UPCOMING CHANGES TO SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA - 2000

by

Stephen W. Meier, P.E., S.E.

Vice President Engineering & Technology
TANK INDUSTRY CONSULTANTS, INC.

Introduction

National design standards first began to include procedures for the design of liquid storage tanks to resist
earthquakes in the 1970’s. The basic design standards and codes for tanks focused on providing better
details and structural resistance based on observed behavior and problems. This evolution in the design
standards has reduced both the frequency and the severity of problems with liquid storage tanks when they
are exposed to ground motion.

The goal of seismic design criteria for engineers and code writers is first and foremost the safety of the
public. To accomplish this, the approach has often been directed at preventing collapse or catastrophic
failure. The performance or serviceability of the structure exposed to after shocks, minimizing property
damage, or surviving the “big one” has not been incorporated into today’s building codes. Early methods,
which are still in use today by most liquid storage tank standards, are based on a prescribed earthquake load
measured against an allowable stress in the components of the structural system.

Since engineers first began to consider lateral loads from ground motion in the design of structures, the
fundamental basis of the design load has changed very little. The methods for establishing the level of
seismic ground motion and accelerations has continued to be defined into four basic zones that roughly
approximated an event with a return interval of 475 years. As maps were developed, the boundaries were
often skewed to fit local political or jurisdictional issues. New parameters to consider the influence of the
type of soil, the importance of the structure to post-earthquake society, and the ductility of different types
of structural systems and materials were added to the methods as knowledge increased. As a result of
impending changes to seismic design criteria, structures in many areas of the country will have to be
designed to withstand a much more severe seismic event. This is particularly true of structures east of the
Rocky Mountains.

Several changes either have been made or will be incorporated into earthquake design standards such as the
1997 National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP) Provisions, ASCE 7, and the upcoming
International Building Code 2000, which is intended to replace UBC, SBC, and BOCA.

Owners and operators of liquid storage tanks should factor these changes into their facility upgrade and
operational readiness planning. It is often practical and economical for existing tanks and vessels to be
upgraded to these new seismic criteria in order to remain compliant with the governing building code.
However, retrofits patterned after building-type structure solutions are expensive and often not suitable for
tanks and vessels. A seismic retrofit of a storage tank should begin with a thorough evaluation of the
existing structure, with particular attention to tank details that may be susceptible to damage in an
earthquake. A structural engineer experienced in the behavior of tanks and knowledgeable in details used
in tank construction should perform the design of the retrofit. Properly retrofitted, many tanks—whether of
steel or concrete—can offer significant continued service life and not endanger public safety during a
seismic event.

Defining the Seismic Hazard for Design

The goals of seismic criteria for the design and construction of structures in present day standards are to
• minimize the hazard to life,
• increase the expected performance of structures with a greater importance or hazard to the public,
• to improve the capability of structures essential for the welfare of the public after an earthquake.
Present standards do not explicitly limit the level of damage and repair costs or the suitability for
continued service.

The definition of the seismic load considered by the proposed codes and standards is based on buildings,
where most of the investigation and research has focused. The design loads for nonbuilding structures have
traditionally been derived from buildings. The seismic load level is defined from the following major
elements.

Level of Risk

The 1997 NEHRP Provisions are intended to serve as one of the source documents for use by groups
developing model building codes and voluntary standards. The seismic provisions in the pending
International Building Code 2000 are derived from the 1997 NEHRP Provisions, 97 UBC, SEAOC, and
ASCE 7 publications. Prior seismic design requirements for most building and nonbuilding structures were
based on a hazard defined with a 10% probability of exceedence (PE) in 50 years (a return internal of 475
years). Some nonbuilding structures such as nuclear facilities and refrigerated gas storage structures are
designed for Safe Shutdown Earthquake with a much longer return period. During the development of the
NEHRP Provisions, it was believed that the 10%PE was generally appropriate for defining seismic risk for
sites in the western US. However, it is believed to be inadequate for many eastern US locations that
historically have had fewer earthquakes with much longer return intervals. Consequently, the 1997
NEHRP Provisions adopted a 2% probability of exceedence in 50 years (a return period of approximately
2000 years). The USGS developed contour maps of the US based on 2%PE for short period and 1 second
period accelerations using the latest attenuation models and known faults. These maps are included in
NEHRP and proposed IBC 2000.

If the accelerations associated with the 2%PE are used directly for design, the seismic magnitudes would be
about 150% of the 10%PE magnitudes in present design standards. To avoid increasing the magnitude of
the seismic design accelerations, a factor of 2/3 was introduced to scale the mapped values to a design level
that closely approximates the present codes.

In addition to the probabilistic based mapping, USGS and the 1997 NEHRP provisions also developed a
deterministic approach for “near fault” zones. In several regions of the US where major faults are known to
exist, the near fault models are used to define a rational design load.

Comparison of the old UBC type contour maps and the new NEHRP / IBC 2000 maps yield several distinct
differences:

• The IBC maps do not use zones to define the ground accelerations.
• Many areas in the eastern US that were considered exempt from seismic design now have a seismic
ground acceleration defined.
• The maps are independent of political jurisdictions (although that may changed during the code
adoption process).
• In many regions, especially near faults, the mapped accelerations are steeply contoured and
significantly higher than previous maps.
• The impulsive accelerations are typically larger than previous codes and standards (sometimes
significantly larger).

Local soil and site influences

The influence of the soil characteristics continues to play a very significant role in determining the design
accelerations. Data from recent earthquakes has been incorporated into the site factors of the NEHRP and
ASCE 7 provisions. Comparison of design levels for older codes with the pending criteria often yields

“UPCOMING CHANGES TO SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA – 2000 page 2

Tank Industry Consultants
Stephen W. Meier, PE, SE
higher design values than expected, often due to the soil factors. A geotechnical evaluation and
classification of the site is one of the most important pieces of information needed by the design
professional, whether it is new construction or evaluating existing structures for modifications or upgrades.

The following table is an excerpt from the Final Draft of the proposed IBC 2000. It clearly illustrates the
potential impact that soil considerations may have on determining the seismic design loads. If no soil
information is available to support classification, Site D must be assumed.

“UPCOMING CHANGES TO SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA – 2000 page 3

Tank Industry Consultants
Stephen W. Meier, PE, SE
System response

The design response spectra curve is also being defined in terms of the two acceleration values- Sd1 and
SDS, which include modification factors for soil, Fv and Fa. The shape of the response curve is similar to the
historically used curve. However, for tanks and vessels designed to AWWA or API standards, there may
be significant differences in the magnitudes for the portion of the response spectra beyond Ts. The criteria
in the AWWA D100 and API 650 standards is based on Ts =1, where the proposed criteria bases Ts on the
ratio of Sds and Sd1. This has significant impact on the magnitude of the convective forces for some
locations and tank configurations.

Minimum loads are also required in the proposed IBC 2000. For nonbuilding systems that have an R value
provided, the minimum specified value shall be replaced by

Cs = 0.14SDSI
Or,
Cs = 0.8S1I/R

For tanks and vessels, the approved national standard loads are the minimum loads permitted.

“UPCOMING CHANGES TO SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA – 2000 page 4

Tank Industry Consultants
Stephen W. Meier, PE, SE
 Nonbuilding Structure Type R Ω0 Cd Structural System and
Height Limits (ft)c

Seismic Design Category

A& C D E&
B F

Flat bottom, ground supported tanks, or vessels:

Anchored (welded or bolted steel) 3 2 2-1/2 NL NL NL NL
Unanchored (welded or bolted steel) 2-1/2 2 2 NL NL NL NL
Reinforced or prestressed concrete:
Tanks with reinforced nonsliding base 2 2 2 NL NL NL NL
Tanks with anchored flexible base 3 2 2 NL NL NL NL
Tanks with unanchored and unconstrained:
Flexible base 1-1/2 1-1/2 1-1/2 NL NL NL NL
Other material 1 -/2 1-1/2 1-1/2 NL NL NL NL

Level of performance

Buildings are designed to protect occupants inside the structure whereas nonbuilding structures may need to be
designed in a special manner because they pose a different sort of risk to public safety (e.g., they may contain very
hazardous compounds or be essential components in critical lifeline systems); or, they may be of no risk at all to the
public. For example, tanks and vessels may contain materials that are essential for lifeline functions following a
seismic event (e.g., fire fighting, potable water), potentially harmful or hazardous to the environment or general
health of the public, biologically lethal or toxic, or explosive or flammable (threat of consequential or secondary
damage). For nonbuilding structures, an Importance Factor (I) is defined based on the material stored and the
function of the structure. See below:

Importance Factor (I) and Seismic Use Group Classification for Nonbuilding Structures
Importance I = 1.0 I = 1.25 I = 1.5
Factor
Seismic Use I II III
Group
Hazard H-I H - II H - III
Function F-I F - II F - III

H - I The stored product is biologically or environmentally benign; low fire or low physical hazard.
H - II The stored product is rated low explosion, moderate fire, or moderate physical hazard as
determined by the authority having jurisdiction.
H - III The stored product is rated high or moderate explosion hazard, high fire hazard, or high
physical hazard as determined by the authority having jurisdiction.
F - I Nonbuilding structures not classified as F - III.
F - II Not applicable.
F - III Seismic use group III nonbuilding structures or designated ancillary nonbuilding structures
(such as communication towers, fuel storage tanks, cooling towers, or electrical substation
structures) required for operation of Seismic Use Group III structures.

The most common damage to tanks observed during past earthquakes include:
• Buckling of the tank shell near the base due to excessive axial membrane forces. This buckling damage is
usually evident as an “elephant foot” buckle a short distance above the base in large diameter tanks, or as
diamond shaped buckles in the lower ring of tanks with an H/D or 1 or more. Buckling of the upper ring has
also been observed in some tanks.
• Damage to the roof due to sloshing liquid impinging on the underside of the roof in tanks with insufficient
freeboard.
• Failure of piping or other attachments that are overly restrained.
• Foundation failures.
Small diameter tanks and vessels are more susceptible to overturning and vertical buckling. As a general rule, the
greater the ratio of H/D, the lower its resistance is to vertical buckling. When H/D > 2, the overturning begins to
approach “rigid mass” behavior (the sloshing mass is small). Large diameter tanks may be governed by additional
hydrodynamic hoop stresses in the middle regions of the shell.
The performance of floating roofs typically used in the petroleum industry during earthquakes has been good with
damage usually confined to the rim seals, gage poles, and ladders. Similarly the performance of an open top with
top wind girder stiffeners designed per API 650 has been good.

The following performance categories are being proposed for the 2000 NEHRP Provisions:

Proposed Performance Criteria NEHRP 2000

Category Minimum post-earthquake performance
I The structure shall be permitted to sustain localized damage, including minor leaks,
provided (a) such damage remains localized and does not propagate; and (b) the resulting
leakage does not pose a threat to the public or to adjoining Category I, II or III structures.
II The structure shall be permitted to sustain minor damage, and its operational systems or
components (valves and controls) shall be permitted to become inoperative, provided that
(a) the structure retains its ability to contain 100% of its contents; and (b) the structure’s
minor damage and the failure of its operational systems or components are not
accompanied by, or lead to, leakage.
III The structure shall be permitted to sustain minor damage provided that (a) it shall retain its
ability to contain 100% of its contents without leakage; and (b) its operational systems or
components shall remain fully operational.

IV The structure shall be permitted to fail provided the resulting spill does not pose a threat to
the public or to adjoining Category I, II, or III structures.

Piping flexibility is an important part of the leak tightness of the tank system. The following criteria from NEHRP
are included in the proposed IBC 2000.

TABLE [Link] Minimum Displacements for Piping Attachments

Displacements
Anchored Tanks or Vessels (inches)
Vertical displacement relative to support or foundation. 2
Horizontal (radial and tangential) relative to support or foundation. 0.5
Unanchored Tanks or Vessels (at grade)
Vertical displacement relative to support or foundation.
If designed to meet approved standard. 6
If designed for seismic loads per these provisions but not covered by an approved standard. 12
For tanks and vessels with a diameter <40 ft, horizontal (radial and tangential) relative to 8
support or foundation.
Strength and Ductility
Structural components and members that are part of the lateral support system (which includes the tank, anchorage
and foundation) should be designed to provide the following (excerpt from NEHRP):
a. Connections and attachments for anchorage and other lateral force resisting components shall be designed to
develop the strength of the connected member (e.g., minimum published yield strength, Fy in direct tension,
plastic bending moment), or Ωo times the calculated element design load.
b. Penetrations, manholes, and openings in shell components shall be designed to maintain the capacity and stability
of the shell to carry tensile and compressive membrane shell forces.
c. Support towers for tanks and vessels with irregular bracing, unbraced panels, asymmetric bracing, or
concentrated masses shall be designed using the provisions of 1997 NEHRP Sec. 5.2.3 for irregular structures.
Support towers using chevron or eccentric braced framing shall comply with the requirements of 1997 NEHRP
Sec. 5. Support towers using tension only bracing shall be designed such that the full cross section of the tension
element can yield during overload conditions.
d. Compression struts that resist the reaction forces from tension braces shall be designed to resist the lesser of the
yield load of the brace (Ag Fy), or Ω 0 times the calculated tension load in the brace.
e. The vessel stiffness relative to the support system (foundation, support tower, skirt, etc.) shall be considered in
determining forces in the vessel, the resisting components and the connections.
f. For concrete liquid-containing structures, system ductility and energy dissipation under nonfactored loads shall
not be allowed to be achieved by excursions into the inelastic range to such a degree as to jeopardize the service-
ability of the structure. Stiffness degradation and energy dissipation shall be allowed to be obtained either
through limited microcracking, or by means of lateral-force resistance mechanisms that dissipate energy without
damaging the structure.
Additionally, “hooked anchor bolts” (L or J type bolts) or other anchorage systems based solely on bond or
mechanical friction should not be used. They cannot usually develop the yield force in the bolt.
Freeboard is another important performance consideration of the performance of ground storage tanks in past earth-
quakes has indicated that sloshing of the contents can cause leakage and damage to the roof and internal
components. While the effect of sloshing often involves only the cost and inconvenience of making repairs, not
catastrophic failure, even this limited damage can be prevented or significantly mitigated when the following aspects
are considered:
1. Effective masses and hydro-dynamic forces in the container.
2. Impulsive and pressure loads.
a. Sloshing zone (i.e. the upper shell and edge of roof system).
b. Internal supports (roof support columns, tray-supports, etc.).
c. Equipment (distribution rings, access tubes, pump wells, risers, etc.).
3. Freeboard (depends on the sloshing wave height).

Tanks and vessels storing biologically or environmentally benign materials do not typically require freeboard to
protect the public health and safety. However, providing freeboard in areas of frequent seismic occurrence for
vessels normally operated at or near top capacity may lessen damage (and the cost of subsequent repairs) to the roof
and upper container.
The estimate given in the NEHRP Provisions is based on a median response spectrum rather than on the one
standard deviation response spectra. Estimates for the sloshing height contained in national standards are based on
the one standard deviation spectra applied at a working stress level.

Aboveground Storage Tank Model

The design of tanks storing liquids usually considers the impulsive and convective (sloshing) effects and
consequences on the tank, foundation, and attached elements. The impulsive component corresponds to the high
frequency amplified response to the lateral ground motion of the tank roof, shell and portion of the contents that
moves in unison with the shell. The convective component corresponds to the low frequency amplified response of
the contents in the fundamental sloshing mode.

Methods of seismic design of tanks, currently adopted by a number of industry standards have evolved from earlier
analytical work by Jacobsen, Housner, Veletsos, Haroun, and others. The procedures used to design flat bottom
storage tanks and liquid containers are based on the work of Housner and Wozniak and Mitchell (1978). The
AWWA and API standards for tanks and vessels have specific requirements to safeguard against catastrophic failure
of the primary structure based on observed behavior in seismic events since the 1930s.
These methods entail these fundamental steps:
1 The dynamic modeling of the structure and its contents. When a liquid-filled tank is subjected to a ground
acceleration, the lower portion of the contained liquid, identified as the impulsive component of mass WI, acts
as if it were a solid mass rigidly attached to the tank wall.
2 Under the influence of the same ground acceleration, the upper portion of the contained liquid responds as if it
were a solid liquid mass flexibly attached to the tank wall. This portion, which oscillates at its own natural
frequency, is identified as the convective component Wc. The convective component oscillations are
characterized by the phenomenon of sloshing whereby the liquid surface rises above the static level on one side
of the tank, and drops below that level on the other.
3 The determination of the period of vibration of the tank structure and impulsive mass (the impulsive
component); and the natural period of the sloshing or convective component. The impulsive period (the natural
period of the tank components and the impulsive component of the liquid is typically in the 0.25 to 0.6 second
range. Many methods are available for calculating the impulsive period. Many tank designers commonly use
the Veletsos flexible shell method. (See: Seismic Effects in Flexible Liquid Storage Tanks, A.S. Veletsos). The
convective period is typically 2.5 seconds or more for common tank configurations.
4 The selection of the design response spectrum. The response spectrum may be site-specific; or it may be
constructed deterministically on the basis of seismic coefficients given in national codes and standards. Once
the design response spectrum is constructed, the spectral accelerations corresponding to the periods are obtained
and are used to calculate the dynamic forces.
In addition to the AWWA and API Standards, ACI Committee 350 has drafted a document, ACI 350.3, titled “ACI
Practice for the Seismic Design of Liquid-Containing Structures.” This document, which covers all types of
concrete tanks (prestressed and non-prestressed, circular and rectilinear), is currently being revised to conform to the
seismic risk guidelines of NEHRP 1997 and IBC 2000. This ACI “Practice” will serve as a practical, “how-to” -
and yet rigorous - guide to supplement Chapter 21 (“Special Provisions for Seismic Design”) of ACI 350.

Changes Needed To National Design Standards

1. The trend in structural design is to load–resistance-factor (LRFD) concepts rather than the allowable stress
(ASD) based methods. Unfortunately many nonbuilding structures are designed to national industry standard
that continue to use ASD. Nonbuilding structures are categorized into those that are building-like, and those
that are not building- like. Tanks and vessels obviously fall into the latter.
2. An evaluation of whether criteria based on buildings is the proper approach for tanks and vessels.
3. Evaluation of “R” factors.
4. Evaluation of “I” (importance factors) based on overall system performance criteria in lifeline systems.
5. Evaluation of past research to determine if the rigid tank methods should be replaced by more accurate, but
complex methods for determining hydrodynamic pressures, anchorage and overturning.
6. Review of anchorage provisions.
7. Review of membrane shell resistance to axial load (i.e. buckling) provisions.
8. Require conformance with industry standards when a tank or vessel is repaired, modified or reconstructed (i.e.
cut down and re-erect).
 APPENDIX
Application of IBC and NEHRP to Tanks
Excerpt from Proposed NEHRP 2000 Provision

The seismic base shear is the combination of the impulsive and convective components:

V = Vi + Vc

Where, Vi = SaiWi and Vc = SacWc

R R
Sai = the spectral acceleration as a multiplier of gravity including the site impulsive components at period Ti and 5%
damping
For Ti < Ts: Sai = SDS
SD1
For Ti > Ts: Sai =
Ti
Note: When an approved national standard is used in which the spectral acceleration for the tank shell,
and the impulsive component of the liquid is independent of Ti, then Sai = SDS.
Sac = the spectral acceleration of the sloshing liquid based on the sloshing period Tc and 0.5% damping

1.5 S D1
For Tc < 4.0 sec, S ac =
Tc

6 S D1
For Tc of 4.0 sec or greater, S ac = 2
Tc

D
T c = 2π
 3.68H 
3.68g tanh 
 D 
where, D = the tank diameter in feet, H = liquid height ( feet or meters) and g = acceleration due to gravity in consis-
tent units.

Wi = impulsive weight (impulsive component of liquid, roof and equipment, shell, bottom and internal components
Wc = the portion of the liquid weight sloshing

The general design response spectra for ground-supported liquid storage tanks is shown.
 Design Response Spectra for Ground-Supported Liquid Storage Tanks

SDS
Spectral Response Acceleration, Sa

Sai =
SD1
(β = 5%)
T
SD1
Sac=
1.5SD1
(β = 0.5%)
T

Sac=
6SD1
(β =0.5%)
T2
T=1 sec

Figure [Link]-1
T=4 sec

T0 TS
Period, T

Distribution of Hydrodynamic and Inertia Forces: Unless otherwise required by the appropriate approved
standard in Table 14.3, the method given ACI 350.3 may be used to determine the vertical and horizontal
distribution of the hydrodynamic and inertia forces on the walls of circular and rectangular tanks.

Freeboard: Sloshing of the liquid within the tank or vessel shall be considered in determining the freeboard
required above the top capacity liquid level. A minimum freeboard shall be provided per Table [Link].1.2. The
height of the sloshing wave can be estimated by:

δs = 0.50DISac
 Minimum Required Freeboard
Seismic Use Group
I II III
See note a See note a δs (see note c)
See note a See note a δs (see note c)
See note a 0.7δs (see note b) δs (see note c)
See note a 0.7δs (see note b) δs (see note c)
a A freeboard of 0.7δs is recommended for economic considerations but not required.
b A freeboard equal to 0.7δs is required unless one of the following alternatives are provided:
1. Secondary containment is provided to control the product spill.
2. The roof and supporting structure are designed to contain the sloshing liquid.
c Freeboard equal to the calculated wave height, δs, is required unless one of the following alternatives are
provided:
1. Secondary containment is provided to control the product spill.
2. The roof and supporting structure are designed to contain the sloshing liquid.

Equipment and Attached Piping: Equipment, piping, and walkways or other appurtenances attached to the
structure shall be designed to accommodate the displacements imposed by seismic forces. For piping attachments,
see Section [Link].

Internal Components: The attachments of internal equipment and accessories which are attached to the primary
liquid or pressure retaining shell or bottom, or provide structural support for major components (e.g., a column
supporting the roof rafters) shall be designed for the lateral loads due to the sloshing liquid in addition to the inertial
forces. See Wozniak and Mitchell 1978.

Sliding resistance: The transfer of the total lateral shear force between the tank or vessel and the subgrade shall be
considered:
a. For unanchored flat bottom steel tanks, the overall horizontal seismic shear force shall be resisted by friction
between the tank bottom and the foundation or subgrade. Unanchored storage tanks must be designed such that
sliding will not occur when the tank is full of stored product. The maximum calculated seismic base shear, V,
shall not exceed:
Vs< V tan 30o
V shall be determined using the effective weight of the tank, roof and contents after reduction for coincident
vertical earthquake. Lower values of the friction factor should be used if the design of bottom to supporting
foundation does not justify the friction value above (e.g., leak detection membrane beneath the bottom with a
lower friction factor, smooth bottoms, etc).
b. No additional lateral anchorage is required for anchored steel tanks designed in accordance with approved
standards.
c. The lateral shear transfer behavior for special tank configurations (e.g., shovel bottoms, highly crowned tank
bottoms, tanks on grillage) can be unique and are beyond the scope of these provisions.

Local shear transfer: Local transfer of the shear from the roof to the wall and the wall of the tank into the base
shall be considered. For cylindrical tanks and vessels, the peak local tangential shear per unit length shall be
calculated by:
 2V
V max =
πD
a. Tangential shear in flat bottom steel tanks shall be transferred through the welded connection to the steel bottom.
This transfer mechanism is deemed acceptable for steel tanks designed in accordance with the approved stan-
dards and Sas < 1.0g.
b. For concrete tanks with a sliding base where the lateral shear is resisted by friction between the tank wall and the
base, the friction coefficient shall not exceed tan 30o.
c. Fixed-base or hinged-base concrete tanks, transfer the horizontal seismic base shear is shared by membrane
(tangential) shear and radial shear into the foundation. For anchored flexible-base concrete tanks, the majority of
the base shear is resisted by membrane (tangential) shear through the anchoring system with only insignificant
vertical bending in the wall. The connection between the wall and floor shall be designed to resist the maximum
tangential shear.
Pressure Stability: For steel tanks, the internal pressure from the stored product stiffens thin cylindrical
shell structural elements subjected to membrane compression forces. This stiffening effect may be
considered in resisting seismically induced compressive forces if permitted by the approved standard or the
building official having jurisdiction.

Shell Support: Steel tanks resting on concrete ring walls or slabs shall have a uniformly supported annulus
under the shell. Uniform support shall be provided by one of the following methods:
a. Shimming and grouting the annulus,
b. Using fiberboard or other suitable padding
c. Using butt-welded bottom or annular plates resting directly on the foundation,
d. Using closely spaced shims (without structural grout) provided that the localized bearing loads are
considered in the tank wall and foundation to prevent local crippling and spalling.
Anchored tanks shall be shimmed and grouted. Local buckling of the steel shell for the
peak compressive force due to operating loads and seismic overturning shall be
considered.

Repair, Alteration or Reconstruction: Repairs, modifications, or reconstruction (i.e. cut down and re-
erect) of a tank or vessel shall conform to industry standard practice and these Provisions. For welded steel
tanks storing liquids, see API 653 and the approved national standard in Table 14.3. Tanks that are
relocated shall be re-evaluated for the seismic loads for the new site and the requirements of new
construction in accordance with the appropriate approved national standard and these Provisions.

Water and Water Treatment Tanks and Vessels:

Welded Steel: Welded steel water storage tanks and vessels shall be designed in accordance with the
seismic requirements of AWWA D100 except that the design input forces shall be modified as follows:
The impulsive and convective components of the base shear are defined by the following equations for
allowable stress design procedures:

SDSI
Vi = Wi
1.4 R

SDSI Ts
For Ts<Tc<4.0 sec, Vc = Wc
1.4 R Tc

6 SDSI Ts
For Tc of 4.0 sec or greater, Vc = Wc
1.4 R Tc 2
a. Substitute the above parameters into Eqns (13-4) and (13-8) of AWWA D100. Substitute the
SDSI ZI
expression ..... for..... and substitute the term “B” for the term “S” in these equations in
2.5(1.4 R) Rw
AWWA D100,

where SDS and TS, are defined in Section [Link]

R is defined in Table [Link]
B = 1.25 TS , when TC is in the range TS < TC ≤ 4.0 secs.
B = 1.11 TS , when TC is >4.0 secs

Thus, equation (13-4) for base shear at the bottom of the tank shell in AWWA D100 becomes

VACT =
18SDSI
[0.14(Ws + Wr + Wf + W 1) + BC1W 2]
2.5(1.4 R)

Alternatively,

SDSI 
For Ts < Tc < 4.0 secs: VACT = (Ws + Wr + Wf + W 1) + 1.5 Ts W 2 
1.4 R  Tc 

SDSI  
For Tc > 4.0 secs: VACT = (Ws + Wr + Wf + W 1) + 6
Ts
W 2
1.4 R  Tc 2


Similarly, equation (13-8) for overturning moment applied to the bottom of the tank shell in AWWA D100
becomes

 18SDSI 
M = [0.14(WsXs + WrHt + W 1 X 1) + BC1W 2 X 2 ]
 2.5(1.4 R) 
b. The hydrodynamic seismic hoop tensile stress is defined in Equation (13-20) through (13-25) in AWWA
D100. When using these equations, make the following substitution directly into the equations.

SDSI  ZI 
..... for..... 
2.5(1.4 R)  Rw 

Sloshing height shall be calculated per Sec [Link].1.2 instead of (Eq 13-26) of AWWA D100.
[Link].2 Bolted Steel: Bolted steel water storage structures shall be designed in accordance with the
seismic requirements of AWWA D103 except that the design input forces shall be modified in the same
manner shown in Sec [Link].1 of these Provisions.
[Link].3 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete: Reinforced and prestressed concrete tanks shall be
designed in accordance with the seismic requirements of ACI 350.3 except that the design input forces
shall be modified as follows:
a. For TI < To, and TI > Ts, :
 SaI
Substitute the term ,where Sa is defined in Section [Link], subsections 1, 2, or 3 or ([Link]-3),
1.4 R
for the terms in the appropriate equations as shown below:

ZIC1
- for shear and overturning moment equations of AWWA D110 and AWWA D115
R1

ZISCi
- for in the base shear and overturning moment equations of ACI 350.3
Ri

b. For To ≤ TI ≤ Ts, :
SDSI ZIC1 ZISCi
Substitute the term for terms and
1.4 R R1 Ri
c. For all values of TC (or Tw):

ZICc ZISCc 6 SD1 I  6 SDSI 

and are replaced by ...or... 2 TS 
 Tc 
2
Rc Rc Tc

Thus, for To ≤ TI ≤ Ts, Eq. (4-1) of AWWA D110 becomes

SDSI
VI = (Ws + WR + WI )
1.4 R
and Eq. (4-2) becomes

6 SDSI  Ts 
VC =  WC
1.4 R  Tc 2 

Sa, SD1, SDS, T0, and Ts are defined in Sect. [Link] of these Provisions

Petrochemical and Industrial Tanks and Vessels Storing Liquids:

Welded Steel: Welded steel petrochemical and industrial tanks and vessels storing liquids shall be
designed in accordance with the seismic requirements of API 650 and API 620 except that the design input
forces shall be modified as follows:
a. When using the equations in Section E.3 of API 650, substitute into the equation for overturning
moment M (where SDS and Ts are defined in Section [Link] of these Provisions). Thus,

In the range Ts < TC ≤ 4.0 sec

M = SDSI [0.24(WsXs + WtHt + W 1 X 1) + 0.80C 2TsW 2 X 2 ]

0.75S
C2 = ....and ...S = 1.0
Tc
In the range Tw >4.0 sec,

M = SDSI [0.24(WsXs + WtHt + W 1 X 1) + 0.71C 2TsW 2 X 2]

3.375S
C2 = ...and ...S = 1.0
Tc 2

Bolted Steel: Bolted steel tanks used for storage of production liquids. API 12B covers the material,
design and erection requirements for vertical, cylindrical, aboveground, bolted tanks in nominal capacities
of 100 to 10,000 barrels for production service. Unless required by the building official having jurisdiction,
these temporary structures need not be designed for seismic loads. If design for seismic load is required,
the loads may be adjusted for the temporary nature of the anticipated service life.
Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete: Reinforced concrete tanks for the storage of petrochemical and
industrial liquids shall be designed in accordance with the force requirements of Sec. [Link].3.
.
Elevated Tanks and Vessels for Liquids and Granular Materials:
General: This section applies to tanks, vessels, bins and hoppers that are elevated above grade where the
supporting tower is an integral part of the structure, or where the primary function of the tower is to support
the tank or vessel. Tanks and vessels that are supported within buildings, or are incidental to the primary
function of the tower are considered mechanical equipment and shall be designed in accordance with
Chapter 6 of these Provisions.
Elevated tanks shall be designed for the force and displacement requirements of the applicable approved
standard, or Sec 14.2.
Effective mass: The design of the supporting tower or pedestal, anchorage, and foundation for seismic
overturning shall assume the material stored is a rigid mass acting at the volumetric center of gravity. The
effects of fluid-structure interaction may be considered in determining the forces, effective period, and
mass centroids of the system if the following requirements are met:
a. The sloshing period, Tc is greater than 3T, where T = natural period of the tank with confined liquid
(rigid mass) and supporting structure.
b. The sloshing mechanism (i.e. the percentage of convective mass and centroid) is determined for the
specific configuration of the container by detailed fluid structure interaction analysis or testing.
Soil structure interaction may be included in determining T providing the provisions of Sec 2.5 are met.
P-Delta effects: The lateral drift of the elevated tank shall be considered as follows:
a. The design drift, the elastic lateral displacement of the stored mass center of gravity shall be increased
by the factor, Cd for evaluating the additional load in the support structure.
b. The base of the tank shall be assumed to be fixed rotationally and laterally
c. Deflections due to bending, axial tension or compression shall be considered. For pedestal tanks with a
height to diameter ratio less than 5, shear deformations of the pedestal shall be considered.
d. The dead load effects of roof mounted equipment or platforms shall be included in the analysis.
e. If constructed within the plumbness tolerances specified by the approved standard, initial tilt need not be
considered in the P-delta analysis.
Transfer of Lateral Forces into Support Tower: For post supported tanks and vessels that are cross
braced:
b. The bracing shall be installed in such a manner as to provide uniform resistance to the lateral load (e.g.
pre-tensioning or tuning to attain equal sag).
c. The additional load in the brace due to the eccentricity between the post to tank attachment and the line
of action of the bracing shall be included.
d. Eccentricity of compression strut line of action (elements that resist the tensile pull from the bracing
rods in the lateral force resisting systems) with their attachment points shall be considered.
The connection of the post or leg with the foundation shall be designed to resist both the vertical and lateral
resultant from the yield load in the bracing assuming the direction of the lateral load is oriented to produce
the maximum lateral shear at the post to foundation interface. Where multiple rods are connected to the
same location, the anchorage shall be designed to resist the concurrent tensile loads in the braces.
Evaluation of Structures Sensitive to Buckling Failure: Shell structures that support substantial loads
may exhibit a primary mode of failure from localized or general buckling of the support pedestal or skirt
during seismic loads. Such structures may include single pedestal water towers, skirt supported process
vessels, and similar single member towers. Where the structural assessment concludes that buckling of the
support is the governing primary mode of failure, structures and components in Seismic Use Group III shall
be designed to resist the seismic forces as follows:
a. The seismic response coefficient for this evaluation shall be per Sec [Link] of these provisions with I/R
set equal to 1.0. Soil-structure and fluid-structure interaction may be utilized in determining the
structural response. Vertical or orthogonal combinations need not be considered.
b. The resistance of the structure or component shall be defined as the critical buckling resistance of the
element; i.e. a factor of safety set equal to 1.0
c. The anchorage and foundation shall be designed to resist the load determined in (a). The foundation
shall be proportioned to provide a stability ratio of 1.2 for the overturning moment. The maximum toe
pressure under the foundation shall not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity or the lesser of 3 times the
allowable bearing capacity. All structural components and elements of the foundation shall be
designed to resist the combined loads with a load factor of 1.0 on all loads, including dead load, live
load and earthquake load. Anchors shall be permitted to yield.

Welded Steel: Welded steel elevated water storage structures shall be designed and detailed in accordance
with the seismic requirements of AWWA D100 and these Provisions except that the design input forces
ZIC
shall be modified by substituting the following terms for into (Eqn 13-1) and (Eqn 13-3) of AWWA
Rw
D100 and set the value for S =1.0.

SDSI
T < Ts: substitute the term
1.4 R

SD1I
Ts < T <4.0 sec: substitute the term
T (1.4 R)

4SD1I
T > 4.0 sec.: substitute the term 2
T (1.4 R)

Analysis Procedures: The equivalent lateral force procedure may be used. A more rigorous analysis shall
be permitted. Analysis of single pedestal structures shall be based on a fixed-base, single degree-of-
freedom model. All mass, including the liquid, shall be considered rigid unless the sloshing mechanism
(i.e. the percentage of convective mass and centroid) is determined for the specific configuration of the
container by detailed fluid structure interaction analysis or testing. Soil-structure interaction may be
included.
Structure Period: The fundamental period of vibration of the structure shall be established using the
structural properties and deformational characteristics of the resisting elements in a substantiated analysis.
The period used to calculate the seismic response coefficient shall not exceed 4.0 sec. See AWWA D100
for guidance on computing the fundamental period of cross braced structures.

Concrete Pedestal (Composite) Tanks: Concrete pedestal (composite) elevated water storage structures
shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of ACI 371 and except that the design input forces
shall be modified as follows:

In equation 4-8a of ACI 371,

SD1I 1.2Cv
Ts < T <4.0 sec: substitute the term for
TR RT 2 / 3

4SD1I 1.2Cv
T > 4.0 sec: substitute the term 2
for
T R RT 2 / 3
In equation 4-8b of ACI 371,

SDSI 2.5Ca
substitute the term for
R R
In equation 4-9 of ACI 371,
substitute the term 0.2 SDS for 0.5Ca
Analysis Procedures: The equivalent lateral force procedures may be. A more rigorous analysis is
permitted. The equivalent lateral force procedure may be used for all structures and shall be based on a
fixed-base, single degree-of-freedom model. All mass, including the liquid, shall be considered rigid
unless the sloshing mechanism (i.e. the percentage of convective mass and centroid) is determined for the
specific configuration of the container by detailed fluid structure interaction analysis or testing. Soil
structure interaction may be included.
Structure Period: The fundamental period of vibration of the structure shall be established using the
uncracked structural properties and deformational characteristics of the resisting elements in a properly
substantiated analysis. The period used to calculate the seismic response coefficient shall not exceed 2.5
sec.