ARABIAN LITERATURE REVIEWER Ramadan – Holiest season of the Muslims and marks fasting

“The Cradle of Islam”

FOUR TYPES OF MUSLIMS:
Arabs possessed a highly develop poetry transmitted orally 1. SUNNI – 80% 2. SHITE – 10-16% 3. SUFIS 4.
from generation to generation. BAHA
Qasidahs
Arabian Literature is rich and varied, mostly made of Poems, THREE TYPES OF MUSLIMS
anecdotes, tales or romances, historical accounts and 1. Secularists – Muslims who do not have a knowledge of the
philosophies. contents of the Qur'an and only know a verse or two to justify
Arabs possessed a highly develop poetry transmitted orally enjoying their life such as “Wealth and children are the
from generation to generation. adornment of the life of this world” (Surat Al- Kahf 18:46)
Qasidahs or elaborated odes. It reflects and praise the 2. Moderates – They know the Qur'an but seek to make their
customs and values of the desert environment which they arose. faith relevant to modern life. They try to reconcile the
The written literature, began to be known with the collection contradicting verses in the Qur'an in such a way that Muslims
of KORAN, the sacred book of Islam. may
The Three Periods of Written Arabic Literature 3. Fundamentalists – Those who want to apply the more
UMAYYAD PERIOD (A.D. 661 -750) extreme verses of the Qur'an to the letter. These verses came to
Arabic prose was limited primarily to grammatical treatises, Muhammad after he was strong militarily and after he realized
commentaries on the Koran and the compiling of stories about that Christians and Jews were not becoming followers of his
Mohammed and his companions. new religion. Muhammad's anger in the following Quranic
GHAZALS or love lyric, wine songs and hunting poems rose verses , which abrogate the nice verses in the Qur'an, is the
during this period. These describes the conditions and manners root of violence which saturates and captures the minds of
found in places conquered by Islam. these fundamentalists
ABBASID PERIOD (AD. 750 - 1258)
 Regarded as the “Greatest Period of Development and Muslims:
Achievement” ~ The prophet Muhammad urges Muslims to fight in the
 ADAB, an Arabic prose sprinkled with poetry and utilized cause of Allah
rhyme prose known as “saj” The style of Koran came to ~ The Qur'an commands Muslims not to befriend Jews and
existence. Christians
 Arabian Nights or The Thousand and One Nights, ~ The Qur'an declares that Muslims who fight and die in battle
Contains inventive type of folk literature, which based on are promised forgiveness and a sexual luxurious life in
the recitation of rawis. Paradise.
~ The Qur'an commands Muslims to terrorize and torture and
MODERN PERIOD 19th Century - Present kill anyone who disobeys Allah and the Prophet
 Arabic Literature declined during the Ottoman Turkish Muhammad
domination, however the Renaissance Period took place, ~ The Qur'an declares that Allah loves those who fight in His
so then Arabs revived their classical genres and they came cause
into contact to Western Literature and Civilization. ~ The Qur'an commands Muslims to convert non Muslims to
 The 20th Century witnessed the real birth of modern Islam by force
Arabic Literature. Short story and Novel came to being in
this period LITERATURE :
Saudi Arabia - It is found in the Middle East between the - A written Arabic literature began to be known with the
Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. OIt boarders Jordan, Iraq, and collect of Qur'an in 17th century A.D , the Arabian language
Kuwait to the north, Yemen to the south, and Oman, the soon became a major world language.
United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Qatar to the east. It is - The Arabian possessed a highly developed poetry, composed
divided into 13 provinces. of recitation and transmitted from generations.
- The most famous examples are the elaborated odes or
ARABIAN GEOGRAPHY: qasdahs of Mu'allagat, beginning with those of Imru'Alqais
-Between the Persian Gulf and Red Sea - These poems reflected and praised the customs and values of
- Has 13 provinces the desert environment in which they arose.
- Composed primarily of desert - The earliest known literature emerged in northern
- Has a governor each region appointed by the King Historical Periods:
- Land square area of 1.96 million square kilometers ~ Ummayad Period ( A.D. 661-750) - Arabic prose literature
(756,981 square miles) was limited primarily to grammatical treatise, commentaries on
- One fourth the size of US the Qur'an , and compiling of stories about Muhammad and his
- The capital is Riyadh companions.
Largest City: Riyadh, Jeddah, Mecca, Medina, Al-Ahsa, Ummayad poets:
Ta'if, Dammam, Khamis, Mushait, > Al-Akhtal
> Al- Farazdaq
Brief history of Saudi Arabia > Dhu Rumma
- Arabs originated on the descendants of tribes and lived along > Jarir
the Persian Gulf coast
- Arab Peninsula is also the homeland of Islam - Islam is the POETIC FORMS: - love lyrics (Ghazals), wine songs,
world's largest religion hunting
- Muhammad founded Islam Abbasid Empire (750- 1258) - The greatest period of
- Two holy pilgrimage cities are Mecca and Medina development and achievement - Persian influences contributed
- Arabic is their language significantly to this development, translations from Persian
- By 1517 the Ottoman empire dominated ( Ibn al-Muqaff') led a new refinement in Arabic prose called
- Qur'an is the sacred scripture of Islam Adab, often add with poetry and utilizing rhyme prose ( saj')
CULTURE & BELIEFS: the style of Qur'an.
CLOTHING: Greatest masters of Adab:
~ For women, full length body cover ; abayah,jilbob, and > Al jahiz
veil ; hijab or chador (Sign of respect for Muslim modesty > Al Hariri
laws)
~ For men, traditional flowing robes, blue jeans, t- shirts and New poets:
western business suits > Abu Nuwas – used the Arabic language with greater
freedom and imagination.
FOOD: > Al-Maarri and Al-Mtanabi- regarded as the greatest among
Alcohol consumption – nightlife is forbidden and under the them Outstanding authors:
law > IBN ISHAQ – Author of Mohammad's life
Eating pork – considered unclean and prohibited. > Rabja of Bastra and Sufi poetess
> ABU NUEVAS – The greatest Arab lyricist
FAMILY: - Large extended families live together and
nepotism is encouraged, but it still depends if the family ~ Modern Period - During the centuries of Ottoman Turkish
members agree. domination Arabic literature fall into decline, not until mid
STORY TELLING: 19th century it was revived by intellectual movement known as
- Another favourite form of artistic expression, but in keeping Nahdah (reawakening), originated in Syria and spread to Egypt.
with Islamic law, guidelines govern public performances and - Arabic writers of the past hundred years have been
artist can't make “graven images.” extremely versatile, most of their works is characterized by
- Hand lettered Qur'an are considered sacred art that's to be strong concern for social issues. Outstanding recent Arabic
respected and kept safe for generations. HOLIDAYS: novelists, dramatists and essayists:
The Qur'anThe Qur'an 2. Fundamentalist – foundations of Quran. They want to
- Sacred scripture of Islam apply the more extreme verses of the Quran to the letter.
- The actual words of god revealed by Muhammad Fundamentalist beliefs:
- Contains 114 chapters or suras and divided into 6,236 verses 1. The Prophet Muhammad urges Muslims to fight in the
or ayah cause of Allah.
- Termed as the glorious and wonderful, describes the absolute 2. The Quran commands Muslims no to befriend Jews or
truth, healing mercy, light and guidance of god to people's Christians.
everyday lives 3. The Quran commands Muslims to fight Jews or Christians.
- Has a great contribution to Arabian literature 4. The Quran commands Muslims to fight non- Muslims
- Revealed from god to Muhammad through the until they are exterminate.
5. The Quran declares that Muslims who fight and die in the
Arabian Nights (One thousand and One Nights) battle are promised forgiveness and a sexual luxurious life in
- A collection of Middle eastern and South Asian stories and paradise.
folktales compiled in Arabic, during the Islamic Golden age.
- The common throughout the editions of the Nights is the Stories :
initial frame story of the ruler Shahryar meaning “king” or The Quran O The Arabian Nights, The Lady and her five
“sovereign” and his wife Scheherazade, meaning “noble Suitors, Love by Kahlil Gibran, The Prophet, The Twelve
lineage” Apostle, Bewildered Arab, The Food of Paradise, The Greedy
- Some editions contain only a few hundred nights, while Jackal , Count not your chicken before they hatched.
others include 1,001 or more.
- The bulk of the text is in prose, although the verse is
occasionally used for songs and riddles and to express ============================================
heightened emotion =============================
Dessert - 95% of their land is dessert. Chinese literature
Riyadh - The capital, located in the central eastern part of the (The Red Dragon) in East asia
country.
Arabs - Originated in the descendants of indigenous tribes and
lived along the Persian Gulf Coast. a) Shang Dynasty (1600 B.C.).
Arabian Peninsula - Is also the homeland of Islam. b) Chou Dynasty (1100 B.C. – 221 B.C.).
Islam - The world’s second largest religion. c) Ch’in Dynasty (221 B.C. – 207 B.C.).
Mecca and Medina - Two holy pilgrimage cities. d) Han Dynasty (207 B.C. – A.D. 220).
Mecca the Blessed - Medina the Radiant e) T’ang Dynasty (A.D. 618-960).
Ottoman Empire - Dominated in the middle 18th century. f) Sung Dynasty (A.D. 960 – 1279).
Pork - It is considered unclean. g) Later Dynasties (A.D. 1260-1912).
Lunch - Day’s main meal. h) Traditional Chinese Government.
Alcohol consumption - Nightlife are forbidden.
Abaya - Black robes and face covering of female as a sign of Shang Dynasty
respect for Muslim modesty laws. - During this time, the people practiced a religion based on the
Nepotism - Favoritism granted to relatives. belief that nature was inhabited by many powerful gods and
Storytelling - Another favorite form of artistic expression. spirits. Among the significant advances of this period were
Ramadan - The holiest season marks fasting. bronze working, decimal system, a twelve-month calendar and
Muhammad - Their prophet. Othe central figure of Islam and a system of writing consisting of 3,000 characters.
widely identified as its founder by non- Muslims.
He is known as the "Holy Prophet" to Muslims, Chou Dynasty
almost all of whom consider him to be the final prophet of God. (1100 B.C. – 221 B.C.)
Quran - Sacred scripture- 114 suras or chapters - 6,236 ayat This was the longest of all the dynasties and throughout most
or verses of this period China suffered from severe political disunity and
Arabic - The term for their language. A Central Semitic upheaval. This era was also known as the Hundred Schools
language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia period because of the many competing philosophers and
and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. teachers who emerged the most influential among them being
Jihad - Holy war between Christians and Muslims. Lao Tzu, the proponent of Taoism, and Confucius, the founder
Umayyad Empire of Confucianism. Lao Tzu stressed freedom, simplicity, and
Arabic Prose Literature – grammatical treatise, the mystical contemplation of nature whereas Confucius
commentaries on the Quran and compiling of stories about emphasized a code of social conduct and stressed the
Muhammad. importance of discipline, morality, and knowledge.
Ghazals – love lyrics
Abbasid Empire  The Book of Songs, (Shih Ching) first compiled in the
“One thousand and One Nights” – also called as the Arabian 6th century B.C., is the oldest collection of Chinese
Nights. poetry and is considered a model of poetic expression and
It is the collection of Middle Eastern South Asian stories and moral insight.
folk tales. The poems include court songs that entertained the aristocracy,
Richard Francis Burton – translated the One thousand and story songs that recounted Chou dynasty legends, hymns that
One night to English version. were sung in the temples accompanied by dance and brief folk
Rawis - storytellers songs and ballads.
Modern Period ONahdah –means “reawakening”  The Parables of the Ancient Philosophers illustrate the
Saj or rhymed prose – most striking characteristics feature of Taoist belief and the humanism of the Chinese
Arabic prose. thought. In them can be seen the relativity of all things as
Golden Age or Arabic Prose they pass through man’s judgment, the virtues of
Mora – interactive and assuring anecdotes. flexibility, and the drawbacks of material progress.
Occasional Poems – 2 to 20 lines; theme – about war and
revenge and praise of one’s own tribe. Ch’in Dynasty
Collection or Anthologies (221 B.C. – 207 B.C.).
Al – Mu’llagqat – a group of pre-Islamic Odes. This period saw the unification of China and the strengthening
3 types of collection: of central government. Roads connecting all parts of the
1. Al-Mu-Allkat – “suspended” empire were built and the existing walls on the northern
2. Al hamasa – anthrology compiled by poets borders were connected to form the Great Wall of China.
3. Mujaddiyat – collection of poems Kasidas – a type of
literature Adab – Arabic word used for Literature which Han Dynasty
means “ etiquette”. (207 B.C. – A.D. 220).
Types of Muslim This period was one of the most glorious eras of Chinese
1. Sunni – highest form of Muslim ( 80% ) history and was marked by the introduction of Buddhism from
2. Shiite – 10 – 16 persons India.
3. Sufis – experience of god.
4. Baha – modern Muslim
T’ang Dynasty
Major types of Muslim (A.D. 618-960).
1. Secularist Muslim – who do not have the knowledge of the Fine arts and literature flourished during this era which is
Quran. They are the modern ones. They only know some viewed as the Golden Age of Chinese civilization. Among the
verses of the Quran. (Surat Al Kahf) technological advances of this time were the invention of
gunpowder and the block printing.
 Confucian ethics is humanist. The following are
Confucian tenets:
- Chinese lyrical poetry reached its height during the T’ang a) jen or human heartedness are qualities or forms of
Dynasty. Inspired by scenes of natural beauty, T’ang poets behavior that set men above the rest of the life on earth. It is
wrote about the fragile blossoms in spring, the falling of leaves the unique goodness of man which animals cannot aspire
in autumn, or the changing shape. to. Also known as ren, it is the measure of individual character
and such, is the goal of self-cultivation. The ideal individual
Sung Dynasty results from acting according to li,
(A.D. 960 – 1279). b) li refers to ritual, custom, propriety, and manner. Li is
This period was characterized by delicacy and refinement thought to be the means by which life should be regulated. A
although inferior in terms of literary arts but great in person of li is a good person and a state ordered by li is a
learning. Professional poets were replaced by amateur harmonious and peaceful state. Li or de as a virtue is best
writers. The practice of Neo-Confucianism grew. understood as a sacred power inherent in the very presence of
the sage. The sage was the inspiration for proper conduct and
Later Dynasties the model of behavior.
(A.D. 1260-1912)
- During the late 12th and early 13th centuries, northern China Taoism, was expounded by Lao Tzu during the Chou
was overrun by Mongol invaders led by Genghis Khan whose Dynasty. Taoist beliefs and influences are an important part of
grandson Kublai Khan completed the Mongol conquest of classical Chinese culture. “The Tao” or “The Way” means the
China and established the Yuan dynasty, the first foreign natural course that the world follows. To follow the tao of to
dynasty in China’s history. “go with the flow” is both wisdom and happiness. For the
-It was during this time that Marco Polo visited Taoist, unhappiness comes from parting from the tao or from
China. Chinese rule was reestablished after the Mongols were trying to flout it.
driven out of China and the Ming dynasty was established.
- There was a growth of drama in colloquial language and a  The Taoist political ideas are very passive: the good king
decline of the language of learning. A second foreign dynasty, does nothing, and by this everything is done
the Ch’ing was established and China prospered as its naturally. This idea presents an interesting foil to
population rapidly increased causing major problems for its Confucian theories of state, although the Taoists never
government. represented any political threat to the
Confucianists. Whereas Confucianism stressed
conformity and reason in solving human problems,
Philosophy and Religion Taoism stressed the individual and the need for human
 Chinese literature and all of Chinese culture has been beings to conform to nature rather than to society.
profoundly influenced by three great schools of thought:
Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism.  Lao-tzu. Known as the “old philosopher”, Lao-zi is
 Unlike Western religions, Chinese religions are based on credited as the founder of Taoism and an elder
the perception of life as a process of continual change in contemporary of Confucius who once consulted with
which opposing forces, such as heaven and earth or light him. He was more pessimistic than Confucius was about
and dark, balance one another. what can be accomplished in the world by human
 These opposites are symbolized by the Yin and Yang. action. He counseled a far more passive approach to the
 Yin, the passive and feminine force, world and one’s fellows: one must be cautious and let
counterbalances yang, the active and masculine force, things speak for themselves. He favored a more direct
each contains a ‘seed’ of the other, as represented in the relationship between the individual self and the dao.
traditional yin-yang symbol.
 The Tao-Te Ching (Classic of the Way of Power) is
Confucianism provides the Chinese with both a moral order believed to have been written between the 8th and
and an order for the universe. It is not a religion but it makes 3rd centuries B.C. The basic concept of the dao is wu-
individuals aware of their place in the world and the behavior wei or “non-action” which means no unnatural action,
appropriate to it. It also provides a political and social rather than complete passivity. It implies spontaneity,
philosophy. non-interference, letting things take their natural course
i.e., “Do nothing and everything else is done.” Chaos
Confucius was China’s most famous teacher, philosopher, and ceases, quarrels end, and self-righteous feuding
political theorist, whose ideas have influenced all civilizations disappears because the dao is allowed to flow
of East Asia. unchallenged.
 According to tradition, Confucius came from an
impoverished family of the lower nobility. Buddhism was imported from India during the Han
 He became a minor government bureaucrat but was never dynasty. Buddhist thought stresses the importance of ridding
give a position of high office. oneself of earthly desires and of seeking ultimate peace and
 He criticized government policies and spent the greater enlightenment through detachment. With its stress on living
part of his life educating a group of disciples. ethically and its de-emphasis on material concerns, Buddhism
 Confucius was not a religious leader in the ordinary sense, appealed to both Confucians and Taoists.
for his teaching was essentially a social ethic.
 Confucian politics is hierarchical but not absolute and the Genres in Chinese Poetry
political system is described by analogy with the family. Always been highly valued in Chinese culture and was
 There are five key Confucian relationships: emperor and considered superior to prose. Chief among its characteristics
subject, father and son, husband and wife, older are lucidity, brevity, subtlety, suggestiveness or understatement,
brother and younger brother, friend and friend. and its three-fold appeal to intellect, emotion, and
The Analects (Lun Yu) is one of the four Confucian calligraphy. There are five principle genres in Chinese poetry:
texts. The sayings range from brief statements to more A. shih
extended dialogues between Confucius and his students. shih was the dominant Chinese poetic form from the
 Confucius believes that people should cultivate the 2nd through the 12th century characterized by:
inherent goodness within themselves –unselfishness, i) an even number of lines;
courage, and honor – as an ideal of universal moral and ii) the same number of words in each line, in most cases five or
social harmony. seven; and
 The Analects instructs on moderation in all things iii) the occurrence of rhymes at the end s of the even-numbered
through moral education, the building of a harmonious lines.
family life, and the development of virtues such as loyalty, Shih poems often involve the use of parallelism, or couplets
obedience, and a sense of justice. It also emphasizes filial that are similar in structure or meaning.
piety and concern with social and religious rituals.
 To Confucius, a person’s inner virtues can be fully B. sao
realized only through concrete acts of ‘ritual propriety’ or sao was inspired by li sao or ‘encountering sorrow’, a poem of
proper behavior toward other human beings. lamentation and protest authored by China’s first known great
The Book of Changes (I Ching) is one of the Five Classics of poet, Chu Yuan (332-295 B.C.). It was an unusually long
Confucian philosophy and has been primarily used for poem consisting of two parts:
divination. This book is based on the concept of change – the i) an autobiographical account that is Confucian in overtones;
one constant of the universe. Although change is never-ending, and
it too proceeds according to certain universal and observable ii) a narration of an imaginary journey undertaken by the
patterns. persona.
The sao enables the poets to display their creativity of
describing China’s flora and fauna, both real and imaginary. It
is also filled with melancholia for unrewarded virtue
 of Chinese history in more than half a million written
C. Fu characters etched onto bamboo tablets
fu was a poem partially expository and partly descriptive  Li Po (701 –762) was Wang Wei’s contemporary and he
involving a single thought or sentiment usually expressed in a spent a short time in courts, but seems to have bee too
reflective manner. Language ranges from the simple to the much of a romantic and too give to drink to carry out
rhetorical. responsibilities. He was a Taoist, drawing sustenance
from nature and his poetry was often other-wordly and
D. lu-shih ecstatic. He had no great regard for his poems
lu-shih or ‘regulation poetry’ was developed during the Tang himself. He is said to have mad thousands of them into
dynasty but has remained popular even in the present times. It paper boats which he sailed along streams
is an octave consisting of five or seven syllabic verses with a  Tu Fu (712 –770) is the Confucian moralist, realist, and
definite rhyming scheme with all even lines rhyming together humanitarian. He was public-spirited, and his poetry
and the presence of the caesura in every line. The first four helped chronicle the history of the age: the deterioration.
lines of this poem is the ching (scene) while the remaining four
lines describe the ch’ing (emotion). Thus, emotion evolves TANG POETS
from the setting or atmosphere and the two becomes fused  Wang Wei (796? – 761?) was an 8th century government
resulting in a highly focused reflection of the persona’s official who spent the later years of his life in the country,
loneliness but with determination to struggle. reading and discussing Buddhism with scholars and
monks. He is known for the pictorial quality of his poetry
E. chueh-chu and for its economy. His word-pictures parallel Chinese
chueh-chu or truncated poetry is a shorter version of the lu- brush artistry in which a few strokes are all suggestive of
shih and was also popular during the Tang dynasty. It contains authority, the disasters of war, and official extravagance.
only four lines but within its twenty or twenty-eight syllables  Li Ch’ing-chao (A.D. 1084 – 1151) is regarded as
or characters were vivid pictures of natural beauty. China’s greatest woman poet and was also one of the
most liberated women of her day. She was brought up in
F. tzu court society and was trained in the arts and classical
tzu was identified with the Sung dynasty. It is not governed by literature quite an unusual upbringing for a woman of the
a fixed number of verses nor a fixed number of characters per Sung dynasty. Many of her poems composed in
verse. The tzu lyrics were sung to the tunes of popular the tz’u form celebrate her happy marriage or express her
melodies. loneliness when her husband was away.
 Chou-Shu-jen (1881 – 1936) has been called the ‘father
There are four principal roles: sheng, tau, ching, and chao. of the modern Chinese short story because of his
 The sheng is the prerogative of the leading actor, usually introduction of Western techniques. He is also known
a male character, a scholar, a statesman, a warrior patriot as Lu Hsun whose stories deal with themes of social
and the like. concern, the problems of the poor, women, and
 The tau plays all the women’s roles. At least six intellectuals.
principal characters are played by the female
impersonator who has taken over the role after women
were banned from the Chinese stage as they were looked
down upon as courtesen.
 The ching roles usually assigned the roles of brave
warriors, bandits, crafty and evil ministers, upright judges,
loyal statesmen, at times god-like and supernatural
beings. Conventionally, the ching must have broad faces
and forehead suitable for the make-up patters suggestive
of his behavior.
 The chau is the clown or jester who is not necessarily a
fool and may also do serious or evil character. He is
easily recognized for the white patch around his eyes and
nose, his use of colloquial language and adeptness in
combining mimicry and acrobatics.
 Unlike Greek plays, classical Chinese plays do not follow
the unities of time, place, and action. The plot may be set
in two or more places, the time element sometimes taking
years to develop or end, and action containing many other
sub-plots.
 Chinese drama conveys an ethical lesson in the guise of
art in order to impress a moral truth or a Confucian
tenet. Dramas uphold virtue, condemn vice, praise
fidelity, and filial piety. Vice is represented on the stage
not for its own sake but as contrast to virtue.
 There are two types of speeches – the dialogue, usually in
prose, and the monologues. While the dialogue carries
forward the action of the day, the monologue is the means Chinese Literature 1000 B.C.- A.D. 1890
for each character to introduce him/herself at the  Know contentment And you will suffer no disgrace;
beginning of the first scene of every scene as well as to Know when to stop And you will meet with no danger.
outline the plot. You can then endure. - the Tao Te Ching
China is the world’s oldest surviving civilization, lasting well
Major Chinese Writers over 3500 years.
 Chuang Tzu (4th century B.C.) was the most important Chinese history is generally divided into dynasties, family or
early interpreter of the philosophy of Taoism. Very little group of people who reigned.
is known about his life except that he served as a minor Shang 1766 B.C.- 1122 B.C.
court official. In his stories, he appears as a quirky Chou 1122 B.C.- 221B.C.
character who cares little for either public approval or Ch’in 221 B.C.-206 A.D.
material possessions. Literary Context
 Lieh Tzu (4th century B.C.) was a Taoist teacher who Poetry is a part of everyday life throughout the history of
had many philosophical differences with his forebears China.
Lao-Tzu and Chuan Tzu. He argued that a sequence of Poets have been among the most highly regarded members of
causes predetermines everything that happens, including Chinese society.
one’s choice of action 2nd – 12th centuries A.D. - the main Chinese poetic form
 Lui An (172 – 122 B.C.) was not only a Taoist scholar was the Shih (she)
but the grandson of the founder of the founder of the Han Even number of lines, each of which has the same number of
dynasty. His royal title was the Prince of Haui- words. Often expressed personal emotions. Many have
nan. Together with philosophers and under his patronage, brooding or troubled tone, but can express elation or
he produced a collection of essays on metaphysics, contentment.
cosmology, politics, and conduct.
 Ssu-ma Ch’ien (145 – 90 B.C.) was the greatest of Chinese Philosophy
China’s ‘Grand Historians’ who dedicated himself to  Contrast between Chinese and Western modes of
completing the first history of China the Records of the philosophic thinking Western philosophers seek out the
Historian. His work covers almost three thousand years
 being of things, the essential reality lying behind The oldest of the Vedas, it contains strong, energetic, non-
appearances speculative hymns, often comparable to the psalms in the Old
 Chinese principal the establishment and cultivation of Testament. The Hindus regard these hymns as divinely
harmonious relationships within their social structures inspired or ‘heard’ directly from the gods.
Chinese thinking is far more concrete, this-worldly and,
above all, practical. Epic and Buddhist Age
(500 B.C. – A.D.).
Cultural Context Chinese attitudes & beliefs were The period of composition of the two great
shaped by 3 religious and philosophical schools: epics, Mahabharata and the Ramayana. This time was also
the growth of later Vedic literature, new Sanskrit literature,
Taoism Tao- path or the way and Buddhist literature in Pali.
 Stresses freedom, simplicity & the mystical contemplation The Dhammapada was also probably composed during this
of nature (“Tao”). period.
 Force that controlled the universe. The Maurya Empire (322-230 B.C.) ruled by Ashoka
 Beyond the scope of human concerns, but can see its promoted Buddhism and preached goodness, nonviolence, and
workings by observing nature. ‘righteousness’ although this period was known for warfare
 Avoid human desires and iron-fisted rule.
 Not educating The Gupta Dynasty (320-467 B.C.) was the next great
 Not honoring men of worth or encourage cleaver to act political power. During this time, Hinduism reached a full
 Cause jealousy and greed flowering and was evident in culture and the arts.
 Opposite of Confucianism
Mahabharata
Confucianism The Mahabharata, traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa,
 How people act- moral behavior consists of a mass of legendary and didactic material that tells
 Social relations based on subordination: family ruled by of the struggle for supremacy between two groups of cousins,
authoritarian father, state ruled by authoritarian king. The Kauravas and the Pandavas set sometime 3102 BC. The
 Respect & obey those with superior status. However, poem is made up of almost 100,000 couplets divided into
governed by the concept ren- with a loving attitude 18 parvans or sections.
towards others. It is an exposition on dharma (codes of conduct), including
the proper conduct of a king, of a warrior, of a man living in
Confucianism - Tried to teach students to become true times of calamity, and of a person seeking to attain
gentlemen- morally & spiritually emancipation from rebirth.
 Must conduct oneself in a virtuous manner; those in
power serve as models. The Bhagavad Gita
 Heaven is the supreme moral authority, which dictates The Bhagavad Gita (The Blessed Lord’s Song) is one of the
how one must live. greatest and most beautiful of the Hindu scriptures.
It forms part of Book IV and is written in the form of a
Buddhism - To lead a moral life dialogue between the warrior Prince Arjuna and his friend
 To be mindful and aware of thoughts and actions and charioteer,
 To develop wisdom and understanding Krishna, who is also an earthly incarnation of the god
 Life is sorrow and sorrow is caused by desires Vishnu.
 Rid self of desires
 Does not claim to be God
Ramayana
 Attain enlightenment through meditation
 Solutions to our problems are within ourselves Beliefs are The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit, probably not
incorporated into poetry through symbols, imagery and before 300 BC, by the poet Valmiki and consists of some
language of Chinese Literature. 24,000 couplets divided into seven books.
 Quietude and calmness is a central notion in Buddhist It reflects the Hindu values and forms of social organization,
thought. the theory of karma, the ideals of wifehood, and feelings about
caste, honor and promises.
5 Precepts
 Not to take the life of anything living The poem describes the royal birth of Rama, his tutelage under
 Not to take anything not freely given the sage Visvamitra, and his success in bending Siva’s mighty
 To abstain from sexual misconduct and sexual bow, thus winning Sita, the daughter of King Janaka, for his
overindulgences wife. After Rama is banished from his position as heir by an
 Refrain from untrue speech intrigue, he retreats to the forest with his wife and his half
 Avoid intoxication (losing mindfulness) brother, Laksmana. There Ravana, the demon-king of Lanka,
carries off Sita, who resolutely rejects his attentions. After
Karma - The law that everything has a cause and effect numerous adventures Rama slays Ravana and rescues
 Our actions have results Sita. When they return to his kingdom, however, Rama learns
 Why handicapped, why gifted that the people question the queen’s chastity, and he banishes
 People responsible for their past and present actions her to the forest where she gives birth to Rama’s two
sons. The family is reunited when the sons come of age, but
Sita, after again protesting her innocence, asks to be received
by the earth, which swallows her up.
Classical Period
INDIAN LITERATURE (REVIEWER) (A.D. – 1000 A.D.)
The main literary language of northern India during this
Literary Periods period was Sanskrit, in contrast with the Dravidian languages
of southern India. Sanskrit, which means ‘perfect speech’ is
The Indus Valley civilization flourished in northern India considered a sacred language, the language spoken by the gods
between 2500 and 1500 B.C. and goddesses.
Aryans, a group of nomadic warriors and herders, were the As such, Sanskrit was seen as the only appropriate language
earliest known migrants into India. for the noblest literary works.
a) Vedic Period (1500 B.C. –500 B.C.). Poetry and drama peaked during this period. Beast fables
b) Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C. – A.D.). such as the Panchatantra were popular and often used by
c) Classical Period (A.D. – 1000 A.D.). religious teachers to illustrate moral points.
d) Medieval and Modern Age (A.D. 1000 – present).
The Panchatantra is a collection of Indian beast fables
Vedic Period originally written in Sanskrit.
(1500 B.C. –500 B.C.). In Europe, the work was known under the title The Fables of
This period is named for the Vedas, a set of hymns that formed Bidpai after the narrator, and Indian sage named Bidpai,
the cornerstone of Aryan culture. Hindus consider the Vedas, (called Vidyapati in Sanskrit). It is intended as a textbook
which were transmitted orally by priests, to be the most sacred of artha (worldly wisdom); the aphorisms tend to glorify
of all literature for they believe these to have been revealed to shrewdness and cleverness more than helping of others.
humans directly by the gods. The original text is a mixture of Sanskrit prose and stanzas
The Rigveda which has come to mean “hymns of supreme of verse, with the stories contained within one of five frame
sacred knowledge,” is the foremost collection stories.
or Samhita made up of 1,028 hymns.
The introduction, which acts as an enclosing frame for the The Hindus believe that all reality is one and spiritual, and that
entire work, attributes the stories to a learned Brahman each individual soul is identical with this reality and shares its
named Vishnusarman, who used the form of animal fables to characteristics: pure being, intelligence, and bliss.
instruct the three dull-witted sons of a king Everything that seems to divide the soul from this reality
is maya or illusion.
Sakuntala, a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells of the love
between Sakuntala and King Dushyanta. Life is viewed as an upward development through four stages
What begins as a physical attraction for both of them becomes of effort called the four asramas:
spiritual in the end as their love endures and surpasses all the student stage – applies to the rite of initiation into the
difficulties. study of the Vedas;
King Dushyanta is a noble and pious king who upholds his the householder stage – marries and fulfills the duties as
duties above personal desire. head of the family where he begets sons and earns a living;
Sakuntala, on the other hand, is a young girl who matures the stage of the forest dweller – departs from home and
beautifully because of her kindness, courage, and strength of renounces the social world; and
will. After a period of suffering, the two are eventually d) ascetic – stops performing any of the rituals or social
reunited. Emotion or rasa dominates every scene in Sanskrit duties of life in the world and devotes time for reflection and
drama. These emotions vary from love to anger, heroism to meditation.
cowardice, joy to terror and allows the audience to take part in
the play and be one with the characters. Kama refers to one of the proper pursuits of man in his role as
householder, that of pleasure and love.
The Little Clay Cart (Mrcchakatika) is attributed The Kama-sutra is a classic textbook on erotics and other
to Shudraka, a king. forms of pleasure and love, which is attributed to the
The characters in this play include a Brahman merchant who sage Vatsyayana.
has lost his money through liberality, a rich courtesan in love The Hindus regard Purusha, the Universal Spirit, as the soul
with a poor young man, much description of resplendent and original source of the universe.
palaces, and both comic and tragic or near-tragic emotional As the universal soul,
situations. Purusha is the life-giving principle in all animated beings.
As a personified human being, Purusha's body is the source
Medieval and Modern Age of all creation.
(A.D. 1000 – present).
The four Varnas serve as the theoretical basis for the
Persian influence on literature was considerable during this organization of the Hindu society. These were thought to
period. have been created from Purusha’s body:
Persian was the court language of the Moslem rulers. - The Brahman (priest) was Purusha’s mouth. Their duty is
In the 18th century India was directly under the British to perform sacrifices, to study and to teach the Vedas, and to
Crown and remained so until its Independence in 1947. guard the rules of dharma. Because of their sacred work, they
British influence was strong and modern-day Indians are are supreme in purity and rank.
primarily educated in English. - The Ksatriyas (warriors) are the arms. From this class
Many have been brought into the world of Western learning at arose the kings who are the protectors of society.
the expense of learning about their own culture. - The Vaisyas (peasants) are the thighs. They live by
trading, herding, and farming.
Gitanjali: - The Sudras (serfs) are the feet. They engage in
Song Offerings was originally published in India in 1910 and it handicrafts and manual occupation and they are to serve
s translation followed in 1912. meekly the three classes above them. They are strictly
In these prose translations, Rabindranath Tagore uses forbidden to mate with persons of a higher varna.
imagery from nature to express the themes of love and the
internal conflict between spiritual longings and earthly desires. The Upanishads form a highly sophisticated commentary on
the religious thought suggested by the poetic hymns of the
The Taj Mahal, a poem by Sahir Ludhianvi, is about the Rigveda.
mausoleum in North India built by the Mogul emperor Shah The name implies, according to some traditions, ‘sitting at the
Jahan for his wife Mumtaz-i-Mahal. feet of the teacher.’ The most important philosophical doctrine
The façade of this grandiose structure is made of white is the concept of a single supreme being, the Brahman, and
marble and is surrounded by water gardens, gateways, and knowledge is directed toward reunion with it by the human
walks. soul, the Atman or Self.
The tomb at the center of the dome stands on a square block The nature of eternal life is discussed and such themes as the
with towers at each corner. The construction of the building transmigration of souls and causality in creation.
took twenty years to complete involving some 20, 000
workers.
Buddhism
On Learning to be an Indian an essay by Santha Rama Rau Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century B.C.
illustrates the telling effects of colonization on the lives of the This religion is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama,
people particularly the younger generation. called Buddha, or the ‘Enlightened One.’ Much of
The writer humorously narrates the conflicts that arise Buddha’s teaching is focused on self-awareness and self-
between her grandmother's traditional Indian values and development in order to attain nirvana or enlightenment.
the author’s own British upbringing.
According to Buddhist beliefs, human beings are bound to the
wheel of life which is a continual cycle of birth, death, and
suffering.
Religions This cycle is an effect of karma in which a person’s present
Indian creativity is evident in religion as the country is the life and experiences are the result of past thoughts and actions,
birthplace of two important faiths: and these present thoughts and actions likewise create those of
Hinduism, the dominant religion, and Buddhism, which the future.
ironically became extinct in India but spread throughout Asia. The Buddhist scriptures uphold the Four Noble Truths and
the Noble Eightfold Path.
Hinduism
The Four Noble Truths are:
Hinduism life is suffering;
Hinduism, literally “the belief of the people of India,” is the the cause of suffering is desire;
predominant faith of India and of no other nation. the removal of desire is the removal of suffering; and
The Hindus are deeply absorbed with God and the creation the Noble Eightfold Path leads to the end of suffering.
of the universe.
The Purusarthas are the three ends of man: The Noble Eightfold Path consists of:
dharma – virtue, duty, righteousness, moral law; right understanding;
artha – wealth; and kama – love or pleasure. right thought;
right speech;
A fourth end is moksha – the renunciation of duty, wealth right action;
and love in order to seek spiritual perfection. right means of livelihood;
It is achieved after the release from samsara, the cycle of right effort;
births and deaths. right concentration; and
right meditation.
The Buddhist truth states that bad actions and bad feelings · Clear Light of Day. Considered the author’s most
such as selfishness, greed, hostility, hate are evil not successful work, this is a highly evocative portrait of two
because they harm others but because of their negative sisters caught in the lassitude of Indian life. This was
influence on the mental state of the doer. It is in this sense that shortlisted for the 1980 Booker Prize.
evil returns to punish the doer · Fire on the Mountain. This work was criticized as relying
too heavily on imagery at the expense of plot and
The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an anthology of basic characterization, but it was praised for its poetic symbolism
Buddhist teaching in a simple aphoristic style. and use of sounds. This won for her the Royal Society of
One of the best known books of the Pali Buddhist canon, it Literature’s Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize.
contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26 chapters.
These verses are compared with the Letters of St. Paul in the Vir Singh (1872-1957).
Bible or that of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount. A Sikh writer and theologian, he wrote at a time when Sikh
religion and politics and the Punjabi language were under
Major Writers heavy attack by the English and Hindus.
He extolled Sikh courage, philosophy, and ideals, earning
Kalidasa a - Sanskrit poet and dramatist is probably the respect for the Punjabi language as a literary vehicle.
greatest Indian writer of all time. Kalghi Dhar Chamatkar. This novel is about the life of the
As with most classical Indian authors, little is known about 17th century guru Gobind Singh.
Kalidasa’s person or his historical relationships. Other novels on Sikh philosophy and martial excellence
His poems suggest that he was a Brahman (priest). include Sundri (1898) and Bijai Singh (1899).
Many works are traditionally ascribed to the poet, but scholars
have identified only six as genuine. Arundhati Roy. A young female writer whose first book The
God of Small Things won for her a Booker Prize.
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941).
The son of a Great Sage, Tagore is a Bengali poet and mystic
who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913.
Tagore managed his father's estates and lived in close contact
with the villagers. His sympathy for their poverty and
backwardness was later reflected in his works. The death of
his wife and two children brought him years of sadness but this
also inspired some of his best poetry. Tagore is also a gifted
composer and a painter.
Prem Chand pseudonym of Dhanpat Rai Srivastava (1880-
1936).
Indian author of numerous novels and short stories in Hindi
and Urdu who pioneered in adapting Indian themes to
Western literary styles.
He worked as a teacher before joining Mahatma Gandhi’s
anticolonial Noncooperation Movement.
Sevasadana (House of Service).
His first major novel deals with the problems of prostitution
and moral corruption among the Indian middle class.
Manasarovar (The Holy Lake). A collection of 250 or so
short stories which contains most of Prem Chand’s best works.
Godan (The Gift of a Cow). This last novel was Prem
Chand’s masterpiece and it deals with his favorite theme – the
hard and unrewarding life of the village peasant.
Kamala Markandaya (1924).
Her works concern the struggles of contemporary Indians with
conflicting Eastern and Western values.
A Brahman, she studied at Madras University then settled in
England and married an Englishman.
In her fiction, Western values typically are viewed as modern
and materialistic, and Indian values as spiritual and traditional.
Nectar in a Sieve. Her first novel and most popular work is
about an Indian peasant’s narrative of her difficult life.
K. Narayan (1906).
One of the finest Indian authors of his generation writing in
English. He briefly worked as a teacher before deciding to
devote himself full-time to writing.
All of Narayan’s works are set in the fictitious South Indian
town of Malgudi.
They typically portray the peculiarities of human relationships
and the ironies of Indian daily life, in which modern urban
existence clashes with ancient tradition. His style is graceful,
marked by genial humor, elegance, and simplicity.
·
Swami and Friends. His first novel is an episodic narrative
recounting the adventures of a group of schoolboys.
Novels: The English Teacher (1945), Waiting for the
Mahatma (1955), The Guide (1958), The Man-Eater of
Malgudi (1961), The Vendor of Sweets (1967), A Tiger for
Malgudi (1983), and The World of Nagaraj (1990).
Collection of Short Stories: Lawley Road (1956), A Horse
and Two Goats and Other Stories (1970), Under the Banyan
Tree and Other Stories (1985), and Grandmother’s Tale
(1992).
Anita Desai (1937). An English-language Indian novelist
and author of children’s books, she is considered India’s
premier imagist writer. She excelled in evoking character and
mood through visual images. Most of her works reflect
Desei’s tragic view of life.
· Cry, the Peacock. Her first novel addresses the theme of
the suppression and oppression of Indian women.