An introduction to Shakespearean Tragedy

Despite their dazzling diversity, the tragedies of Shakespeare gain their enduring power from a shared
dramatic vision, argues Kiernan Ryan.

When we think about Shakespearean tragedy, the plays we usually have in mind are Titus Andronicus,
Romeo and Juliet, Julius Caesar, Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra and
Coriolanus. That core list of nine can be expanded to twelve, however, if we include the history plays
Richard III and Richard II, both of which were also billed as tragedies in Shakespeare’s day, and Timon of
Athens, whose claim to inclusion is more questionable, but which is listed as one of the tragedies on the
contents page (the ‘Catalogue’) of the 1623 First Folio. So, for that matter, is Cymbeline, though no one
could make a credible case for its belonging there, when it plainly belongs with the late romances –
Pericles, The Winter’s Tale and The Tempest – with which it’s long been grouped. Troilus and Cressida,
on the other hand, despite being advertised in an earlier edition as a first-rate comedy, is also entitled a
tragedy in the First Folio, but not listed at all in the Catalogue and placed ambiguously – as befits its
unclassifiable nature – between the histories and the tragedies.

The more one ponders the question of what qualifies as a Shakespearean tragedy, the more
complicated it can become. So modern studies of Shakespeare’s tragedies tend to focus on the plays
whose right to the title is undisputed, and treat each one separately as a self-contained tragedy, leaving
the question of what unites them unaddressed or unresolved. There’s a lot to be said for approaching
each tragedy first and foremost as a unique work of dramatic art in its own right. And the temptation to
boil them all down to the same generic formula should obviously be resisted. But it would be equally
misguided to rule out the possibility of identifying what the tragedies have in common without
dissolving the differences between them. For that would mean denying the strong sense most people
have, when watching or reading these plays, that there’s something distinctively Shakespearean about
their tragic vision that sets them apart from other kinds of tragedy.

Introduction William Shakespeare´s Hamlet is a fascinating play that has undoubtedly influenced
humans for several hundred years. One of the most befuddling subjects in the play is the Danish prince´
relationship to death, which is emphasised throughout the work. The play tells the protagonist´s story,
who loses his father and kingdom. In less than a month, Hamlet´s mother, Gertrude, marries her
brother-in-law, who now has become the king of Denmark. Dismayed, Hamlet is forced to endure the
immorality in Denmark, which successively makes him regard death as a refuge because he is depressed.
When the apparition of Hamlet senior reveals himself to his son, Hamlet discovers that Claudius (his
uncle) has murdered the late king. Thus, Hamlet is now forced to take revenge. During the play, Hamlet
is deceived by many; however, he is never able to avenge his father until the end where he and most of
the characters die. The play ends when Fortinbras gives Hamlet a military funeral and salute. When
reading the play for the first time, I became fascinated with Hamlet´s obsession with death, which is why
I have examined this particular topic in this essay. My thesis is as follows: my main claim is that Hamlet´s
relationship to death changes throughout the play, from a wish to escape into oblivion to an insight into
an honourable end to life. First, I believe that Hamlet´s relation to death is initially a refuge from pain. It
is evident that Hamlet regards death as a refuge from all mortal pain in act 1.2-3.2. Successively, the
prince´ relation to death becomes entwined with honour and he becomes willing to die for it. This
happens when Hamlet encounters Fortinbras in act 4.4. In subsection 2.2 `Catharsis´, I will show that
Hamlet´s depression decreases; he regains his intellect to a certain extent and his thinking becomes
clearer. In the final act and scene of the play, I believe that Hamlet willingly chooses to die for honour,
which is the final phase of my thesis. Before I continue with the rest of this introduction, I shall present
what other scholars have written on Hamlet. I have not found any specific essays that examine Hamlet´s
relationship to death in the same way that I intend to do. This is the reason as to why the essays I
present here are only indirectly connected with my thesis. In Shakespearean Tragedy, Andrew Cecil
Bradley claims that the death of Hamlet senior made young Hamlet depressed; nevertheless, Gertrude´s
moral turpitude is the true cause of her son´s depression. Gertrude´s degeneracy allows Hamlet´s
depression to consume him. Furthermore, Bradley speaks about Hamlet´s apathy; since the prince
succumbs to his mental disease, his apathy increases. Bradley believes that Hamlet´s melancholia is
fuelled by his lethargy, explaining that “the longing for death might become an irresistible impulse to 2
self-destruction; the disorder of feeling and will might extend to sense and intellect.” (122). Death is,
therefore, inevitable in Hamlet´s situation. In addition to Bradley´s theory, Joseph Carroll, in “Intentional
Meaning in Hamlet: An Evolutionary perspective”, believes that Hamlet is suffering from depression.
Carroll agrees with Bradley, but he develops Bradley´s theory much more profoundly, explaining Hamlet
´s depression in accordance with evolutionary psychology and medicine. Applying modern personality
research, Carroll constructs a potential personality for the prince. The scholar also believes that the
betrayals and incestuous relationship of Gertrude and Claudius created a depressive ambience in
Denmark. Moreover, Gertrude Morin, in “Depression and Negative Thinking: A Cognitive Approach to
Hamlet”, examines Hamlet using cognitive- behavioural theory (CBT). Her essay focuses on analysing
Hamlet´s thoughts using CBT to demonstrate how gravely ill and depressed he is. Morin believes that
everyone acts differently during calamities. Mental depression affects each victim in various ways;
additionally, those who succumb to mental disorientations frequently express anxiety regarding the
future, life and civilisation in general. This is well proven in her analysis. Morin analyses Hamlet´s
thoughts and actions in certain parts of the play to prove the he is completely lost in his thoughts, which
are negative. Finally, I have chosen to add Dr Thomas Regnier´s essay “The Law in Hamlet: Death,
Property and the Pursuit of Justice” because it clarifies why the prince becomes so affected by the
notion of honour. In the essay, Regnier analyses the law in Denmark, explaining that act 5.1 is important.
When conversing with the grave-digger and Horatio in the cemetery, Hamlet notices that the grave-
digger is hitting the skull of a corpse. Dismayed, the prince begins to associate that corpse with a lawyer.
Regnier believes that this scene is important because Hamlet realises that Claudius has deprived him of
everything. Hamlet has no land and his grave will be the only kingdom he will have. This essay analyses
Hamlet´s relation to death predominantly by using psychology. Certain concepts or theories from
psychoanalysis, modern psychology and CBT have been applied to examine Hamlet and death. I have
used Sigmund Freud´s `death-instinct´ and his conception of catharsis. Also, a general principle from CBT
has been applied to this essay to examine Hamlet´s cognition in subsection 2.2. Finally, I have referred to
general observations from modern psychology concerning depression. The information comes from a
website (www.psychcentral.com) created by professional psychologists. Identification is when
individuals mimic the actions of a parental figure. Such a process is pivotal because it will develop the
infant´s personality (Laplanche and Pontalis 170). The 3 identification theory I have predominantly
referred to is paternal identification. The psychoanalyst Michael J Diamond believes that a father is
important when a child´s personality is formed. Fathers can nurture a guiding and survival instinct in
their children´s development. The father, whom an infant will identify with in accordance with culture,
imagery and familial bonds, will influence the personality of his child from infancy to adulthood
(Diamond 252). When a man protects or watches over his wife and child, he will create enough time to
establish a mother and child relationship. This relationship forms the infant´s ego. Therefore, the father
is associated with protection in a child´s life (Diamond 257). The father is important to establish a
protective environment; nonetheless, if the child is deprived of a father imago, he will suffer from a
severe implication: unsuccessful development. The child will have no-one whom he can identify with
(Diamond 253). According to Diamond, children must identify with their fathers in order to establish
autonomy. During infancy, this process is highly important, but a father will continue to influence his
child (even if the child is 55 years old), because he is the figure whom his child will internalise with,
regardless of age (Diamond 252, 255-256, 267). Consequently, the father is important to avoid a sense
of impotence. Diamond´s theory is slightly problematic due to a reason. It is relatively difficult to
conclude that Hamlet is suffering from the repercussions associated with paternal identification because
he is a fictional character. However, the theory can offer a conceivable explanation as to why the
protagonist is depressed. As Diamond states, “the absence of good enough fathering produces
unmistakable consequences at each developmental junction” (253). The problems can only start if the
father has either failed as a parent or abruptly died. It seems plausible that Hamlet´s autonomy issues
began because his father was taken away from him (he was highly passive in the first acts). In other
words, the identification process was interrupted. Moreover, another method that I have used is
interpretation. I have analysed soliloquies, quotes and passages from different sections in the play and
tried to interpret them. To make sure that they are properly analysed, I have used the work of Amanda
Mabillard from Shakespeare Online when needed. Shakespeare Online is a website with information and
essays written by Shakespeare scholars, and Mabillard is a Shakespeare scholar who has written about
the soliloquies and quotes in Hamlet. I have also analysed and used a few concepts from the essays of
the scholars listed in this introduction in two different ways. The purpose is to either use their theories
as 4 verification of my own ones or partially to develop their theories and try to create my own ones
from the thoughts of Carroll, Bradley, Morin or Regnier when I can. Finally, the last subsection
elaborates on Hamlet and his view of honour. Regnier´s essay has been helpful when writing the final
subsection because it indirectly explains how Hamlet understands that his pride is wounded.
Additionally, I have referred to Bradley´s thoughts about Hamlet´s honour to analyse the prince´ view of
it in the final subsection. Before beginning the analysis, I will briefly summarise the contents of each
section to explain what will be conveyed and analysed. Section 1attempts to explain what Hamlet´s
depression is; this section explains how it begins and why it entraps him. It also elaborates on the
protagonist´s relationship to death; subsection 2.1 shows how it changes. Hamlet is beginning to accept
death if it is the only way to maintain honour. Additionally, the prince identifies with Fortinbras, which
will increase his autonomy to a certain extent. Subsection 2.2 shows how Hamlet partly regains his
autonomy and intellect because he manages to confront the trauma which initiated his depression. In
subsection 2.3, I will show how Hamlet willingly walks to his death to expose Claudius´ treachery and
maintain his honour.
Definition of Tragedy
Tragedy is a literary genre in which human suffering is emphasized through repeated misfortune.
Tragedy is often used to refer to types of plays but can apply to narrative literature as well.
The Notion of Tragedy
Tragedy usually deals with a progression from happy times to ultimate destruction or downfall.
In some cases, tragedy focuses on a single hero who is brought down by his or her own flaws
(usually normal human flaws like greed, obsession in love, blind loyalty, etc.) resulting in his or
her total fall from greatness.
For example, Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart sees the downfall of a proud man as his
actions cause the death of another man in his village. He is accused of manslaughter as a result of
his hubris and he becomes an outcast who dies alone.
Types of Tragedy
Greek tragedy aims to present moral lessons to the audience by telling the story of someone who
had it all but lost it due to a combination of personal flaws and circumstances outside of their
control.
 Agamemnon by Aeschylus highlights the crimes of Agamemnon’s family. Agamemnon
himself sacrificed his own daughter in order to gain favorable winds for his sailing
journey to Troy. His own wife, Clytemnestra, murders him in order to avenge their
daughter’s death. The lesson is that history and family heritage cannot be escaped no
matter what.
Unlike Greek tragedies, English tragedies do not only focus on elevated characters. Rather,
characters in English tragedies can come from any walk of life. Additionally, the tones of dignity
are less strictly upheld and humor is often included. Finally, morals do factor as an important
aspect, but the main objective is to entertain rather than to teach a moral lesson.
 William Shakespeare’s Othello also tells the story of an esteemed military man.
However, because of judgments against him due to his skin color, which lead to his status
as an outsider, he sabotages his closest relationships and his own abilities to achieve
success as paranoia and deceit take hold of his abilities to decipher who is trustworthy
and who is not fade away.
The Significance of Tragedies in Literature
Tragedies serve to present moral lessons, entertain audiences, or both. Historically speaking,
audiences have loved tragedies and the dramatic genre continues to be popular in our
contemporary times.
Tragedies function to provide audiences with a sense of catharsis which gives us a sense of relief
of pent-up emotions. Going through life leads to the inevitable storing of negative emotions and
according to philosopher Aristotle, tragedies help us to process our negative experiences and to
release lingering negativity.
In addition to processing negativity individually, audiences are able to learn moral lessons in the
format of a play. Entertainment and lesson-giving combine in order to inform audiences the
dangers of common human downfalls like pride, hubris, blind loyalty, lovesickness, etc.

Use of Tragedy in Literature

Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex is an example of tragedy in which Oedipus experiences tragic error.
His defiance of the gods in an act of hubris leads to him moving to a new city. In this city, he
unknowingly murders his father and marries his mother. This Greek tragedy follows the classic
guidelines where a man of high status experiences the ultimate downfall. As a result, a moral
lesson has been given to the audience.
Hamlet by Shakespeare is one of the most famous tragic plays of all time. Hamlet experiences
his downfall due to severe indecisiveness, doubt, and uncertainty. Hamlet chooses to pretend to
be mad in order to avoid dealing with his problems until he actually goes mad for real.
Tragedy in Literature 
Tragedy is the genre that explores human suffering without providing a happy ending to wrap it
all up. Tragedy most often refers to plays and sees the downfall of a character or group of
characters due to common human flaws and unfortunate events.