multiplex section shared protection has been broken through, and the cost of is lower than that of
optical channel shared protection. On the whole, the difficulty of applying the protection function
of MAN OADM ring network is that, if optical fiber is broken or working channel is broken

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down, the route of protection signal may appear entirely different from that of normal working,
which places a high requirement on the budget of optical power and optical signal-to-noise ratio
(OSNR), leading to higher degree of difficulty in networking planning. If multipoint fault shows
up, there would be even higher degree of difficulty.

As for Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM), it is acknowledged in the point-

to-point application. Adopting the optical module without cooling will cut down a certain amount
of cost. It might cause much argument if it is designed into a OADM ring network. Without
bandwidth EDFA as a fallback, the protection ability of ring network will be greatly discounted. It
appears that SOA and EDWA cannot be commercialized within a short period of time. The cost of
regenerative OUT is also very high. The formulation of related standards of the country is now
under way. Our company is one of the group members in formulating the standards. All this is
subject to change according to the market drive.

3.4 Development Idea and Product Solution

The idea of our developing optical transport network is to keep forging ahead with keen
determination, keep on improving, and constantly providing operators with the mature optical
network solution and turning our company into a first-class optical network manufacturer of the
country and an optical manufacturing leader in the world.

3.4.1 Hardware Platform Solution

[Link] Single Wavelength Solution (SWS):

Synchronous digital series SDH products

SDH-based multi-service transmission products

[Link] Multiple Wavelength Solution(MWS):

[Link] Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM) Products

[Link] Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) Products

[Link] Ultra-dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (UDWDM) Products

[Link] Ultra-long-haul DWDM Products

[Link] DWD-based multi-service transmission Products

[Link] Dynamic Wavelength Solution (DWS):

Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer (OADM) products

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MAN multi-service OADM products

Optical Cross Connect (OXC) products

Optical Transport Network (OTN) products

3.4.2 Software Platform Solution

[Link] Intelligent Optical Solution (IOS)

SDH-based Automatic Switched Optical Network (ASON) products

OXC-based and OTN-based Automatic Switched Optical Network (ASON) products

[Link] Network Management Solution (NMS)

Element Management System (EMS) products

Sub-Network Management System (SNMS) products

Network Management System (NMS) products

3.5 Development Roadmap

3.5.1 The Evolution of Overall Products

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ASON
40G?

10G (Enhanced
SDH Part
2.5G)SDH 40× 40G?

MSTP MSTP(RPR)
160× 10G

SDH with OXC

bit-rate
lower
than 2.5G 32/40× 10G
DWDM Part

OADM Metro OADM

32× 2.5G

As indicated in the above figure, for the ZTE SDH product line, SDH products of 2.5G rate
and below are quite mature, and have been commercialized world wide on a large scale. For 40G
SDH products, ZTE has started its pre-research project, focusing on tackling the technical
bottleneck and improving the performance-to-price ratio. In addition, in view of MAN solution,
the priority is given to the SDH-based MSTP in research and development.

As far as ZTE DWDM production line is concerned, 8/16/40×2.5 Gbps (10 Gbps) DWDM
and OADM products of fixed add/drop wavelength are completely mature and have been
commercialized on a large-scale world wide. 160×10G products are functionally strong and have
very good prospects. Having eyes on the future, OADM products of reconfigurable add/drop wave
and MAN multi-service products are to be placed great emphasis in research and development.
Furthermore, 40G-based DWDM development is limited by 40G single wave. The research and
development of OTN system products will be implemented in accordance with the actual needs of
the operators.

The long-term development goal of ZTE optical network products is: with Automatic
Switched Optical Network (ASON) system and based on the transport plane, an intelligent control
plane accomplished by soft switch signaling is to be introduced in order to implement the dynamic
SDH circuit configuration, optical wavelength route configuration and the most flexible
bandwidth configurations at various levels.

3.5.2 Development Roadmap of MAN Products

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The development of ZTE MAN transmission products can be divided into four stages: The
first stage is the Original Stage. At this stage, the SDH equipment implements the transparent
transmission of Ethernet services via small amount of channels. It may provide the operators with
remote LAN interconnections but usually such operations are not open to the public. At the same
time, MAN WDM only adopts back-to-back OTM equipment to build up ring network, so that the
comprehensive ability is not very strong. The second stage is the Flexible Stage. At this stage,
SDH has developed into MSTP which is up to the international standard. In addition to the
transparent transmission of Ethernet, it can also provide Ethernet L2 switching and the
access/convergence of ATM services. Meanwhile, MAN WDM has already adopted OADM to
build up ring network with such functions as self-adaptive multi-service access, sub-rate
multiplexing, the combination of multi-span and optical layer protection showing up one after
another, and taking on an entirely new look. The third stage is the Dynamic Stage, at this stage,
The RPR processing function has emerged into MSTP so that the bandwidth statistical
multiplexing, fair bandwidth allocation, strict classification of service (CoS) and quality of service
(QoS) and user isolation function in real sense can be accomplished. In the meantime, MAN
OADM/OXC can integrate the processing of both optical cross connect and electric cross connect
and can perform quick and dynamic processing of all client layer signals based on OTN system.
The fourth stage is the Intelligent Stage, which means it can increase the intelligent control layers
on the surface of MAN transport network. Therefore, it quickly responds to the real-time
bandwidth application from the service layer and use more switched connections to establish SDH
circuits and bandwidth channels. It can also ensure that, at any time, it can remove, upgrade or
rebuild circuits or channels according to demands of actual operation. Thus, it provides intelligent
strategy for such operation services as bandwidth leasing and Optical Virtual Private Network (O-
VPN).

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3.6 Distribution of R&D Institutions

Shenzhen R&D Center: SDH, Multi-service Transport Platform (MSTP), series ASIC,
photoelectric devices.

Beijing Research Institute: DWDM, OADM, MAN OADM.

North America Research Center: tackling key problems regarding core technology of optical
communication.

Wuxi joint venture: EDFA, Raman Amplifier.

3.7 Accumulation of Core Technology

As an important representative of the national communication industry, ZTE has been attaching
significant importance to the research and development of optical networks. Since the entry into
the new century, and in ZTE’s far-reaching plan, the optical communication, keeping pace with
mobile communication and data communication, has become one of the three major fields into
which the company put all its efforts

In addition, the company has accumulated various kinds of powerful core technologies,
including series SDH ASIC chips, series SDH/DWDM optical module, series optical amplifying
module, optical (electric) high-speed multiplexing and demultiplexing skills, large-capacity optical
(electric) cross-connect technology, technology of high-accuracy timing processing, high-speed
optical layer (electric layer) protection switching algorithm, the processing of hierarchic software
communication protocol, etc. All this has already resulted in great promotion of product
performance-to-price ratio, reliability and the brand image, and it will ultimately bring about
increasing market share.

Summary
ZTE optical transport network solution includes SDH and MSTP series chips ASIC, SDH and
DWD optical module, optical amplifier EDFA, and whole series of Unitrans SDH transmission
equipment, Unitrans DWDM wavelength division multiplexing equipment, Unitrans MSTP MAN
multi-service transmission equipment. In addition, it also includes Unitrans NM system and can
adapt to various solutions aiming at different applications.

ZTE optical transport network solution possesses the adaptability to backbone network and
MAN network. The development idea and the product solution aim at providing the operators with
mature optical network solutions, and ultimately becoming an first-class optical network
manufacturer of the country as well as taking the lead in the world.

Hardware platform solution includes:

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Single Wavelength Solution (SWS) and synchronous digital series SDH products

SDH-based multi-service transmission products; Multiple Wavelength Solution (MWS);

Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM) products; Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (DWDM) products; Ultra-dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (UDWDM)
products; ultra-long-haul DWDM products; DWDM-based multi-service transmission products.

Dynamic Wavelength Solution (DWS) .

Software platform solution refers to:

Intelligent Optical Solution (IOS), SDH-based Automatic Switched Optical Network (ASON)
solution.

OXC-based and OTN-based Automatic Switched Optical Network (ASON) products.

Network Management Solution (NMS); Element Management System (EMS) products; Sub-
Network Management System (SNMS) products; Network Management System (NMS) products..

The long-term development goal of ZTE optical network products is that, with Automatic
Switched Optical Network (ASON) system and on the transmission plane, an intelligent control
plane accomplished by soft switch signaling is to be introduced in order to implement the dynamic
SDH circuit configuration, optical wavelength route configuration and the most flexible
bandwidth configurations at various levels.

Exercise

[Link] are the four stages of the development of MAN transport network products?

2. Give the model names of SDH and DWDM products of ZTE.

[Link] are included in ZTE’s hardware platform solution?

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Chapter 4 Planning and Designing Transmission

Network

Objectives
After learning this chapter, you will be able to understand how the transmission network is
planned and designed and to use the advantages of our company’s devices in the networking to
meet the customer’s needs. You are expected to master the knowledge in depth so that you can
facilitate the customer’s decision to select our company’s transmission network design solution.
This is the key step in winning the bid!

Appendix A Related Protocols and Standards

Introduction

Based on several years of analysis on the customer demand and the experience that our company
has, we divide the transmission network planning and design into the following parts:

1) Customer’s network and service requirements

2) Our company’s solutions

3) Our company’s networking planning

4) Capability-based detailed analysis

5) Other supplementary explanations

The following presentation follows the above sequence.

4.1 Customer’s Network and Service requirements

4.1.1 Network layer

No matter whether it is domestic or abroad, the telecom network is usually in 4 layers:

1) Layer 1 backbone transmission network

2) Layer 2 backbone transmission network

3) Local transmission network and metropolitan transmission network

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4) Access transmission network

It is possible that the layers vary for different operators.

4.1.2 Customer’s Service Requirements

Service category:

1) Voice

2) Data (IP and ATM, etc)

3) Images

4) Other types of services (such as the PCM service of private electrical network)

5) Other multimedia services

4.2 Our Company’s Solution

ZTE provides comprehensive SDH/DWDM devices from backbone network to access network for
cost-effective networking solution to the customers. We are capable of building layer-1 backbone,
layer-2 backbone, local area network, metropolitan area network, and access transmission
network. The ZXSM, ZXWM, and ZXMP series transmission products have successful
deployment in all layers.

For detailed description of the devices, see the previous Chapter 5 ZTE Optical Transmission
Solution. See next section for actual networking, calculation of power dispersion, network self-
healing protection, network services allocation and dispatch, network service clock
synchronization, and network management system.

4.3 Our company’s Concepts of Networking Planning

Network planning and designing involves 5 aspects: network topology, network self-healing
protection switching mode, network service allocation and dispatch, network clock
synchronization, and network management system setting. They are described as follows:

4.3.1 Network Topology

Network topology can be further divided into three parts:

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[Link] Common Network Topology

This includes star, mesh, chain, ring, tree, and integrated structure. Taking into account the system
security, stability, accurateness, and reliability, the SDH transmission network usually adopts the
ring topology.

[Link] Factors Restricting Transmission Distance and Our Company’s Solution to Ultra-
Long Haul Transmission
1) Restriction of system power estimate

Our company’s solution is Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA).

The problem of using EDFA is that it introduces noise, leading to deterioration of optical
signal-to-noise ratio and bit errors.

To increase the optical signal-to-noise ratio, Forward Error Correction (FEC) technology is
used. This technology is suitable to high-speed system and DWDM system.

Outband FEC: an improvement of 5-6 dB, usually 5.5 dB.

Inband FEC: an improvement of 2-3 dB.

Inband FEC + outband FEC: an improvement of 5-6 dB.

2) Restriction of the optical chromatic dispersion

Our company’s solution is to use the following 3 technologies:

--External modulator

This includes Electro-absorption Modulator (EA)

LiNbO3 modulator

and MZ (III-V) series modulator

--Dispersion Compensation Fiber (DCF)

Disadvantages: introduces loss and needs compensation from EDFA.

--Low dispersion optical fiber (such as G655 fiber)

3) Restriction of optical source frequency chirp

Our company’s solution is to use optical source improvement technologies such as:

--Use of external modulating optical source to reduce the influence of the chirp;

--Use of pre-chirp optical source for pre-modulation.

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4) Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Its features are pulse distortion (time-domain) and random process. At present there is no
effective compensation scheme.

5) Optical non-linear

Its feature is signal distortion (frequency domain). It is a non-linear process and is

irrevocable.

Our company’s solution is to confine its influence by restricting the incoming optical power.

We also provide ultra long-haul transmission by regenerators.

[Link] Network Topology System Design Methods

1. This includes the following 3 methods:

1) Worst-case design

2) Statistical design

3) Joint design

2. Loss-restricted regeneration distance calculation—worst-case method

L=(Ps-Pr-Pp-C-Mc)/(af+as)

Where: L refers to the regeneration distance

Ps is the minimum mean launched power at the life termination at point S

Pr is the worst sensitivity (BER10~12) at the life termination at point R

Pp is the L16.2 optical path penalty, which is 2 dB. Others are 1 dB.

C is the sum of all the fiber connector attenuations. Each connector has attenuation
of 0.5 dB.

Mc is the cable margin (usually 3 dB)

af is the fiber attenuation coefficient (usually 0.20 dB/km or 0.22 dB/km)

as is the attenuation per km of the optical splice connector (usually 0.025 dB/km)

3) Dispersion-restricted regeneration distance calculation: worst-case method

Ld=106·e/(B·Dm·ldm)

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Where: Ld refers to the regeneration distance

e is a constant. When the optical source is multi-longitudinal mode laser, e is 0.115.

When the optical source is LED or single-mode optical transmitting

module, e is 0.306.

For L16.2 system, e is 0.491.

B is 2488.320 Mbps, bit rate of the line signal.

Dm is the fiber dispersion coefficient valued 18 ps/(nm·km)

ldm is the optical source’s root-mean-squared spectral width valued 0.4/6.07 nm.

4.3.2 Network Self-healing Protection Switching Mode

[Link] Time Requirement of the Service Recovery

Two threshold values of the service interruption time:

a) 50 ms: If the interruption time is less than 50 ms, the QoS of most services can be met, in
which case it can be regarded that it is transparent to the voice band services and low to
intermediate rate services in most circuit switching networks.

b) 2 s: If the interruption time is less than 2 s, the stability of the trunk transmission and
signaling network can be ensured. Most subscribers would accept the telephone, data, and image
services. It can be the target value for network recovery (continuous loss threshold
CDT).

[Link] Network Self-healing Protection Switching Modes

I) Network level protection switching

Including:

Subnet Connection Protection (SNCP)

Dual Node Interconnection (DNI) protection,

Logical subnet protection

II) Subnet level protection switching

Including:

Two-fiber unidirectional path switching

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Two-fiber unidirectional multiplex section switching

Two-fiber bi-directional multiplex section switching

Four-fiber bi-directional multiplex section switching

Link 1+1 protection

III) NE level protection switching

Including:

Optical channel 1+1 and 1:1 protection

Tributary 1+1 and 1:1 protection

Board 1+1 protection

[Link] Calculating the Multiplexing Section Switching Time

Network-wide switching time:

T=(N1-2)T1+N2T2+2T3+L/c

Where,

T1 is the time K1 and K2 bytes take to pass through ADM (4 ms).

T2 is the time K1 and K2 bytes take to pass through REG (0.4 ms).

T3 is the time NE takes to execute bridge switching (8 ms).

N1 is the number of ADMs in the whole network and L refers to the perimeter of the
loop.

N2 is the number of REGs in the whole network and C refers to the speed of light (300
km/ms).

4.3.3 Network Services Allocation and Dispatch

[Link] Overview
Usually we can allocate and dispatch network services according to the path organization chart,
service matrix, and customer description.

[Link] Traditional Centralized Service Dispatch

The service flow is usually ADM-DXC-TM-TM-ADM that involves optical-electrical-optical

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conversion and increases the bit error rate and lowers the signal-to-noise ratio. Its features are:

I) High construction cost and complex devices connection.

II) Poor anti-failure capability and poor security.

III) The service expansion requires additional hardware cost, which means poor
expandability.

[Link] Existing Distributed Service Dispatch

Implemented through the STM-1/4/16/64 self-healing loop without optical-electrical-optical
conversion; does not increase system bit error rate and does not lower the signal-to-noise ratio. Its
advantages are:

I) Low construction cost and simplified network structure.

II) Service dispatch is implemented via self-healing loop to ensure the security of the
services.

III) The bandwidth of the service dispatch loop can be flexibly configured to ensure the
expandability of the network services.

[Link] Complex Network Service Dispatch and Protection Scheme

At present we use STM-1/4/16/64 service dispatch loop for complex network service dispatch and
protection.

4.3.4 Network Service Clock Synchronization Mode

[Link] Basic Synchronization Modes

There are master-slave synchronization mode and mutual synchronization mode.

Their differences lie in the network stability and the sensitivity to the clock allocation link.
(Please draw a conclusion: which one is better?)

[Link] Classifying the Clock

Primary reference clock: G811

Secondary clock of the transit office: G812

Secondary clock of the end office: G812

SDH NE clock: G813

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[Link] SDH Synchronization Modes

Synchronization mode: All the clocks in the network ultimately trace one primary reference clock
in the network.

Pseudo-synchronization mode: There are several G811 reference clocks in the network that
have the same nominal frequency but the accurate frequencies still differ.

Plesiochronous mode: When one or several clock synchronization paths or substitute paths
are down in the network, the clocks of some nodes enter free-run mode or holdover mode.

Asynchronous mode: Frequencies differ significantly; the clock precision cannot reach G813
and the network sends AIS signal.

[Link] Synchronous Network Timing Reference Transmission Link

Requirement: a) Total number of G813 does not exceed 60; b) K does not exceed 10; c) N does
not exceed 20.

Principle: To ensure the reliability, the cascaded NEs should be as little as possible.

[Link] Our company has patented S1-byte algorithm to prevent clock looping
It is an improvement over ITU-T recommendations. It uses the intelligent S1-byte algorithm to
automatically select the most precise clock source to provide protection switching. Thus it
essentially avoids the occurrence of clock looping.

4.3.5 NMS Setting

The ZXONM network management system can manage all the transmission devices of ZTE. In
practical networking, in particular large-scale networks, we need to provide one or several
backups of the NM devices or NM routes. The following two mode are used:

1) Active/standby NM mode

2) Master/slave NM mode

Compared with the former, the latter has additional DDN, X.25, and PSTN handshake line to
keep the active NM and standby NM data and information synchronized and interworked.

4.4 Case Analysis

We have plenty of projects for analysis and reference. We have analyzed in detail major tender
projects with results in writing.

The following takes Hubei MAN of Hubei Mobile Company as an example to analyze the
whole bidding procedure. (Please refer to the Appendix 1 Invitation to Bid of MAN Transmission

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Network of Hubei Mobile and Appendix 2 Tender Documents to the Invitation of ZTE.

[Link] Composition of the Invitation to Bid

The Invitation to Bid is generally divided into Volume I and Volume II, in detail:

[Link] Volume 1
Includes 5 parts:

I) Invitation to bid;

II) Notice to the Tenderer;

III) Contract terms and materials;

IV) Contract format;

Appendices.

[Link] Volume 2
It is the transmission part that describes technical specifications and requirements of transmission
products, including PCM, 155M SDH, 622M SDH, 2.5G SDH, 10G SDH, 322 DWDM, and
3210G DWDM.

The above classification is not absolute. The Invitation to Bid of Hubei Mobile Company we
are to analyze takes 3 volumes. See [Link].

4.4.2 Preparing for the Tender

[Link] First Step in the Tender is to Understand Each Part of the Invitation to Bid.
Before we tender, we must understand the requirements of the customer and how the project will
be constructed.

Each part of the Invitation to Bid talks about different contents that have a common clue,
which is to serve the project.

We read each part and combine them to fully understand what the customer wants to express.
Also it is important to contact the engineering chief of the customer side.

[Link] Case: Invitation to Bid of Wuhan MAN Transmission Network of Hubei Mobile
This Invitation to Bid is composed of three volumes:

Volume 1 General

1) Overview

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2) Requirement of the Tenderer’s Technical Proposal.

3) Quotation Requirements

This is a general part and is the customer’s basic requirement to the format of the tender. We
must have in-depth understanding of it. The format of the tender and the submittal time are closely
related to this part.

Volume II Engineering Requirements

1) Overview

2) Configuration Requirements

3) Interconnecting and Internetworking

4) Rack Dimensions and Anti-Shock Requirements

5) Requirements of Supply and Service

6) Technical Service Requirements

This is the core of the Invitation to Bid and is concerned with the specific engineering. It
determines our whole network planning. This is also the customer’s purpose for building this
project.

Volume III Technical Specifications

1) Overview

2) Requirements of the MAN Transmission Devices

3) Network Performance

4) NMS Requirements

5) General Requirements

6) Quality Guarantee System

7) Technical Coordination Meeting

8) Ex-factory Inspection

9) Project Installation, Commissioning and Acceptance

10) Technical Training

11) Technical Documents

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This part is concerned with principles and products, in particular the tender company’s
product performance and functions, engineering capability and experience, and overall strength.

4.4.3 Preparing Tender Documents

[Link] The Second Step of the Tender Divides the Tender Document Roughly into the
Following Parts:
I) Commercial part

This includes (1.1) tender letter; (1.2) commercial quotation; (1.3) preferential policies and;
(1.4) others.

This part is usually completed by the salesperson but needs our assistance.

II) Technical part

This includes (2.1) one by one answer to questions; (2.2) device configuration; (2.3)
engineering drawings; (2.4) technical proposal and; (2.5) others.

This part is carried out by us.

III) Appendices of the tender documents

Including all the appendices that are related to the project. They are jointly carried out by the
salespersons and us.

[Link] The Third Step of the Tender is to Overcome Difficulties One by One
I) Commercial part

1) The tender letter can be prepared by us and printed for the salesperson to sign.

2) Commercial quotation is based on the price of the devices, that is, the salesperson will
make discount on the total price of the engineering devices we offer. Because we are more familiar
with the commercial policies of each rival, we can provide suggestions as to the necessary
discount to the salesperson.

3) Further discount should be approved by the company management. If necessary, the

salesperson and the marketing personnel can report the situation to the company leaders for
possible more preferential discount.

4) Other contents include tender overview, table of technical deviations, tender bond, and
certificates.

II) Technical part

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1) We need to answer to each part of the Invitation to Bid one by one. This is a very
industrious work, each part of which can be completed by different personnel. For example,
Volume III Technical Specification of Wuhan MAN of Hubei Mobile is concerned with MSTP
technology and products, so we must be alert to that part.

2) Device configuration is also based on our understanding of the Invitation to Bid. In the
Wuhan MAN of Hubei Mobile Company, the device configuration includes: A, replacement of
existing devices; B, new backbone layer; C, tandem layer and access layer expansion. The
configuration must follow the configuration description and configuration table.

3) The engineering drawings include networking diagram, timeslot diagram, orderwire

diagram, NM diagram, external clock access and flow diagram, engineering interfaces diagram,
and card layout. The Wuhan MAN of Hubei Mobile Company also includes network structure
which includes synchronous clock flow diagram.

4) Prepare Technical Proposal. The Technical Proposal specifies the network planning and
technical solutions provided by the tenderer, therefore it is a part that the customer will review in
detail. The Technical Proposal of Wuhan MAN of Hubei Mobile Company includes:

a) Networking solution

b) Clock synchronization scheme

c) Network protection scheme

d) Network management scheme

e) Other descriptions, include network upgrade, orderwire communications, protection

switching, and equivalent NE.

f) MAN service model of the Wuhan Mobile Company

g) Device configuration and engineering drawings. This includes the previously

mentioned device configuration and drawings.

5) Others. In the MAN of Wuhan Mobile Company, the MAN service model is described in
the Technical Proposal.

III) Appendices of the Tender Documents

1) Certificates like network access license

2) Technical Manual

3) NMS Manual

4) Installation Manual

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5) Quality Manual

6) Factory acceptance test plan

7) Acceptance test procedure

8) After-sales service and training

As the tender projects have different requirements, the appendices also differ.

[Link] The Fourth Step is to Summarize and Total.

I. Summarize the Commercial Part, Technical Part, and Appendices Part.

They form complete tender documents.

II. Check each part carefully.

Errors may occur, so they must be corrected.

III. Print and bind

IV. Submit the tender documents

[Link] The Fifth Step of the Tender is the Commercial and Technical Tracking after the
Submission of the Tender Documents.
I. Commercial tracking

This includes tracking the quotation comparison and attitudes of the key personnel of the
customer side. This work is usually carried out by the marketing personnel with our assistance.

II. Technical tracking

This includes technical difficulties of the transmission system, details to carry out the project,
and the customer’s questions about our company’s devices. This part is completed by our
marketing personnel, preferably with the participation of the product manager at the marketing
office, so that later on most projects will be finished by them.

III. Peripheral tracking

Other related tracking (government agencies, etc)

[Link] The Sixth Step of the Tender is to Communicate about the Assessment of the Tender
and Technical Clarifications.
I. Tender assessment

Half or one day for each manufacturer. During the assessment, we will first introduce our
product technologies and solutions and then ask questions presented by the customer. The format,

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details, and time arrangement of each tender assessment will vary.

II. After the tender assessment is over, a brief answer document is needed.

III. Some face-to-face technical clarifications may be necessary.

In addition, there is some other work, such as preparing materials.

Summary
I) The transmission network planning and design is divided into following parts: (I) Determine if it
is a layer-1 backbone, layer-2 backbone, LAN, MAN, access transmission network, or other types
of transmission networks according to the existing framework and service requirements of the
customer’s basic network.

II) ZTE is able to provide complete SDH/DWDM devices from backbone to access networks,
including ZXSM, ZXWM, and ZXMP series transmission products.

III) Network planning and designing involves 5 aspects: network topology structure, network
self-healing protection switching mode, network service allocation and dispatch, network clock
synchronization, and network management system setting.

IV) We can learn from a successful bidding procedure the points that we need to pay attention
to during different stages of the network construction to ensure the success of the tender.

Exercises

I. After learning this chapter, what aspects do you think our company’s network design and
planning include? Please explain briefly.

II. How to calculate the loss-restricted regeneration distance and loss-restricted regeneration
distance?

III. What do you think the customer will be concerned with in the transmission network
construction?

IV. After learning this chapter, how do you think we need to carry out the tender preparation
and network planning?

V. What contents do you think we need to add in the transmission network planning and
design to meet the practical engineering requirements brought about by the emerging optical
communication technologies and the continuous development of the customer’s service?

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Appendix A Main Reference Protocols/Standards

Appendix A Main Reference Protocols /Standards

ITU-T recommendations related to TMN concepts and functional description are as follows:

ITU-T M.3010 Principles for a telecommunications management network.

ITU-T M.3020 TMN interface specification methodology.

ITU-T M.3200 TMN management services : overview.

ITU-T M.3400 TMN management functions.

Given under are ITU-T recommendations on communication protocol stacks:

ITU-T Q.811 Low layer protocol profiles for the Q3 interface.

ITU-T Q.812 Upper layer protocol profiles for the Q3 interface.

ITU-T X.200 Reference Model for OSI.

ITU-T X.710 Common management information service.

ITU-T X.711 Common management information protocol.

Given under are ITU-T recommendations on the syntax description and definitions of
information models:

ITU-T X.208 Specification of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1).

ITU-T X.209 Specification of BER for ASN.1

ITU-T X.720 Information technology-Open System Interconnection-Structure of

management information: Management information model.

ITU-T X.721 Information technology-Open System Interconnection-Structure of

management information: Definition of Management Information

ITU-T X.722 Information Technology-Open System Interconnection-Structure of

management information: Guidelines for the Definition of Managed Objects

Given under are ITU-T recommendations on general information model definition and
system management function description:

ITU-T M.3100 Generic network information model.

ITU-T Q.821 Stage 2 and Stage 3 Description for the Q3 Interface-Alarm surveillance.

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 Appendix A Main Reference Protocols/Standards

ITU-T Q.822 Stage 1, Stage 2 and Stage 3 Description for the Q3 Interface - Performance
Management.

ITU-T X.730 Object management function.

ITU-T X.731 State management function.

ITU-T X.733 Alarm reporting function.

ITU-T X.734 Event report management function.

ITU-T X.735 Log control function.

Given under are ITU-T recommendations on SDH information model definition:

ITU-T G.774 SDH management information model for the network element view.

ITU-T G.774.01 SDH performance monitoring for the network element view.

ITU-T G.774.02 SDH Configuration of the payload structure for the network element view.

ITU-T G.774.03 SDH management of multiplex-section protection for the network element
view.

ITU-T G.774.04 SDH management of the subnetwork connection protection for the network
element view.

ITU-T G.774.05 SDH management of connection supervision functionality (HCS/LCS) for

the network element view.

ITU-T G.774.06 SDH unidirectional performance monitoring for the network element view.

ITU-T G.774.07 SDH management of lower order path trace and interface labelling for the
network element view.

DN 037-1997 Management functions of SDH management network, ECC and Q3 interface

protocol stack specifications (provisional)

CORBA specifications of OMG:

OMG, The Common Object Request Broker: Architecture and Specification ,version 2.3.1,
October 1999;

OMG, CORBA services: Common Object Services Specification, December 1998;

The relevant recommendations on WDM management information models are as follows:

ITU-T G.871 Framework for optical transport network recommendations

ITU-T G.872 Architecture of optical transport networks

ITU-T G.873 Optical Transport Networks Requirements

ITU-T G.874 Management Aspects of Optical Transport Network Element

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Appendix A Main Reference Protocols/Standards

ITU-T G.875 Optical Transport Network Management Information Model for The
Network Element View

YDN 120-1999 General Technical Requirements on Optical Wave Division Multiplexing

System by Telecommunications Transmission Institute of the MPT.

Technical Requirements on Optical Supervision Channel in WDM Systems, stipulated by the

MPT.

Technical Requirements on Optical Wave Division Multiplexing System (WDM) - 32 2.5

Gbps Part, stipulated by the Ministry of Information Industry.

Technical Requirements on Optical Wave Division Multiplexing System (Wdm) - 32 10 Gbps
Part, stipulated by the Ministry of Information Industry.

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 Appendix A Main Reference Protocols/Standards

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 Appendix B Abbreviations

Appendix B Abbreviations

ADM Add and Drop Multiplexer

AFR Absolute Frequency Reference
AI Audio Interface
AIS Alarm Indication Signal
AITS Acknowledged Information Transfer Service
APR Automatic Power Reduction
APS Automatic Protection Switching
APSD Automatic Power Shutdown
ASE Amplified spontaneous emission
AU Administration Unit
AU-AIS Administrative Unit Alarm Indication Signal
AUI Attachment Unit Interface
BBE Background Block Error
BER Bit Error Rate
BITS Bureau Integrated Timing Supply system
BLSR Bidirectional Line Switching Ring
BSHR Bidirectional Self-Healing Ring
CDR Clock and Data Recovery
CLNP Connectionless Network Protocol
CMI Code Mark Inversion
CODEC Code and Decode
CPU Center process unit
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
CS Cross
DBMS Database Management System
DCC Data Communication Channel
DCC Data Communications Channel
DCF Dispersion Compensation Fiber
DCG Dispersion Compensation Grating
DCN Data Communications Network
DDI Double Defect Indication
DFB-LD Distributed Feedback Laser Diode
DI Data Interface
DNI Dual Node Interconnection
DSF Dispersion Shifted Fiber

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 Appendix B Abbreviations

DTMF Dual Tone Multi Frequency

DWDM Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
DXC Digital Cross-connection
EAM Electrical Absorption Modulation
ECC Embedded Control Channel
EDFA Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
ES Error Second
ESD Electronic Static Discharge
ETSI European Telecommunication Standards Institute
EX Extinction Ratio
FDI Forward Defection Indication
FEBE Far End Block Error
FEC Forward error correction
FPDC Fiber Passive Dispersion Compensator
FWM Four wave Mixing,
GbE Gigabits Ethernet
GNE Gateway Element Network
GUI Graphical user interfaces
HDLC High Digital Link Control
IP Internet Protocol
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
ITU-T International Telecommunication Union —
Telecommunication Standardization Sector
LAN Local Area Network
LAPB Link Access Protocol — Balance
LCT Local Control Terminal
LD Laser Diode
LLC Logic Link Control
LMT Local Management Terminal
LOF Loss of Frame
LOP Loss Of Pointer
LOS Loss of Signal
LP Line Process
MAC Media Access Control
MCU Management and Control Unit
MDI Multiple document interface
MQW Multiple Quantum Well
MSP Multiplex Section Protection
MS-SPR Multiplexer Section Shared Protection Ring
MST Multiplex Section Termination

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Appendix B Abbreviations

NCP Network Unit Control Processor

NE Network Element
NMCC Network Manage Control Center
NMS Network Management System
NNI Network Node Interface
NRZ Non Return to Zero
NT Network Termination
NZDSF Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted Fiber
OA Optical Amplifier
OADM Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer
OBA Optical Booster Amplifier
OCH Optical Channel
ODU Optical De-multiplexer Unit
OFS Out Of Frame Second
OHP Overhead Processor
OL Optical Line
OLA Optical Line Amplifier
OLT Optical Line Termination
OMS Optical Multiplexing Section
OMU Optical Multiplexer Unit
ONU Optical Network Unit
OP Optical Protection Unit
OPA Optical Preamplifier Amplifier
OPM Optical Performance Monitor
OSC Optical Supervisory Channel
OSI Open System Interconnect
OSNR Optical Single-Noise Ratio
OTM Optical Terminal
OTN Optical Transport Network
OTS Optical Transmission Section
OUT Optical Transponder Unit
OXC Optical Cross-connect
PCM Pulse Code Modulation
PDC Passive Dispersion Compensator
PDH Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
PMD Polarization Mode Dispersion,
POH Path Overhead
PSC Protection Switching Count
PWCK Power Clock unit
RDI Remote Defect Indication

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 Appendix B Abbreviations

REG Regenerator
SCC System Control & Communication
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SEF Severely Error Frame
SES Severely Error Second
SLIC Subscriber Line Interface Circuit
SMCC Sub-network Management Control Center
SMT Surface Mount
SNCP Sub-network Connection Protection
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
SNMS Sub Network Manage System
SOH Section Overhead
STM Synchronous Transfer Mode
STM-N Synchronous Transport Module Level-N
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
TCP/IP Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TM Termination Multiplexer
TMN Telecommunication Management Network
UAS Unavailable Second
UITS Unacknowledged Information Transfer Service
VC Virtual Container
WDM Wavelength Division Multiplexing
ZXSM ZTE Synchronous Multiplexer Equipment

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 Appendix C FAQ

Appendix C FAQ

Overview of optical transport network

1. What are the definitions of an optical fiber and an optical fiber cable?

An optical fiber is of a column shape and made up of fiber core, cladding and coating. Fiber
core is mainly made of high purity silicon dioxide (SiO2) with a small amount of impurities to
increase its optical refractive index. Cladding is also made of high purity SiO2 with some
impurities to decrease its optical refractive index. Coating is made of acrylic ester, silicon rubber
and nylon to increase mechanical intensity and curvature.

An optical fiber cable is made up of multiple optical fibers placed in a loose tube filled with
petroleum cream and steel wires. Submarine cable even includes a power cable to supply power
for the amplifier of the repeater.

To ensure their long-distance transmission in the fiber, optical signals must be fully reflected
time and again inside the fiber so as to guarantee minimum attenuation and dispersion and to reach
the remote end.

2. How many kinds of fiber are there?

Optical fiber is classified into two kinds according to the transmission mode, i.e. multi-mode
fiber and single-mode fiber. Light is a kind of electromagnetic wave that has a rather high
frequency of about 310E14 Hz. According to the optical ripple theory and the electromagnetic
field theory, light can be transmitted in over ten or more modes in a wave-guide fiber if the
geometrical size of the wave-guide fiber core is far more than the optical wavelength.

1) Multi-mode fiber

The multi-mode fiber core, about 50 m in the geometrical size, is far larger than the optical
wavelength. Optical signals are transmitted in multiple modes and the wavelength of the main
longitudinal mode shall take precedence. Different transmission modes have different speeds and
phases, so after the long-distance transmission, delay will be generated and will lead to the
widening of the optical pulse, which is called mode or inter-mode dispersion of the fiber. The
multi-mode fiber is only used in the fiber transmission communication of a small capacity and a
short distance, since the mode dispersion greatly decreases its transmission capacity and distance.

2) Single-mode fiber

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If the geometrical size of the fiber is close to the optical wavelength, (i.e. the geometrical size
of the fiber core is close to the optical wavelength), which is about 5~10um, the fiber only permits
one transmission mode and forbids the others. Such a fiber is called a single-mode fiber. The
single-mode fiber only permits one transmission mode and avoids the mode dispersion; thus it is
of a rather broad bandwidth and especially suitable for fiber communication of a large capacity.
For the single-mode fiber, the value of V is less than 2.4048 because of the small geometrical size
of the fiber, so the value of N assumes 1 and only one mode is available.

Classified by the working wavelength----short-wavelength fiber and long-wavelength fiber:

The wavelength of a short-wavelength signal ranges between 0.6nm and 0.9nm, and that of a
long-wavelength signal ranges between 1.31um and 1.55um. The long-wavelength fiber is suitable
for fiber transmission of a long distance and a large capacity thanks to its low attenuation and
broad bandwidth.

Single-mode light can be transmitted in the multi-mode fiber, but multi-mode light cannot be
transmitted in the single-mode fiber.

Classified by the type of tube----fiber of a tightened tube and fiber of a loose tube.

Classified by CCITT Recommendations----G.652, G.653, G.655 fiber.

G.652 fiber: non dispersion-shifted fiber or normal fiber. It can be used for the optical
wavelength of 1310 nm and 1550 nm. In the 1310 nm window, it has zero dispersion, but large
attenuation. In the 1550 nm window, it has a certain dispersion of about 20 ps/[Link], but small
attenuation of about 0.18 dB per kilometer. The G.652 fiber can be used in the transmission of
optical signals under 2.5G (including 2.5G) and DWDM. It has a certain dispersion at the 1550 nm
window. When it is used in the transmission of 10G optical signals, dispersion compensation is
necessary. It is most widely used in China

for the transmission of 2.5G or below and DWDM.

G.653 fiber: dispersion-shifted fiber. It is to shift the zero dispersion of the 1310 nm window
to the 1550 nm window. It is suitable for the transmission of 10G optical signals (including 10G),
rather than DWDM. If it is used in the transmission of DWDM, non-linear effects of Four-Wave
Mixing will be generated. It is most widely used in Japan for the transmission of 10G.

G.655 fiber: non zero dispersion-shifted fiber. Combining the features of both the G.652 fiber
and the G.653 fiber, it can transmit optical signals of both 10G and DWDM. At the 1550 nm
window, it has a certain small dispersion so that DWDM signal does not produce non-linear
effects.

3. What is an erbium doped fiber?

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An Erbium doped fiber is mainly used in the Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA). EDFA,
as both an important part in the modern optical communication and a crucial part to implement a
full optical network, can increase the transmission distance of a powerless trunk. It features small
volume, high gain, small insertion loss, insensitive polarization, low noise, little cross-talk,
working wavelength at the 1550 nm window and easy interconnection with fiber.

4. What is the working principle of an erbium doped fiber amplifier?

Use a pump source to irradiate the erbium doped fiber so that the erbium ions within it jump
from a low energy position to a high position and form an ion inverted distribution area. During
the course of attenuation, the erbium ions release energy and amplify the optical signals at the
wavelength of 1550 nm. The pump source, usually a 980 nm optical source, controls the
amplification gain of the optical signal by controlling the size of the lighting current of itself. The
erbium doped fiber amplifier amplifies noise as well as optical signals.

Polarization maintaining fiber and dispersion compensation fiber: because during the course
of optical signal transmission, the phase change arises, i.e. the polarization effect is generated, the
polarization maintaining fiber is used for the corresponding compensation. The dispersion
compensation fiber is mainly to compensate the dispersion caused by the transmission of optical
signals in the fiber and recover the pulse width of the signal.

5. What feature parameters does fiber have?

The feature parameters of fiber can be divided into three types: geometrical feature
parameter, optical feature parameter and transmission feature parameter. They include attenuation
coefficient (i.e. attenuation), dispersion and non-linear features.

1) Attenuation coefficient (attenuation)

Attenuation coefficient, as one of the most feature parameters of a multi-mode fiber and a
single-mode fiber, largely decides the trunk distance in the multi-mode and single-mode fiber
communication. It is the value of the optical signal power attenuation per kilometer of fiber.

2) Dispersion

After an optical pulse is input into a fiber and transmitted, the optical pulse at the output end
widens and is even obviously distorted. This indicates that the fiber can widen the optical pulse.
Namely, dispersion exists in the fiber. Because the transmission distance of the front end of the
optical pulse is inconsistent with that of the back end in the fiber, the pulse is widened.

The fiber dispersion is the main reason to narrow the fiber bandwidth. The narrowed fiber
bandwidth limits the transmission distance of the optical signal, as well as the transmission
capacity of the fiber.

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The G.652 fiber has zero dispersion at the 1310 nm window and dispersion in the 1550 nm
window. When it is used to transmit 10G signals, the dispersion compensation fiber needs to be
added. The G.653 fiber, as a dispersion-shifted fiber, has zero dispersion in the 1550 nm window
and can be used to transmit 10G optical signals. But it cannot be used to transmit WDM optical
signals because of the non-linear effects (such as Four-Wave Mixing) generated by zero
dispersion. The G.655 fiber has little dispersion in the 1550 nm window and can be used to
transmit SDH optical signals and WDM signals.

The fiber dispersion is divided into three parts, i.e. mode dispersion, material dispersion and
wave-guide dispersion.

Mode dispersion: it is mainly targeted at the multi-mode fiber. For the single-mode fiber, the
problem does not exist since there is only one transmission mode.

Definition: when the multi-mode light is transmitted in the multi-mode fiber, multiple
transmission modes exist, each of which has different transmission speeds and phases.
Consequently, although the optical pulse signals are simultaneously input at the input end, the
times when they reach the receiving end are inconsistent. The phenomenon of pulse widening is
called mode dispersion.

Material dispersion: dispersion generated by SiO2 composing the fiber.

Wave-guide dispersion: dispersion caused by the wave-guide architecture of fiber.

3) Non-linear effects of fiber transmission

From the above introduction, we know that the attenuation of fiber transmission has linear
effects on the fiber length, but the bandwidth coefficient has non-linear effects on it. Non-linear
effects are usually much reflected in the WDM system and little reflected in the SDH system. In
the WDM system, because of a large insertion loss of the multiplexer and the demultiplexer
(usually 10dB is added for the 16-wave system and 15 dB for the 32-wave system), EDFA is
needed for amplification compensation. While the optical power is amplified, non-linear effects in
the fiber are also greatly increased, which both limits the trunk distance and increases ASE noise.

The non-linear effects in the fiber include: (1) dispersion effects (Stimulated Brillouin
Scattering-SBS and Stimulated Raman Scattering-SRS) (2) effects related to Kerr-effect, i.e.
closely related to the refractive index (Self Phase Modulation-SPM , Cross Phase Modulation-
XPM , Four-Wave Mixing-FWM ), of which FWM and XPM have a serious effect on the system.

6. What effects does Four-Wave Mixing have?

Four-Wave Mixing (FWM) is a kind of coupling effect produced by the third order
polarization of the fiber medium, and the so-called wave mixing outcome generated on other
wavelengths because of the interaction of two or three optical waves of different wavelengths, or a

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new optical wave of the sideband. This interaction may occur between the signals of the multi-
channel system and produce many parameter effects such as triple, sum and difference.

In the DWDM system, when the channel spacing and fiber dispersion are small enough and
satisfy the phase match, FWM will become the main factor of non-linear cross-talk. When the
channel spacing is under 10 GHz, FWM has the most serious effect on the system.

At present, the channel spacing of the DWDM system is usually 100 GHz, and the zero
dispersion is the main factor to cause FWM. So if the G.653 fiber is used to transmit the DWDM
system, FWM will be easily generated. If the G.652 or G.655 fiber is adopted, FWM will not be
easily generated. However, the G.652 fiber has a certain dispersion at the 1550 nm window. When
it is used to transmit 10G signals, dispersion compensation shall be added. The G.655 fiber, which
has little dispersion at the 1550 nm window, is suitable for the transmission of the 10G DWDM
system.

7. How many optical transmitters are there?

The transmitter is mainly to send the electrical signal modulation part and the laser part. The
electrical signal modulation part is to remove DC components and use AC signals to drive the
laser to emit light. The laser is mainly a optical source component generating the optical signals of
a specific wavelength. The emitting component is divided into three types: Low Emitting Diode
(LED), FP laser, DFB laser. Their features are introduced below.

1) Low Emitting Diode (LED)

LED is a semiconducting emitting component that is not output via resonance and emits
coherence light. It features low output optical power, large emitting angle, broad optical spectrum,
low modulation rate and low price. Therefore, it is suitable for the short-distance communication.
Most of the emitting components that have a wavelength of 1310 nm are LEDs.

2) FP laser

A FP laser is a semiconducting emitting component that uses the FP cavity as a resonant

cavity and emits multi-mode coherence light. It features large output optical power, small emitting
angle, narrow optical spectrum and high modulation rate. Therefore, it is suitable for the long-
distance communication.

3) DFB laser

A DFB laser uses a grating filtering component on the basis of a FP laser so that the
component has only one longitudinal mode used for output. It features large output optical power,
small emitting angle, narrow optical spectrum and high modulation rate. Therefore, it is suitable
for the long-distance communication. It is mainly used for the wavelength above 1550 nm and the
rate above 2.5G.

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8. How many optical receivers are there?

The optical receiver is mainly to transfer received optical signals into electrical signals,
whose main part is a optoelectronic detector. In the fiber communication system, the Class 2
optoelectronic detector is adopted, i.e. Positive Intrinsic Negative (PIN) and Avanlanche Photo
Diode (APD).

1) PIN

PIN is a component added with a used-up layer on the basis of an ordinary optoelectronic
diode. It features high quanta efficiency, low dark current, high response speed, low working bias
current and no multiplexing effects. The optical receiver with PIN has a low receiving sensitivity
of about –20 dBm, but a high overload point of about 0 dBm. The actual test result is +4 dBm. It is
usually used for the short-distance communication between stations.

2) APD

APD is a component that uses high bias current to speed up the electronic hole pair activated
by photons and produce the secondary electronic hole pair by collision so as to form
optoelectronic current multiplexing. It features high quanta efficiency, high response and
multiplexing effects. The optical receiver with APD has a high receiving sensitivity of about –28
dBm (the actual test result may reach -31dBm), but a low overload point of about –9 Bm. It is
usually used for the long-distance communication.

9. How to name the specification and the type of the fiber connector?

The specification and the type of the fiber connector and their naming:

┐indicates the length of the cable used in the connector

┐ | indicates the external specification of the used cable

XX/XX-XX-XX-Xm

| | └indicates the fiber mode in use, i.e. SM or MM

| └indicates the grade of product

└indicates Type of Interface

FC/FC plane connection

FC=Fennule connecton

PC spherical connection Physical connecton

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APC Advanvephysical contant

SPC Supenphysical contant

UPC Uetuphysical contant

The interface types are FC F SC S ST T LC L

10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of SDH compared with PDH?

Advantages: (Points 2, 3 and 4 are important)

1) Uniform rate (155M, 622M, 2.5G, 10G).

2) The optical interface and the frame architecture have a uniform STM-N
(N=1,4,16,64), which implements the international standard of the digital
transmission system for the first time.

3) Synchronous multiplexing feature (directly extracted from high-speed signals and

accessed to low-speed signals).

4) Powerful network management capability

5) Flexible networking capability and powerful network adaptability.

6) Forward and backward compatibility and online upgrading.

7) Information payload and clock transparency.

8) Abundant overhead bit.

Disadvantages: (Point 1 is important)

1) Its utilization rate of the frequency band is lower than that of PDH.

2) Pointer adjustment increases the equipment complexity.

3) Highly centralized services and importance of software causes that human error,
software failure and virus intrusion may all lead to serious failure.

4) The situation that multiple “synchronous islands” are interconnected via PDH is
formed during the transition from PDH to SDH”. Therefore, it has a high
requirement on the network compatibility.

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11. What is the full name of “SM” in “ZXSM”?

The full name of “SM” in “ZXSM” is SYNCHRONOUS MULTIPLEXER

12. How many groups of PDH of the European system are there?

They include the primary group of 2M, the secondary group of 8M , the tertiary group of
34M, the fourth group of 140M .

13. How many types of SDH equipment are provided by ZTE at present?

ZTE provide the following types of SDH equipment at present: ZXSM-10/10S, ZXSM-150
(V2), ZXSM-600 (V2) , ZXSM-2500 V10.0, ZXSM-10G and ZXSM-150/600/2500 .

14. What is the relationship between SDH and DWDM?

The relationship between SDH and DWDM is equal to the relationship between the customer
layer and the service layer.

15. What is optical signal-to-noise ratio?

Optical signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio between the signal power and the noise power within
a path .

16. What is the difference between 2Mbit and 2 MHz?

2 MHz, as an analogue signal, must cross the ring via the 2M digital signal.

17. What are the definitions of jitter and wander?

Jitter and wander are respectively defined as short-term and long-term phase deviation of the
digital signal edge compared to the ideal clock position. Usually the short-term phase change of a
frequency more than 10 Hz is called jitter, and the long-term phase change of a frequency less
than 10 Hz is called wander.

18. Can REG be directly changed into ADM?

Yes. However, there is a change in the line (ADM has services added/dropped).

19. How big are a VC-12 timeslot and a VC-4 timeslot?

A VC-12 timeslot, as the minimum unit processed in ADM at the STM-4 level, can hold one
2M service signal.

A VC-4 timeslot, including three VC-3 timeslots, can hold three 34M signals.

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20. How many types of optical source are there? Which of them are selected by our
company (MLM, SLM and etc)?

The lasers in common use include Low Emitting Diode (LED), Multi-Longitudinal Mode
(MLM), Single-Longitudinal Mode (SLM). The most suitable application of each laser is
indicated in Recommendation G.957. Since LED outdoes MLM and MLM again outdoes SLM in
the performances (emitting power, spectral width), the replacement of the latter with the former
will not debase the system performance in any application situation.

Our company uses SLM and provides MLM as well.

21. What are the concepts of a time division extended subrack and a service extended
subrack?

An extended subrack is mainly used for the expansion of added/dropped services in case of a
large amount of traffic. Our extended subrack, with the same function as the main subrack , has the
capability of cross time division, so it can be used as a time division extended subrack as well as a
service extended subrack.

Transmission pattern
22. What is the transmission pattern of SDH line?

The transmission pattern of the SDH fiber communication is NRZ .

23. What is the transmission pattern of PDH line?

The primary signal of PDH uses the transmission pattern of HDB3 .

24. What is the pattern of a 140M electrical tributary interface?

The 140M electrical tributary interface of our SDH equipment uses the CMI code type.

25. What is pattern of the DWDM system monitoring path?

According to international standards, the DWDM system monitoring path signal use the CMI
code type.

Overhead byte
26. What are the attributes of the SDH overhead bytes B1, B2, B3, V5?

The overhead bytes of SDH, i.e. B1, B2, B3, V5, are all used for error monitoring. B1
belongs to RS overhead. B2 belongs to MS overhead. B3 belongs to HPOH overhead. V5 belongs

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to LPOH overhead.

27. What are the functions of the overhead bytes S1, D1~D12, K1, K2SDH of SDH?

Overhead bytes play a very important role in SDH. Byte S1 is used to avoid timing loop and
decide the timing workings of the site. Byte D1-D12 are used for communication between devices.
Byte K1 and K2 are used by the APS protocol for multiplex section protection.

28. What does the source node code of byte K indicate in case of AAPS protocol
switching?

In case of APS protocol switching, the source code of byte K indicates the source connection
point to perform the APS protocol action

29. How many parts does the SSDH frame architecture consist of?

The SDH frame architecture consists of three parts, i.e. SOH , AU PTR , PAYLOAD .

30. What are the functions of E1 and E2 bytes of SOH?

ZXSM uses the E1 and E2 bytes of SOH to implement the 64 Kb/s digital voice channel and
the call functions such as point call , group call and full call.

31. Which byte is the user path byte in the SDH section overhead?

ITU-T defines F1 as the user path byte in the SDH section overhead.

Optical interface specification

32. How are SDH optical interfaces standardized?

According to different application situations, SDH optical interfaces of various types are
standardized in ITU-T Recommendations. For example, in L-4.1, L indicates inter-office long-
distance application, -4 indicates the signal rate level of STM-4, and 1 indicates the working
wavelength of 1310nm.

33. What are the transmission capacities of ZXSM-150/ZXSM-600?

ZXSM-150 has a transmission rate of 155.520 Mbps and a transmission capacity of 1890 (i.e.
63*30) digital voice circuits;

ZXSM-600 has a transmission rate of 622.080 Mbps and a transmission capacity of

7560(i.e.4*63*30) digital voice circuits.

34. What is the standard rate at the STM-1 level?

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The standard rate of SDH at the STM-1 level (accurate value) is 155.52 Mbps, providing at
most 63 2M.

EDFA
35. How many kinds of optical pump sources does EDFA have?

EDFA uses the gain mechanism caused by the erbium in the fiber to implement optical
amplification. It has two optical pump sources, i.e. 1480 nm and 980 nm.

36. What is the range of the working wavelength of EDFA?

The range of the working wavelength of the current EDFA is 1530 nm-1565 nm .

DWDM
37. What is the maximum optical power level of the DWDM single or combined fiber?

It is stipulated in ITU-T Recommendations that the maximum optical power level of the
DWDM single or combined fiber is 17 dBm .

38. What is the monitoring path of the DWDM standard?

The monitoring path of the DWDM standard is the physical interface of the 2 Mbps system in
compliance with Recommendation G.703, whose frame architecture and bit rate comply with
Recommendation G.704.

39. What are the definitions of a multiplexer and a demultiplexer?

The device that combines signals of different wavelengths and outputs them through one
transmission fiber is called a multiplexer . The device that decomposes signals of multiple
wavelengths transmitted by the same fiber into individual wavelengths and outputs them
respectively is called a demultiplexer .

40. How many kinds of WDM devices are there?

The current WDM devices put into commercial operation can be divided into four types, i.e.
WDM device of a grating type, WDM device of an interferential filtering type, WDM device of an
integrated optical wave-guide type, WDM device of a fiber bragg type.

Part 2: Equipment Information

ZXSM-150/600/2500 (Module II)

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41. What is the equivalent switching capability of a Module II?

The ZXSM-150/600/2500 can provide the switching capability equivalent to 96×96 VC4 and
1008×1008 VC12.

42. How many timeslot interchange services can a Module II be configured with?

ZXSM-150/600/2500 can be configured with nine timeslot interchange services:

AU4-AU4, AU4-VC4, VC4-VC4

TU3-TU3, TU3-VC3, VC3-VC3

TU12-TU12, TU12-VC12, VC12-VC12

It can be configured with multiplex section protection, AU4 level protection, TU3 level
protection, TU12 level protection

43. How many optical directions can a Module II implement?

ZXSM-150/600/2500 can implement 32 155M optical directions, 12 622M optical directions

and 4 2.5G optical directions.

44. What is the processing capability of an overhead board of a Module II?

An overhead board of ZXSM-150/600/2500 can process the overhead bytes of 16 optical

directions with each direction providing 29 null bytes.

45. What is the processing capability of each tone & data board of a Module II?

Each tone & data board of ZXSM-150/600/2500 can provide eight tone, four V.28, four V.11
(128 kbps) interfaces and one V.11 (576 kbps) interface.

46. Does a Module II have 32 optical interfaces?

No, it has only 30 optical interfaces.

47. How many protection modes at the network level can be implemented when a
Module II is used for networking?

When ZXSM-150/600/2500 is used for networking, the protection modes at the network level
that can be implemented include two-fiber unidirectional path switching ring, two-fiber
unidirectional multiplex section switching ring, two-fiber bi-directional multiplex section
switching ring, four-fiber bi-directional multiplex section switching ring, subnet connection
protection and dual node interconnection protection .

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48. How many working modes does the timing system of a Module II have?

The ZXSM-150/600/2500 timing system has four working modes: external clock
line/tributary extracted clock , clock maintaining , free-run .

49. Can a Module II monitor the transceiving power of the optical module at present?

This function is not provided for the moment since its design may cause a big change in the
hardware circuit. At present, the SDH NM system of ZTE has implemented monitoring on the
built-in EDFA module, line/tributary optical interfaces. This function may be taken into account in
the enhanced version. The implemented functions include real-time monitoring on laser
temperature, voltage, bias current, optical transceiving power, receiving sensitivity, optical path
penalty.

50. What is the signal mode of the RS-232 interface provided by a Module II? Can it
transmit the monitoring information of other equipment?

ZXSM-150/600/2500 provides the RS-232 interface via an AI board. The RS-232 interface
provided by ZXSM-150/600/2500 can transparently transmit the monitoring information of other
equipment. For the moment, only the point-to-point mode is provided for its signal mode. The
monitoring information is transmitted via idle SDH overhead bytes.

ZXSM-150 (V2)
51. Name of ZXSM-150(V2) product

The name of ZXSM-150(V2) product is compact synchronous digital transmission equipment

.

52. Features of ZXSM-150(V2).

Answer: 1) Compatibility design of two systems

2)Small volume and powerful function

3) Flexible power design

4) Flexible bandwidth management

5) Timing synchronous processing based on SSM

6) Perfect protection mechanism

7) Abundant tributary interfaces

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8) Provide tone/data interfaces

9) Self-developed ASIC

10) Perfect network management functions

53. What is the capacity of the switching capacity of ZXSM-150 (V2)?

The switching matrix capacity of ZXSM-150(V2): 8×8 VC-4 full switching VC-4, able to
implement the full timeslot switching of VC-12/ VC-11 .

54. What is the maximum service capacity of ZXSM-150 (V2)?

The maximum service capacity of ZXSM-150(V2): 63 *E1, 84 *T1, 3 *E3, 3 *T3.

55. How many typical networking modes does ZXSM-150(V2) have? Where can they be
applied?

ZXSM-150(V2) is completely compatible with SDH transmission products of ZXSM series,

1) It can provide the following networking mdoes:

a) Independent networking: tree, ring-chain combined, intersected ring and other complex
networking.

b) Hybrid networking: ZXSM-150(V2) can network with ZXSM series products.

c) Used as auxiliary equipment: used as an extended subrack.

d) Combination of the above applications.

2) It can be applied in the following cases:

a) 2-fiber uni-directional path protection ring,

b) 2-fiber co-directional multiplexing segment protection ring

c) 1+1 or 1:1 protection for the multiplex section in case of point-to-point or link networking

d) Start networking, intersected ring and tangent ring

e) Applied in the access network

56. What installation modes does ZXSM-150(V2) provide?

Two installation modes are provided according to different application environments:

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1) Desktop installation. As a separate desktop device, it can be placed on the desk or other
supporting plane in the equipment room.

2) Rack installation. With an installation accessory, ZXSM-150/600/2500 can be installed on

its rack or other 19-inch standard racks.

57. What features does the multiplexing mapping architecture of ZXSM-150 (V2) have?

ZXSM-150(V2) is compatible with two multiplexing mapping architectures: European ETSI

and North American ANSI.

58. How many clock signals can ZXSM-150 (V2) output?

ZXSM-150(V2) outputs two channels of 2048 kbps clock signals with the SSM function to
be used by other equipment.

59. How to implement the protection switching function of ZXSM-150 (V2)?

The tributary board of ZXSM-150 (V2) completes the protection switching function of paths
and multiplex section services. So does the switching board.

60. What is the function of the standby tributary board of ZXSM-150 (V2)?

The standby tributary board of ZXSM-150 (V2) provides the 1:N (N≤3) protection for the
main tributary board.

61. How to implement protection for the E1/E3 tributary of ZXSM-150(V2)?

To implement protection for the E1/E3 tributary ZXSM-150 (V2), add a standby tributary
board. To cancel it, delete the board.

62. Which boards of ZXSM-150 (V2) can have hot backup?

The boards of ZXSM-150 (V2) that can have hot backup include , , .

63. Are the 2M and the 34M protection boards the same? Do they have priority?

The 2M and the 34M protection boards are different. Only the 2M board has priority.

64. How many optical directions does multiplex section protection have?

Two optical directions

ADM without protection, one board……two optical directions

ADM of multiplex section, two boards……two optical directions

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ADM of multiple optical directions……four optical directions

ZXSM-10
65. What is ZXSM-10?

ZTE SDH series product can provide you with both optical transmission equipment and the
auxiliary intelligent cross-connect add/drop equipment-ZXSM-10. ZXSM-10, as a multi-service
access device with SDH STM-1 optical interfaces designed by ZTE, is to provide abundant tone,
data and broadband service interfaces. ZTE ZXSM-10 is an intelligent Pulse Code Modulation
device integrating transmission, switching and access.

66. What requirements can ZXSM-10 satisfy?

ZXSM-10 can satisfy the requirements of private networks (railway communication network,
military communication network, broadcasting & television network, financial data
communication network, traffic communication, electrical communication network) on services
such as 2M or 64 kbps service dispatching, audio dispatching, low-speed data transmission, audio
traffic communication, LAN networking, video transmission.

67. What are the networking modes of ZXSM-10?

ZXSM-10 has the following networking modes: point-to-point networking , link networking ,
T networking, cross networking, ring networking and various combined networking .

ZXSM-10 can network with both SDH series products of ZTE and transmission products of
other manufacturers.

68. How many networking methods does ZXSM-10 have?

1) Use the STM-1 optical interface for independent networking

2) Use the 2M interface for networking with the SDH equipment

3) Use the STM-1 optical interface for hybrid networking with the SDH equipment

69. How many kinds of user interfaces does ZXSM-10PCM have?

2-wire analogue user interface, 4-wire analogue user interface, V.28 data interface (RS232
interface), V.11 data interface (RS422 interface), V.35 data interface, X.21/G.703 data interface,
loop trunk interface, trunk interface, EM trunk interface.

70. Can the charging function be provided in the ZXSM-10 integrated access platform?

No. ZXSM-10 can implement extension of the PSTN user line. The charging function is

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completed by switches. However, the charging calculation data can be provided.

ZXSM-10 can also implement the calling and switching functions for users with internal
allocated number. But this type of telephone cannot interwork with PSTN users and have no
charging function.

71. Can ZXSM-10 directly interconnect with PSTN?

ZXSM-10 does not provide R2 signaling, No.7 signaling and V5 interface. Our company
does not provide V5 interface to implement PSTN interconnection for the moment.

72. What features does the intelligent PCM equipment of ZXSM-10 have compared
with the ordinary PCM equipment?

Answer: ZXSM-10 has the following features in addition to those of the ordinary PCM
equipment:

1) With basic functions of the optical transmission equipment, it can add/drop eight 2M
to/from the fiber

2) With powerful switching capability, it can perform the timeslot interchange of 64K and
N×64K

3) It has various data interfaces

73. How many service dispatching functions does ZXSM-10 have?

ZXSM-10, as the integration of PCM and DXC1/0, can not only achieve the functions of the
traditional PCM equipment, but also have the service dispatching function of 2M and 64 kbps.

74. How many ways can ZXSM-10 be installed?

1) Desktop

2) Wall mount

3) 19-inch standard rack

4) ZXSM rack

75. What is the line capacity provided by ZXSM-10?

ZXSM-10 is able to provide the line capacity of 16×E1.

76. How many kinds of power and ringing current can the power and ringing current
unit of ZXSM-10 provide?

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The power and ringing current unit of ZXSM-10 provides the whole equipment with ±5V,
-48V, 3.3V powers and ringing currents.

77. What is the function of the loop trunk board (TRKUI) of ZXSM-10?

The loop trunk board (TRKUI) of ZXSM-10 is mainly to provide loop trunk interfaces for
connection between the PCM equipment and the user line of the local exchange switch, with eight
interfaces on each board

78. What is the function of the analogue user board (ALUI) of ZXSM-10?

The analogue user board (ALUI) of ZXSM-10 is mainly to provide users with analogue
two/four-wire tone interfaces, with 16 interfaces on each board.

ZXSM-10G
79. What is the factor limiting the system transmission distance?

The factor limiting the system transmission distance is Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
.

80. What is the function of the out-band FEC used in the ZXSM-10G system?

ZXSM-10G uses the out-band Forwarding Error Correction technology (out-band FEC) to
improve the error performance of the system. The out-band FEC is outside SDH frame signals
because of additional bits.

81. How many order wires can ZXSM-10G provide?

ZXSM-10G uses the overhead bytes in SOH to provide extra data interfaces and flexible
adding/dropping of overhead paths. The auxiliary interfaces, provided by the orderwire board of
the system, can provide users with three order wires.

ZXWM-32
82. What features does ZXWM-32 series product have?

1) Good compatibility: open interface, hybrid board insertion, smooth upgrade;

2) Perfect power management technology;

3) Provided with OADM whose added/dropped wavelengths may be configured

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optionally, to satisfy different network requirements;

4) Powerful function, flexible and reliable NM system;

5) Perfect protection function;

6) A series of reliability guarantee measures.

83. What boards (units) does the optical terminal equipment of ZXWM-32 include?

OTU, OMU, ODU, OBA, OPA, and OSCL(T).

84. How many types of the optical line amplifier ZXWM-32 are available?

33 dB, 30 dB, 25 dB, and 23 dB.

Protection
85. What is the difference between the 1+1 protection and the 1:1 protection of ?

Answer: The 1+1 protection is virtually ”concurrent sending and preferential receiving”, and
signals are fed in the working section and the protection section at the same time. The 1:1
protection is virtually two systems. The protection section can transmit extra services of a low
priority. Once the working section goes wrong, service signals are switched to the protection
section, the extra services of which are discarded. The 1:1 protection can work in the 1+1 mode
with higher efficiency than that of the 1+1 protection.

86. What are the two important threshold values of service interruption?

The two important threshold values of service interruption are (50 ms) and (2 s).

87. What is the basic capacity unit of the multiplex section switching ring?

The basic capacity unit of the multiplex section switching ring is (VC-4).

88. What is the minimum protection unit of the two-fiber bi-directional multiplex
section shared ring?

The minimum protection unit of the two-fiber bi-directional multiplex section shared ring is
AU-4.

89. What is the alarming signal that causes the TU-12 path switching?

In the two-fiber unidirectional path protection ring, if the TU-12 AIS alarm occurs, the TU-
12 path will be switched.

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90. How to transfer a four-fiber multiplex section switching ring into a two-fiber
multiplex section switching ring?

Use (timeslot interchange) to transfer a four-fiber multiplex section switching ring into a two-
fiber multiplex section switching ring.

91. How many kinds of protection are there according to the network topology?

According to the network topology, protection can be divided into: (link) protection, (ring)
protection and (inter-ring) protection.

92. What is the maximum service capacity in a four-fiber bi-directional multiplex

section protection ring?

The maximum service capacity in a four-fiber bi-directional multiplex section protection ring
composed of K nodes is (K*STM-N) .

93. How many kinds of dual-node interconnection protection are available?

Two modes of dual-node interconnection protection are available, i.e. (DNI) and (DH). The
(DH) protection mode is adopted by countries that adopts the European system.

94. What is BER detection method of protection switching?

The multiplex section monitors the errors of the multiplex section via the bit interleaved
parity order 24 (BIP-24). The calculation result of the previous frame is placed in the B2 byte of
this frame and the error condition can be known by means of reading the value of B2. Switching is
performed when the set error threshold of 10-6 is exceeded.

95. What function should the key node B have in the Dual-Node Interconnection (DNI)?

In the Dual-Node Interconnection (DNI), the key node B must be able to Drop/Continue, i.e.
have the continuation and dropping function.

96. What is the capacity of a switching matrix to implement dual two-fiber and four-
fiber rings?

To implement dual two-fiber and four-fiber rings, the switching matrix should be at least
6464 (at this time no tributary service can be dropped) and at most 128128 (four STM-16
services can be dropped).

Note: The above calculation only covers space division switching, excluding time division
switching.

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Network management
97. What are the five management functions of the SDH management network?

The five management functions of the SDH management network: alarm management,
performance management, configuration management, maintenance management, security
management;

98. What is the objective to obtain the NCP times of various points in maintaining the
SDH network ?

To see whether the communication between NM and various NEs is smooth.

99. What is the cause for the MS-LOS alarm occurring at some NE?

Cause: receiving of the local end OL, transmission of the peer end OL, or fiber interruption.

Handling: Loop back the terminal side for the optical line board at the local end, receive the
failure for the local end OL and replace the optical line board. If the alarm disappears, perform the
self loop of the peer end. If the alarm still exists, send the failure for the peer end OL and replace
the optical line board at the peer end. If both of the two optical boards are in good condition, the
problem may lies in the fiber. First check whether the fibers at the two ends are well connected,
and measure the failure points with an optical power meter.

100. Why are NCP times unavailable within a ring network?

Some 622 ring network has five sites-A, B, C, D, E. If the NM computer connects to site A,
the NCP times of site A, B, D and E are available, but the NCP time of site C is unavailable. If the
NM computer connects to site C, the NCP time of site C is available, but those of site A, B, D and
E are unavailable. Under the two circumstances, there is no alarm occurring in the NM. What are
the reason and the processing method?

Database. Reconfigure ECC and DCC of site C and download again. Moreover, if the ECC
processing module of the NCP board in site C goes wrong, the above phenomenon will also occur.
At this time, replace the NCP board in site C.

101. What interfaces does NCP have?

NCP uses a S interface for connection to the Management Control Unit (MCU) on all the
boards of the local NE, a Qx interface for connection with SMCC and a RS232 interface for
connection with the Local Management Terminal (LMT). An ECC channel is used for information
communication between NEs. In the NM system of ZXONM E100, when ZXSM-150/600/2500 is
used as an access NE, the interface transmission layer protocol between SMCC_SERVER and
NCP is the UDP communication mode.

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102. When do alarm signals MS-RDI and AU-AIS occur?

Take an ADM NE in some link network as an example. When the receiving of its eastward
optical line board connected to the upstream site goes wrong, the MS-RDI alarm signal will occur
in the upstream site and the AU-AIS alarm signal will occur in the downstream site.

103. How many devices are there that the ZXONM E100 NM system can manage?

ZXSM-150/600/2500, ZXSM-150S, ZXSM-10, ZXA10-S1, ZXSM-150/600.

E100 and E300 Network Management Capability

It can manage at most 32 subnets (or NE group). Each subnet (or NE group) can manage at
most 256 NEs, but the total of NEs cannot exceed 2048. Each subnet can access at most four
Managers, each of which can access at most 16 terminals.

IP Board
104. Can users designate the group and the bandwidth of a virtual bridge?

The bandwidth is fixed and cannot be designated by users. However, it can be designated by
the administrator of the highest level, i.e. the carrier.

105. Has the external IP OVER OPTICS of DWDM been implemented?

Not yet. But we are developing towards this direction.

106. Does LRC or OTU appear as a separate board in IP OVER DWDM?

No. They each appear as a small module on OMU.

107. Is the PPP/HDLC protocol of ITG processed at the user end?

It is processed at the network side of SDH.

108. Is there L3 switching at the IP board of ZTE SDH?

In fact, the IP board of ZXSM-150/600/2500 and IPB of ZXSM-150/600(V2) have the L3

switching function. The L3 switching function is developed in the future as necessary.

109. How does VC-4 carry IP packets?

An IP packet, usually of 384~216 bytes, cannot be held by a VC-4. IP packets, including

overhead IP packets, are usually not multiples of VC-4, so they must cross VC-4 and be carried
after the cascading of VC-4.

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ZTE’s Transmission Products

110. How to calculate the maximum distance-L of the regenerator section?

Take a L-16.2 optical interface of the STM-16 equipment of manufacturer A as an example.

The minimum average transmitted optical power Ps assumes 1 dBm, the worst receiving
sensitivity Pr assumes –29 dBm, the optical path penalty Ps assumes 2 dB, the sum of the fiber
connector attenuation C assumes 1 dB, the fiber redundancy Mc assumes 3 dB, the fiber
attenuation coefficient af assumes 0.25 dB/km, the attenuation coefficient as of the fiber splicing
head per kilometer as assumes 0.05 dB/km.

1. Please list the calculation formula of the maximum distance L of the regenerator section,
and calculate the maximum distance L of the regenerator section supported by the product of this
type.

2. If the transmission distance is 114 km, EDFA with what output power needs to be added
(suppose the output power of EDFA is continuous and adjustable)?

Answer:

1. L=( Ps-Pr-Pp-C-Mc)/(af+as)

L=( 1+29-2-1-3)/(0.25+0.05)=80 km

2. Ps=L*(af+as)+Pr+Pp+C+Mc

Ps=114*(0.25+0.05)-29+2+1+3=11.2 dBm

111. What is a synchronization network?

As one of the supporting systems of the present telecom network, it provides synchronous
control signals for the clocks (or carrier) of all the telecom equipment in the telecom network so
that they work in the same rate. If the difference between the clock rates of any two digital
switching devices within a digital network exceeds a certain value, the rates of the read/write
clocks of the buffer storage of the switch receiving signals will be different. If this difference
exceeds a certain value, a bit slip will occur. The bit slip will cause error or out-of-sync. in the
receiving digital flow. Its function is to make the clock frequencies of all the digital switching
equipment within the network work in the same rate so as to eliminate or reduce bit slips.

112. What is a Broadband-Integrated Service Digital Network (B- ISDN)?

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The Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network is abbreviated as B-ISDN. B-ISDN,

developed on the basis of ISDN, can support services of different types and rates, including both
continuous services and burst broadband services. It can support a wide range of services, such as
narrow-band services with their rates no more than 64 kbps (voice, fax), broadband allocation
services (broadcasting & television, high definition TV), broadband interaction communication
services (videophone, video conference), burst broadband services (high-speed data).

The main feature of B-ISDN is to support a wide range of voice, image and data applications
in the same network in the compatible mode of Synchronous Transfer Mode (STM) and
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). ATM can not only integrate various services such as voice,
data and image into a network, but also have such advantages as dynamic bandwidth allocation
and multimedia communication.

ATM broadband switching is the key and core to implement B-ISDN. It is a kind of rapid
packet switching and a transfer mode oriented to packet.

113. What is a Virtual Private Network (VPN)?

A Virtual Private Network, abbreviated as VPN, is a functional network established on the

basis of an actual network (or a physical network), or a networking mode of a private network. It
provides users with the functions of ordinary private networks, but it itself is not an independent
physical network. It can be also said that VPN is a kind of logic private network. “Virtual”
indicates that its structure is different from the actual physical network. For the users, it has
completely the same functions as the actual private network.

114. How many standard stipulation organizations are there?

1) International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

ITU have two working groups dealing with the stipulation of the optical network standards,
i.e. Study Group 13 and Study Group 15. Study Group 13 is mainly to develop and draft the
general architecture standards of the optical network. Study Group 15 is to develop and draft the
specifications of the optical network transmission system and related equipment.

2) European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI)

ETSI is mainly to develop and draft SDH and DWDM standards and keep close contact with
ITU-T.

3) American National Standard Institute (ANSI)

The T1 working group in ANSI is responsible for drafting DWDM specifications of the north
American area. ANSI has three groups dealing with the optical network standards. Of them, group
T1X1 is mainly to draft the specifications of network architecture, functional requirements and

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inter-carrier interfaces. Group T1M1 is mainly to draft the specifications of network management,
especially the general Information Modeling and Network Performance Monitoring. Group T1A1
is mainly to check the performance parameters of the optical transmission layer.

115. How many relevant standards are there?

YD/T 536-1992 Digital interface parameters of PCM communication network.

TZ015-1994 Technical System of Optical Synchronous Transmission Network----

Technical System of Post & Telecom Network, stipulated by the MPT (provisional)

YD/T 767-1995 Technical Requirements on Equipment and Optical Interfaces of SDH

YD/T 768-1995 Technical Requirements on Digital Fiber Line System of SDH

GB/T6388-86 Labels for Transportation, Packing, Receipt and Delivery

GB 7611-1987 Digital interface parameters of PCM communication network.

GB 10111-1988 Random Sampling Methodology by random number dice

GB 2423.1-1989 Specification of Basic Environment Test of Electrotechnical and

Electronic Product Experiment A Low Temperature Test Methodology

GB 2423.2-1989 Specification of Basic Environment Test of Electrotechnical and Electronic

Product Experiment B High Temperature Test Methodology

GB 2423.3-1993 Specification of Basic Environment Test of Electrotechnical and Electronic

Product Experiment Ca Constant Humidity and Temperature Test Methodology

GB 2423.48-1997 Environment Test of Electrotechnical and Electronic Product Part 2 Test

Methodology Jiggling-Time Course Methodology

GB 6879-1995 Technical Requirements and Test Methodology 2048 kbps 30-Channel

PCM Multiplexing Equipment

GB/T 15941-1995 Fiber Line System of SDH

GB191-90 Graphic Labels for Packing, Storage and Transportation

ITU-T G.823-1984 Control on Jitter and Wander within Digital Networks Based on
2048 kbps Hierachy

ITU-T G.921-1988 Digital Section Based on 2048 kbps Series

ITU-T G.825-1993 Control on Jitter and Wander within Digital Network Based on SDH

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ITU-T G.781--1994 Recommended Structure for Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

Multiplexing Equipment

ITU-T G.782--1994 Types And General Characteristics of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

(SDH) Equipment

ITU-T G.958-1994 Fiber Line System based on SDH

ITU-T G.957-1995 Equipment and Optical Interfaces Related to SDH

ITU-T G.703-1996 Physical/Electric Features of Serial Digital Interfaces;

ITU-T G.707--1996 Network Node Interface for the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH)

ITU-T G.813-1996 Timing Features of Slave Clocks of SDH Equipment

116. Terms and abbreviations

Abbreviation Description

DWDM Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing 

EDFA Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier 

OADM  Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer 

OXC Optical Cross-Connect 

PDH Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy 

SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy 

TDM Time Division Multiplexing 

DTE Data Terminal Equipment¸

DCE Data Circuit-terminal Equipment

HDLC High level data link control

LAPB Link Access Procedure Balanced

117. Quick search table of optical interfaces of ZTE transmission system

Quick search table of optical interfaces of

ZTE transmission system

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W Ma Mi Sensit Opti Typical

Optical Typ
Grade Rate aveleng ximal nimum ivity of cal path transmission
Interface e of laser
th TxPwr TxPwr Receiver penalty distance
nm dBm dBm dBm dB km

S1.1 MLM 1310 -8 -13 -28 1 25

STM-1 155M S1.2 SLM 1550 -8 -13 -28 1 40

L1.1 SLM 1310 0 -5 -34 1 60
L1.2 SLM 1550 0 -5 -34 1 96
S4.1 MLM 1310 -8 -15 -28 1 20
S4.2 SLM 1550 -8 -15 -28 1 32
STM-4 622M
L4.1 SLM 1310 2 -3 -28 1 50
L4.2 SLM 1550 2 -3 -28 1 80

STM-16 2.5G S16.1 SLM 1310 0 -5 -27 1 42.5

L16.1 SLM 1310 3 -2 -27 1 50
L16.2 SLM 1550 3 -2 -27 2 76
L16.2JE SLM 1550 5 2 -27 2 92
L16.2JE+14db
EDFA SLM 1550 14 14 -27 2 140
L16.2JE+17db
EDFA SLM 1550 17 17 -27 2 152
S64.2b SLM 1550 2 -1 -14 2 28
STM-64 10G

Description
1. Suppose the attenuation (including fiber and
connection loss) of the G.652 fiber in 1310 nm region is
(db/KM): 0.4
2. Suppose the attenuation (including fiber and
connection loss) of the G.652 fiber in 1550 nm region is
(dB/KM): 0.25
3. The fiber redundancies are all
(dB): 3
4. The typical transmission distance is calculated using the worst value method, with only the
loss limited taken into account. For a 10G system, the dispersion limited shall also be considered.
5. Formula: L = (Ps - Pr - Pp - C - Mc) / (af
+ as)
6. The above information is for
reference only

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118. Weight, size and power consumption of the equipment

1) The rack structure of ZXSM-150(V2) shall comply with the standard of a 19-inch rack.
The rack height shall be 3U, and the size shall be 482.8  277.5  132.5 mm.

2) Whole system consumption of ZXSM-10G: power consumption of full configuration 500

W.

119. Difference and relation between SONET and SDH

SONET and SDH are respectively the transmission systems of North America and Europe.
Their essential difference is their different mapping structures. Moreover, the North American
system is based on 1.5 Mbps signals, and the switching granules are mainly at the STS-1 level
(51840 KbPs). The European system is based on 2 Mbps signals and the switching granules are
mainly at the VC-4 level.

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Chapter 5

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