Received: 26 February 2021 Revised: 9 July 2021 Accepted: 16 August 2021

DOI: 10.1002/pc.26274

REVIEW ARTICLE

An overview on current manufacturing technologies:

Processing continuous rovings impregnated with
thermoset resin

Peter A. Arrabiyeh | David May | Maximilian Eckrich | Anna M. Dlugaj

Department of Manufacturing Science,

Leibniz-Institut für Verbundwerkstoffe Abstract
GmbH, Kaiserslautern, Germany The demand for products made of fiber-reinforced polymer composites (FRPC)
is constantly growing. These lightweight products are characterized by high
Correspondence
Peter A. Arrabiyeh, Leibniz-Institut für stiffness, high tensile strength, and high service life. FRPC processes that
Verbundwerkstoffe GmbH, Erwin- employ thermoset-impregnated continuous rovings are easily automated and
Schrödinger 58, 67663 Kaiserslautern,
provide the products with the highest unidirectional tensile strength. A critical
Germany.
Email: [Link]@[Link] disadvantage of continuous fiber-reinforced polymers is caused by relatively
high production costs. Among others, three main factors contribute to these
Funding information
production costs: (1) material costs, especially when carbon fibers are used,
Bundesministerium für Bildung und
Forschung, Grant/Award Number: (2) costs for manufacturing semi-finished products, such as textiles or pre-
03XP0259 impregnated fabrics, and (3) costs for waste occurring along the entire chain of
process steps. In this context, one group of processes shows outstanding char-
acteristics: processes in which rovings are in situ impregnated with a thermo-
set resin and then directly processed. Wet filament winding and pultrusion are
the most popular but not the only representatives of this group. For all these
processes, in situ impregnation is the key element, and various technologies
have been developed for this purpose, each with its own unique fluid-
mechanical effects on rovings. A fundamental understanding of these effects is
crucial to achieve products of the utmost quality. The paper at hand provides
an overview of manufacturing processes that employ in situ impregnation of
continuous rovings, specifically focusing on impregnation technologies. On
this basis, phenomenological models describing the effects on the rovings dur-
ing processing (impregnation, tension, and spreading) are reviewed.

KEYWORDS
additive manufacturing, pultrusion, resin impregnation, spreading, wet fiber placement,
winding

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
© 2021 The Authors. Polymer Composites published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Plastics Engineers.

Polymer Composites. 2021;1–26. [Link]/journal/pc 1

2 ARRABIYEH ET AL.

1 | INTRODUCTION Rovings can either be impregnated with a matrix

material in a preliminary process, resulting in a semi-
Due to their outstanding specific mechanical properties, finished product, referred to as pre-preg (from Engl.
fiber-reinforced polymer composites (FRPC) have gained pre-impregnated), or by direct impregnation within the
in popularity for a wide range of technical applications[1] component production process. Pre-pregs are fiber bun-
in sectors such as automotive, mechanical and plant engi- dles impregnated with a thermoplastic material or a
neering, aviation, sports, and medicine. The market for partially cured (B-staged) thermoset resin. Pre-pregs are
FRPC has, therefore, experienced rapid growth in recent formed into the shape of the final product and are
years, whereas the market is still dominated by glass then put into an oven or an autoclave.[12] Removing the
fiber–reinforced polymers (GFRP). In 2018, an estimated impregnation system from roving manufacturing pro-
annual production rate of 1.141 million tons of GFRP cesses reduces setup times and makes the process much
was achieved. Carbon fiber–reinforced polymers (CFRP) cleaner. Good impregnation quality with pre-pregs mini-
are considered as the more emerging market. The mizes the risk of pores in the final product, which can
demand for CFRP involved 155.3 thousand tons of car- cause stress concentrations and act as crack initiators.[13–
15]
bon fiber in 2018, generating a worldwide total estimated The drawback is considerably increased manufactur-
revenue of 23.36 billion US$. The global demand for ing costs due to an increase in raw material costs.[16,17] In
CFRP has been increasing by approximately 10% per year thermoset systems, a chemical reaction occurs between a
since 2013.[2,3] resin material and a curing agent (also called a hardener).
FRPC are composed of a fibrous phase, that serves as Polymerization is accelerated when process temperatures
reinforcement, embedded in a polymeric material are increased.[7] Hence, typical pre-pregs are kept in a
referred to as matrix material.[4] Occasionally, additives refrigerated storage room because polymerization would
and fillers are used to improve the matrix properties, occur at room temperature.[17]
reduce costs, affect resin cure kinetics, or improve the To bypass expensive storage and additional process
interaction between matrix and reinforcement.[5,6] Com- steps, direct impregnation with a corresponding direct
bining different materials compensates for the shortcom- impregnation system is an option. The impregnation sys-
ings of individual materials, producing a by far superior tems can be divided into thermoset and thermoplastic
composite.[7] Fiber materials, such as glass or carbon, impregnation systems. In thermoplastic impregnation
provide the composite with high tensile strength and systems, a thermoplastic material is melted and then
stiffness at low material density. The matrix secures the pushed into a moving roving; once the thermoplastic
location of the fibers, transfers external loads, and pro- matrix cools down, it re-solidifies, requiring no additional
tects from external influences.[8] The resulting high spe- curing phase. Thermosets generally have superior
cific tensile strength and stiffness make FRPC ideal for mechanical properties and higher chemical resistance.
lightweight design.[7] The shaping possibilities resulting Thermoplastic products can be reshaped and welded
from the manufacturing processes allow for extensive under the influence of heat, while thermoset products
functional integration, which in turn can contribute to cannot. However, due to the high melting temperatures
further weight and cost savings.[9] and high melt viscosity in thermoplastic impregnation,
The mechanical properties of FRPC are widely the wetting of the fibers is by far more challenging and
influenced by the length and orientation of their fibers; elaborate than in thermoset processes. Increasing the
those can be categorized into nano-reinforced, short, melt temperature further increases the risk of thermal
long, and continuous fibers.[10] Continuous fibers extend degradation in thermoplastic products. Ultimately, both
throughout the part and lead to the highest level of ten- polymer groups have their advantages and disadvantages,
sile strength and stiffness.[11] FRPC manufactured with so they are selected based on the application and the pro-
continuous fibers have a defined fiber orientation that cessibility of the final product.[7]
provides mechanical anisotropy. Many continuous fiber- The paper at hand focuses on processes where rovings
reinforced FRPC are manufactured with textile are continuously processed and in situ impregnated with
reinforcements—such as woven or noncrimp fabrics. a thermoset resin, that is, impregnation is directly inte-
Most manufacturing processes that employ such textiles grated into the manufacturing process. An overview of
often exhibit a low level of material efficiency. When manufacturing processes for products made of continu-
using woven materials in manufacturing processes, the ous rovings and thermoset resins is outlined in Section 2.
shape of the part is cut out; offcuts and scraps that result A special focus is set on the limitations of conventional
from these processes are then disposed of. Hence, the manufacturing processes, such as filament winding or
direct processing of rovings seems to be a reasonable pultrusion. Solutions to overcome these limitations are
approach to maximize material efficiency. presented based on current literature. In addition, roving
ARRABIYEH ET AL. 3

impregnation, tension, and spreading are described in 2.1 | Wet filament winding
detail, followed by an overview of common impregnation
systems. In this process, a wet roving is wound around a winding
core while under tension. The roving is impregnated with
resin and is guided through a delivery eye or payout-eye
2 | CONTINUOUS PROCESSING OF to the winding core. In the simplest setup, the roving is
IN SITU IMPREGNATED FIBER deposited on a winding core that rotates around its axis
ROVINGS: CURRENT PROCESS using a spindle, while the payout-eye moves with a preci-
TECHNOLOGIES sion axis parallel to the rotational axis of the winding
core[19]—a process depicted in Figure 2. Once the desired
The continuous in situ impregnation of rovings with a thickness is achieved, the roving is cut, and the product
thermoset resin requires the rovings to be pulled from is cured. The curing of wound components takes place at
a spool into an impregnation system while being held elevated temperatures and with a rotating winding core.
under tension. A number of manufacturing methods Rotationally symmetric components have a sufficiently
have been developed based on this approach. Figure 1 high compression pressure due to the surface curvature
illustrates four such processes, and as can be seen, and the roving pretension, so that additional compression
they can be distinguished by the principle in which of the laminate is usually not required.[21] If the resin
they generate the pull-off force, which in turn directly amount is high enough, an outer layer of resin emerges.
affects the geometric limitations. Each of the processes The outer surface quality, however, is more or less
can be further sub-divided into different process vari- uncontrollable during winding. Shrink tapes are, there-
ants. This section gives a review of current process fore, sometimes used to apply radial compression forces
technologies to highlight typical applications, advan- on the outer surface to achieve a better surface quality.
tages, and disadvantages. Since the focus of the paper For open-ended structures, removable winding cores
is on processes to manufacture high-performance com- made of plastics, steel, or aluminum are commonly
posites with continuous fiber-reinforcement, processes used.[22] For closed-ended structures, the core either
in which the roving is chopped off before or after remains inside or is removed through a hole in the struc-
impregnation (fiber spraying, centrifugal casting, etc.) ture. Cores that remain inside the structure are often vital
are not considered. for its function. Metal liners used to manufacture pres-
sure vessels are especially important when more volatile
media such as hydrogen are contained.[23] Removable
cores are applied using different methods: cores can be

F I G U R E 1 Manufacturing processes for products made of F I G U R E 2 Schematic of standard filament winding machine
continuous rovings adapted from May et al.[18] tool adapted from Groover et al.[20]
4 ARRABIYEH ET AL.

water-soluble,[24] inflatable elastomer,[25] and foam full roving-width each rotation; this type of winding is
cores,[26,27] as well as cores that can be disassembled.[28] applied only to cylindrical portions of the winding core
A water-soluble winding core is made of a sand/binder and is especially effective against circumferential stress.
combination, eutectic metals, or salts, that can be dis- In polar winding, the payout-eye moves the roving back
solved after curing.[22] The elastomer bag consists of a and forth between both the poles of the winding core,
sealed rubber layer, a cord reinforcement layer, and an while the winding core itself rotates around its longitudi-
external protection layer; it can be inflated and deflated nal axis. The winding angle in polar winding ranges from
for multiple uses.[25] Winding cores that can be dis- 0
to 5
, with 0
only being possible when assisting pins
assembled are rather expensive but have the benefit of are used. Polar wound components have a high resis-
being reusable.[28] tance to axial forces.[31–33] A winding pattern that has a
A uniform fiber distribution combined with a high balance between axial and circumferential stress resis-
fiber volume ratio is necessary for high mechanical per- tance is helical winding. Depending on the winding
formance. Another parameter that influences the quality angle, more emphasis can be put on resistance to axial or
of the product is the winding speed. A high winding circumferential stress. Helically wound products are also
speed is critical for productivity but may cause squeezing suitable for applications where torque is applied, for
phenomena that result in a nonuniform fiber-matrix example, drive shafts.
composition. On the other hand, low winding speeds In helical winding, a constant rotational speed is
may cause excessive resin dripping, which also negatively used, while the payout-eye moves back and forth. The
influences the final result.[29] Processing speed can be winding angles range between 5
and 85
; winding is
increased dramatically when using pre-pregs; however, repeated until the required thickness is achieved.[34] The
this would also increase material costs significantly. winding angles of laid-down rovings alternate between
Literature describes three common winding patterns: counter-clockwise (α) and clockwise (α) orientations.[33]
hoop (circumferential), polar, and helical winding. Each Due to the repetitive and regular winding movements, an
winding pattern is defined by the angle at which rovings integer number of diamond-shaped regions is formed on
are wound on the winding core. The winding angle can the periphery of the winding core. Figure 3 shows a sche-
be described as the angle between the laid-down fibers matic depiction of a diamond-shaped region on the sur-
and the longitudinal axis of the winding core. A sche- face of a wound product. The minimal number of rovings
matic demonstrating each of these patterns is displayed required to achieve sufficient coverage depends on pro-
in Figure 3. Hoop wound components are produced with cess parameters such as the winding angle or the winding
winding angles of almost 90
. The payout-eye advances a core diameter.[35] These periodic patterns cause helical
roving layers to endure less compaction during winding,
which leads them to exhibit a larger void content than
hoop wound roving layers.[34]
When manufacturing pressure vessels, the burst pres-
sure a pressure vessel can endure is the most important
attribute. Using material failure criteria such as the Tsai-
Wu model[36]—phenomenological material failure
models that are used for anisotropic composite
materials—in simulation tools, researchers calculated
that the ideal winding angle is in the range of 54
–57
.[37]
Generally, it is agreed upon that the most suitable wind-
ing angle is about 55
.[38,39]
Figure 4 displays some of the products that can be pro-
duced using a filament winding process. The fields of
application for wound components are widely spread.
They range from pipes for the transport of liquid and gas-
eous materials to masts for sailboats, small-volume pres-
sure vessels, and fodder silos to high-performance boosters
for rockets. As a matter of fact, filament winding for com-
posite materials was first introduced by the company
M. W. Kellogg in 1947 as a method to produce lightweight
F I G U R E 3 Common winding patterns adapted from Shen pressure vessels for missile rocket cases.[40,41] Wound com-
et al.[30] and periodic diamond-shaped winding pattern ponents have since found huge potential in the energy
ARRABIYEH ET AL. 5

FIGURE 4 Products manufactured with filament winding

storage sector. Hydrogen and natural gas–powered vehi-

cles, in particular, require lightweight pressure vessels that
withstand operating pressures of up to 700 bar.[12] Modern
pressure vessel production lines are fully automated and
can produce up to 300,000 pressure vessels per year.[42]

F I G U R E 5 Degrees of freedom in winding machines adapted

2.1.1 | Adjustments to the basic from Munro et al.[22] and robotic filament winding
winding setup

The basic system displayed in Figure 2 contains only

two axes: the winding core rotational and the horizontal
axis.[43,44] Depending on the winding system, the hori-
zontal axis may move the payout-eye, the winding core
itself, or the entire impregnation bath. Winding
machines are characterized by their degrees of freedom.
When using the winding patterns presented in Figure 3,
the payout-eye can benefit from additional axes such as
a crossfeed axis, a vertical axis, or rotational axes to
increase winding flexibility (Figure 5).[22] Non-
axisymmetric structures such as pipe tees and elbows
can be manufactured when using the different winding
patterns and the additional degrees of freedom. More
sophisticated systems for more complex products make
use of computerized numerical controlled (CNC) robots F I G U R E 6 The use of multiple payout-eyes each with its own
that move the payout-eye or the winding core (Fig- impregnation unit
ure 5).[29,45–47] The degrees of freedom of the robot arm
directly influences the complexity of possible
products.[12] 2.1.2 | Wound truss structures
In addition to adding degrees of freedom to the payout-
eye, it is also possible to use multiple payout-eyes simulta- Truss structures and space frames maximize structural
neously to increase productivity. Figure 6 demonstrates a efficiency as they increase flexural rigidity and the load-
process with multiple payout-eyes, each attached with a carrying capacity for a given amount of material.[50] A
siphon impregnation unit.[48] The production rate, which is truss structure is a framework of rods that are connected
a general problem in winding processes,[49] is enhanced. by nodes. External forces act on these nodes and translate
6 ARRABIYEH ET AL.

these forces into tensile and compressive forces that work around the beams. The term WrapTor was used to
on the members of the framework.[51] Products made describe this type of truss structure.[57] Figure 7 displays
from truss structures and space frames are manufactured a WrapTor profile and a human-powered helicopter man-
from a variety of materials and range from the microme- ufactured out of WrapTor structures.[50,59]
ter scale[52] up to much larger products, such as the A more complex technique coined with the term
Ikitsuki truss bridge in Japan being 400 m in length and Isotruss was developed prior by Weaver and Jensen[60]
the world's largest indoor theme park “Ferrari World” and later patented by Jensen.[61] Isotruss used braiding
with its space frame enclosing an area of 86,000 m2.[50] techniques to manufacture complex structures that have
One of the main problems when manufacturing truss 8–12 nodes per perimeter. Beams served as winding cores
structures and space structures is that they are made of a and can be removed after the resin is cured.[50] Figure 7
lot of individual workpieces that need to be individually shows an Isotruss structure being used as a bicycle frame.
manufactured and joined. A winding process in which Research has also been conducted to manufacture so-
specific winding angles are configured can decrease these called Isogrid structures that are shell-like lattice struc-
manufacturing costs by a lot. In addition, FRPC make tures supporting the skin of another structure.[62] The
perfect truss structures due to their lightweight potential. Isogrid structure was first conceived and patented by
Recently, researchers have developed different methods the McDonnel Douglas Astronautics Company (merged
to achieve beam-like truss structures that excel in more with The Boeing Company in 1997) to manufacture
efficient load distribution, long profile span, good hollowed aluminum structures made of a single sheet
integrity, and high specific stiffness and strength.[53,54] A of metal, that is extremely light and stiff.[63] Isogrid
simple method to manufacture truss structures was intro- consists of a distinct repetitive triangular pattern of
duced and patented by Woods et al.[55] By their method, stiffening ribs.[64] The load transfer mainly occurs along
a winding core made of three connected, pultruded tubes the ribs of this type of truss structure; unidirectional
is used, each tube with a wall thickness of 1 mm.[56] continuous rovings are well suited for that.[65] Typi-
Resin impregnated rovings or tapes are then wound cally, composite grid structures are manufactured using

FIGURE 7 WrapTor truss structure and human powered helicopter according to Wood et al.,[50] and bike with Isotruss structure[58]
ARRABIYEH ET AL. 7

resin-impregnated rovings.[66] Vasiliev et al.[67,68] devel- structures. Figure 9 demonstrates a manufacturing

oped a concept in which a cylindrical or conical shell was method used to manufacture a concrete bench that com-
used as a winding core for a lattice structure made of suc- prises a patchwork of structural components.
cessively stacked wet filaments. They called the tech- A computational algorithm is used to generate the
nique Anisogrid because it did not have the triangular shape of the winding core. Once the shape is determined,
pattern needed for an Isogrid structure; this means, that a winding core is shaped out of foam material. This wind-
the structure has different force distributions in different ing core is then wound with a laminate layer, a foam
directions.[69] The fiber volume ratio is at a low level of layer is created on top of that laminate layer, and another
just 35% because of the overlapping rovings that stack on laminate layer is added on top of the foam layer, creating
the nodes. Molds made of foam or elastomeric materials a sandwich structure. After the product is cured, it is
are often placed around the winding core in order to trimmed to have the contour of its individual compo-
accurately position each node on it.[50] Figure 8 illustrates nents. In addition, holes are drilled into the components
an example of an Anisogrid structure. With improving to achieve an interlocking effect with concrete.[76]
winding technology, structures closer to an Isogrid pat- The advantage of such formworks is that they can be
tern could be manufactured. Sorrentino et al. man- assembled on the construction site, providing a mold for
ufactured Isogrid structures using robotic filament the concrete. In terms of mechanical advantages, con-
winding (see Figure 8).[70,72] Isogrid products made of crete absorbs compressive forces, and the FRPC frame-
continuous rovings are even starting to emerge in the work absorbs tensile forces.[26]
commercial market (Figure 8).

2.1.4 | Discussion
2.1.3 | Assembled core for filament winding
Filament winding is a manufacturing technique that is
The demand for geometrically complex architectural highly automated with considerably high repeatability
structures is constantly growing. The formwork for con- and low material costs.[78] The process also has low pro-
crete structures has been a subject of research in recent gramming costs, as the principle in which rovings are
years, as it requires a lot of manual labor. Forms made of applied to the winding core is simple compared to pro-
wood, steel, fabric,[73] wax,[74] and pultruded profiles[75] cesses, such as coreless wet filament winding and
have been used in the past. Waimer and Knippers[76,77]
developed a new process in which an assembled winding
core is wound with wet filaments that are cut into multi-
ple structural components. These components can be
assembled into a freeform mold for architectural

F I G U R E 8 Isogrid pattern, anisogrid structure,[67]

manufacturing of Isogrid structure via robotic filament winding,[70] F I G U R E 9 Structural component manufacturing process and a
and Isogrid product by Circomp[71] concrete bench, produced with such components[26]
8 ARRABIYEH ET AL.

additive manufacturing processes.[79,80] However, fila- coreless filament winding is rather confusing as a wide
ment winding has a relatively low process speed when range of similar applications have been registered.[79]
compared to other processes such as pultrusion. The con- Nezami et al. registered a patent in which lathe-type
ventional winding process can realize even geometries equipment is used to wind wet filaments around an
with undercuts as long as it is axisymmetric, and the core arrangement of pins instead of a winding core.[81] Mayes
is either removable or remains in the product as a liner. et al. used a different principle as they applied braided
Additional axes are required when the product is non- rovings through a rotatable application head to an
axisymmetric, for example, when a pipe tee or a curved arrangement of pins mounted on top of a gantry unit.[82]
pipe is manufactured. Products can be manufactured as Others employ a combination of robots and precision
long as they can be wound around a winding core. axes[79] that are similar to the case presented in
Targeted laying of wet filaments can be used to manu- Figure 10. Heitz et al. registered a patent that describes a
facture truss and space structures. These lightweight process in which two robots are used simultaneously.
structures utilize topology optimization techniques to One robot winds the roving around a pin arrangement,
maximize the strength to weight ratio. These structures while the other operates the form.[83,84]
exhibit the disadvantage of overlapping rovings at con- A method in which robots and precision axes are used
nection nodes, which leads to the accumulation of resin. to move roving around predetermined nodes is a tech-
Another novel technique that was presented is pat- nique that was utilized to manufacture complex architec-
chworking structural components, manufactured via a tural designs at the University of Stuttgart[26,85–87]—
technique that can overcome some of the geometrical Figure 11 shows an example of a manufacturing process
limitations of filament winding. In Figure 9, a bench used to manufacture one of these architectural designs
with concave surfaces was manufactured using and a pavilion that was erected on their campus. The
patchworked components produced with a winding core is made from a steel construction that holds a
process. Usually, components that have concave sur- wooden frame on which the filaments are wound.
faces cannot be manufactured with conventional wind- A robot standing on a pedestal moves the roving around
ing methods. Adding to this, the fiber orientation of the construct while the construct itself rotates around its
each workpiece can be custom-made for its specific axis to allow the robot to operate stationary. The pavilion
application. Weldable resins, such as epoxy vitrimers, is designed as a shell structure that comprises both glass
could improve process versatility. and carbon fibers. The shell structure is 4.6 mm thick,
Despite all the technological advancements in wet fil- spans 8 m long, and weighs about 320 kg.
ament winding, its geometric flexibility is still remarkably In another project at the University of Stuttgart, a
limited. Coreless wet winding in the next section is a pro- pavilion was designed to resemble the shape of an Ely-
cess that serves as an extension to wet filament winding. tron, which is the protective shell for beetles' wings and
abdomen. The pavilion included 36 individual elements
that were abstracted from the shape of the Elytron. Two
2.2 | Coreless wet winding synchronized, six-axis robots, equipped with custom-

The principle is similar to the winding process mentioned

in the earlier section. A continuous roving is drawn from
roving spools that employ a brake system to increase ten-
sion. The roving is then lead through an impregnation
unit. Instead of winding the impregnated roving around
a winding core, the roving is guided around an arrange-
ment of convex surfaces such as pins or other nodal
points to manufacture rigid frame-like products. The
method in which the roving is wrapped around the pin
structure varies in literature. Figure 10 presents an exam-
ple of such a process. In this example, six pins are
mounted on a three-axis precision table while a robot
places the roving. Roving tension and adhesion are
important parameters for this winding technique.
The technology is relatively new with little research
conducted in the field, compared to conventional fila-
ment winding and pultrusion. The patent situation for FIGURE 10 Example for coreless filament winding system
ARRABIYEH ET AL. 9

patchwork of different components. While the process is

able to manufacture products that cannot be man-
ufactured with other methods, it is still a geometrically
limited process. While the process uses mostly commer-
cially available machinery such as robots,[79] the process
has high regearing costs that come with each new prod-
uct manufactured. While the same can be said for any of
the other processes, coreless winding is mostly used to
F I G U R E 1 1 Manufacturing process for the first ever
produce unique structures such as the architectural struc-
architectural structure made entirely by robotic filament
tures presented earlier. In addition, this type of process is
winding[87]
subject to rather high programming costs that signifi-
cantly increase with an increasing number of robots in
the system.[79] It is, however, the most efficient process
when large shell structures need to be produced. The pro-
cess can produce complex truss structures that cannot be
manufactured via conventional wet filament winding.[96]

2.3 | Pultrusion

Pultrusion is a continuous manufacturing process that is

used to produce FRPC profiles with constant cross-sec-
tions. The term pultrusion is a combination of the words
“extrusion” and the word “pull.” In extrusion, profiles
are manufactured by pushing material through a die. In
pultrusion, the material is pulled instead.[97] Similar to
extrusion, pultrusion has a high degree of automation
and continuity that produce near-net-shape FRPC prod-
ucts, making it one of the most cost-efficient technologies
for FRPC.[98] The first pultrusion process was patented by
Howald and Meyer in 1951. The patent described a
method to produce lightweight composite fishing rods.[99]
Goldsworthy developed the process further, creating two
new patents that describe machine tools to manufacture
F I G U R E 1 2 Coreless winding with two synchronized robots profiles made from continuous rovings.[100,101]
that assembled pavilion at the University of Stuttgart[88] Figure 13 shows a schematic of a standard thermoset
pultrusion process. Layers of fibrous materials are
made steel frame effectors, were used to draw the roving. impregnated with resin and are drawn through a station-
Initially, the roving was tensioned between both steel ary, temperature-controlled die that polymerizes the resin
frames and was moved around the correct nodal posi- during the process[8,102]; when using certain impregna-
tions. Subsequently, the different roving layers interact tion systems (elaborated further in Section 3), it is possi-
and tension each other, resulting in reciprocal deforma- ble to combine this die with the impregnation unit. The
tion, that generates curved surfaces. The pavilion was rovings are pulled through a number of preformers, in
assembled and erected on the campus site—see which they are compacted and distributed over the cross-
Figure 12. The University of Stuttgart used various wind- section of the final product[98]—a combination of perfo-
ing techniques to manufacture other pavilions in various rated or slotted apertures are used for this.[103] Due to the
locations.[26,88–95] size and amount of preformers, pultrusion systems
require long conveying distances.[98]
After passing through the preformers, the rovings are
2.2.1 | Discussion pulled through multiple heating zones to polymerize the
resin.[98] The molding temperature in the process typi-
Coreless winding is a process that is currently being used cally ranges from 175
C and 240
C,[104] depending on the
to manufacture large space structures directly or as a resin being used. The exothermic curing reaction starts
10 ARRABIYEH ET AL.

F I G U R E 1 4 Internal polymerization balance in heating zones

adapted from Starr[106]

F I G U R E 1 3 Thermoset pultrusion system for profiles with

square cross-section clamping grippers are easier to acquire and require less
maintenance costs, as well as shorter set-up times.[98]
The process speeds vary greatly and depend, among other
from the hot molding tool surface and progresses to the things, on the thickness/cross-section of the profile, the
core of the manufactured profile.[42] During the process, tool length, and the resin system. With thermoset sys-
the liquid resin changes to a rubbery state—a transition tems, production speeds of 0.02–3.0 m/min can be
known as gelation. After reaching the gel point, the resin achieved.[110]
continues to solidify[105]; this creates high frictional Figure 15 demonstrates some of the commercially
forces on the mold tool and/or mandrel walls. A sche- available pultrusion profiles and a few examples of appli-
matic of the hardening process of pultruded profiles, cations for such profiles. The profiles have a wide range
according to Starr,[106] is presented in Figure 14. The exo- of applications in various industries, applications such as
thermic nature of the curing reaction may cause degrada- construction elements (such as tension rods), thermally/
tion in the product due to high temperatures. Many electrically insulating components (such as window
variables affect the quality and mechanical properties of frames or composite insulators), cladding elements (like
the pultruded product. These variables include pulling housing for machines or vehicles), and the recreation sec-
speed, process temperature, die length, fiber type, fiber tor (such as fishing rods).[12]
volume ratio, kinetic properties of the resin, and others. In terms of mechanical applications, tension rods
The two most important parameters are die temperature have been gaining a lot of interest in concrete construc-
and pulling speed.[107] tion projects. In 1960, the first commercially available
Once the formed roving bundles are drawn from the tension rods made of FRPC were produced. FRPC rods
die, it is already cured and has its final cross-section. A appear promising in correcting deficiencies caused by
continuous profile is pulled from the production line steel reinforcements in concrete structures. Material
using a pull-off unit. The profile is cut off at the desired properties such as high strength-to-weight ratio as well as
length—typically with a flying saw. The pultruded pro- corrosion and fatigue resistance have created a huge
files are pulled by alternating pneumatic grippers or a interest in the field.[111–113] In 1997, the first pedestrian
caterpillar (Figure 13) haul-off system.[108] Both systems bridge made of FRPC pultrusion profiles was man-
are tailored according to the shape of the profiles to guar- ufactured. A 50% mass reduction with a 100% increase in
antee a homogenous pressure distribution. Caterpillar stiffness and service life with minimal maintenance costs
haul-off systems distribute the pressure that results from were predicted for the new bridge.[114] Since then, hybrid
conveying workpieces evenly on a large surface area[109]; bridges made of FRPC/steel/concrete, FRPC reinforce-
this type of system is more suitable for profiles with thin ments for older bridges, and bridges made entirely of
thicknesses and production lines, in which constant pro- FRPC have been manufactured.[115] One example of such
files are manufactured.[110] Alternating pneumatic a bridge is the Pontresina bridge in Switzerland—see
ARRABIYEH ET AL. 11

F I G U R E 1 6 (A) Bridge made of FRPC in Pontresina,

Switzerland (B) five-storey building (called the eye catcher)
manufactured from FRPC and erected in Basel, Switzerland[116]

F I G U R E 1 5 Examples of pultrusion profiles and products

manufactured with pultrusion profiles[42]

Figure 16A). The bridge is light enough to be transported

via Helicopter, which is important as the bridge has to be F I G U R E 1 7 Schematic of curved pultrusion process adapted
disassembled in springtime to prevent damaging from from Britnell et al.[119]
floating objects in the riverbed due to damming and
flooding by snowmelt. The bridge is 25 m long
and weighs 3300 kilograms.[116–118] Pultruded profiles required cross-section and removes excessive resin. As
have also been used as reinforcement for buildings. In rovings exit the die, UV light is used to cure the resin.
1999, a five stories building was built in Basel using The uncured resin lubricates the passage of the fibers
FRPC profiles (Figure 16B).[114,117] through the die, that is, it reduces the frictional forces.
Careful control of the robot arm and the curing condi-
tions made the manufacturing of radii and corners on
2.3.1 | Variable curvature by robot guidance pultruded profiles possible. The pulling speed, the wall
thickness of the profile, and the UV-light exposure have a
In 2003 Britnell et al.[119] presented a concept for bent direct influence on the trough-thickness cure
pultrusion, where curved profiles with different cross- distribution,[120] which, in turn, is directly related to
sections made of glass fiber rovings and a UV-curable ensuing residual stresses and strains in the profiles.[121–
125]
(ultra-violet radiation) resin were produced - Figure 17 Tena et al.[126] analyzed the effect of UV-light inten-
shows a schematic of the process. The impregnated rov- sity and pulling speed on the evolution of the curing pro-
ings are pulled through a die at room temperature— cess of bent pultrusion profiles; the degree of cure was
using a robot arm. The die forms the roving bundle to the monitored by measuring the electrical resistance of the
12 ARRABIYEH ET AL.

composite as it exits the die. A pulling speed of 3
/s at a resin. The process described in Figure 17, however,
UV-light intensity of 8 W/cm2 was the optimum value allows more possibilities to free form the product because
found in their study. As pulling speed increases, the UV- a robot arm is used. Basically, the industrial process is
light intensity has to be increased to maintain a sufficient highly automated and produces profiles with good
trough-thickness cure distribution; otherwise, undercure mechanical properties, while Britnell's process can be
defects may occur, which may cause detached fibers and used for rapid prototyping.
deformations in the cross section. If the pulling speed is
decreased, the UV-light intensity has to be decreased to
avoid overcure defects. Overcure effects cause increased 2.3.2 | Combination of pultrusion and
stiffness in the composite, which in turn may cause dam- braiding techniques
age to the profile while it is bent.
The first industrial pultrusion process, that manufac- In-line-braided pultrusion profiles combine the proper-
tures curved profiles, was invented and patented by the ties of common pultruded parts with braiding techniques
company Thomas Technik und Innovation in 2011.[127] to gain resistance to torsion and circumferential stress
Figure 18 shows a schematic of the process. As with a due to the different fiber orientations in the product. In-
regular pultrusion process, the system consists of roving line braided composites have good shear and torsional
creels, a resin impregnation system, pre-formers/dies, strength as well as high stiffness. They also have
grippers, and a saw. The difference here is that the con- increased transverse moduli, transverse strength, damage
veying path of the profile is curved. The radius is adjusted tolerance, dimensional stability, and net shape
by moving the die, the gripper, and the saw to the correct manufacturing capabilities. Braiding angles can reach up
positions. Roving is pulled through an impregnation unit to 55
. High braiding angles improve transverse proper-
into the die. The resin is cured inside the die. The white ties, while low braiding angles improve the axial tensile
circle on the die in Figure 18 marks the length of the modulus of the component. Common products man-
profile that is cut. Radii down to 40 mm can be man- ufactured with this technology are tubes and reinforce-
ufactured with this process. In some variations of the pro- ments rods, that have a core made of linear filaments and
cess, the gripper is switched to a rotating helix mold, a braided cover.[13,128–134]
with which springs can be manufactured. Recently, a subject of research has been manufactur-
When comparing both processes, it is important to ing hollow parts using in-line braiding and blow
consider the advantages of each process. Using photo- molding—a process coined by the name PulForm.
curable resin usually provides high process speed but Adding a blow molding step to braided and unidirec-
worse mechanical properties than thermally curable tional fibers makes products possible, that cannot be
manufactured otherwise. A schematic of the process can
be seen in Figure 19. In the first process step, rovings are
pulled from their creels to form a unidirectional fiber
structure. A braiding machine is then used to produce a
layer of braided fibers on top of that fiber structure. The
assembled fiber structure is then impregnated in a closed
impregnation chamber, that is attached to a heated
pultrusion die. The resin used for this process is a hybrid
two-step-curing thermosetting resin. The profile exits the
heated die in a B-staged rubber-like consistency and is
cut via a cut-off saw. The profile is then put over a
rubber-like core and then in a compression molding
form, where the rubber-like core is inflated via pressur-
ized air while the component is formed and cured; this
process step is called postforming.[135–137]
Postforming experiments without the unidirectional
fiber structure showed that the expansion process
changes the braiding angles of the braid layers. Profiles
braided at an angle of 45
reached a maximum braiding
angle of 65
and started to buckle toward the face side.
F I G U R E 1 8 Schematic of curved pultrusion process adapted This buckling effect could be reduced using a smaller
from Jansen et al.[127] braiding angle, such as 30
. Another experiment in which
ARRABIYEH ET AL. 13

micro buckling has an impact on the mechanical prop-

erties of composite parts, especially when compressive
strain is applied.[142–145]
Vedernikov et al. highlight the direction in which
research in pultrusion is heading in the coming years;
they stated that there is only limited research done that
shows the influence of micro- and nanoparticles on the
characteristics of pultruded parts.[13] Other researchers
are currently working on developing pultrusion pro-
cesses that incorporate epoxy vitrimers.[146] Different
from conventional resin systems, vitrimers can be
heated and reprocessed via thermoforming, and they
can also be welded. Using thermoforming processes,
pultruded profiles can take on a variety of different
shapes that would not be possible with a regular
pultrusion process due to significantly changing cross-
F I G U R E 1 9 In-line braiding and blow molding in pultrusion sections. According to Memon et al.,[147] welded joints
adapted from Bezarra et al. and Chaloupka et al.[135–137] retain about 90% of their tensile strength, even after
being reprocessed three times. Thermoforming and
welding techniques can rapidly increase the applica-
multiple braided layers ±45
and a unidirectional layer tions for pultruded parts. In addition, products man-
0
were used showed individual layers sliding relative to ufactured from vitrimers are recyclable.
each other during postforming. The braided layers started Alternatively to using vitrimers, thermoplastic surface
sliding off the unidirectional layer toward the face end of layers can be implemented on top of a noncured compos-
the profile. This sliding effect might affect the quality ite surface. The film and the composite are then co-cured
of interlaminar bonding after postforming.[136] during welding operations.[148–150]

2.3.3 | Discussion 2.4 | Additive manufacturing of

thermoset fiber-reinforced polymer
Among the four roving processing techniques described composite
in this paper, pultrusion has, by far, the highest produc-
tion output[138] and the lowest production costs. The Additive manufacturing (AM) of FRPCs is a market
major disadvantages of this process stem from geometri- mostly dominated by thermoplastic processes. AM pro-
cal restrictions. Conventional pultruded profiles are cesses are traditionally characterized as processes that
defined as linear composite products with constant can manufacture freeform products without using mold-
cross-sections and constant material properties.[8] In ing tools[151]; this provides a problem for most curable
addition, conventional pultruded profiles only have a 0
resin systems since they can flow and change their form
fiber orientation, which restricts them to anisotropic before being cured. Recently, however, researchers devel-
applications. Recently researchers developed processes oped methods by which a curable resin can be used in
by which these limitations can be greatly reduced. Dif- AM processes. Figure 20 provides two schematics for AM
ferent pultrusion variants, in which curved profiles,[139] methods for FRPC. The schematic on the right displays a
changing cross-sections and varying fiber orientations direct writing method for FRPC—that is the direct depo-
have become possible. sition of material—that is usually conducted using a
The applicability of such process variants suffers photo-curable resin, that is injected into the roving and is
from the high level of stiffness and brittleness of com- cured via a UV-light source or a laser.[154] The UV-light
mercially available fibers, which in turn results in limi- source instantly solidifies the resin so that the impreg-
tations with respect to their deformability. Fibers in nated roving does not change its shape. The first disad-
curved profiles have most likely buckled as a result of vantage of using photo-curable resins is the opacity of
different layers of filaments in a roving, having different material, especially when considering rovings, that are a
radii. The filaments on the outer surface of the roving mixture of resin and carbon fibers. Secondly, the
determine the arc length of the roving, causing the mechanical properties of resins with a high curing rate
inner filaments to buckle.[140,141] Researchers state that are far worse than the properties of thermally curable
14 ARRABIYEH ET AL.

FIGURE 21 Composite AM parts by Hao et al[159]

rovings. Freeform manufacturing with custom geome-

tries and filament orientation as well as discontinuous
roving laying are possible—Figure 21 demonstrates prod-
ucts manufactured by Hao et al.,[159] who used a similar
process as Ming et al.[152] and Xiao et al.[153]
Azarov et al.[160,161] developed a process involving
two matrix systems: a modified thermoset epoxy resin is
combined with a thermoplastic material. Additives in the
thermoset resin increase its adhesion to the thermoplastic
F I G U R E 2 0 AM methods (1) using resin that solidifies at material. In process, a dry roving is drawn into a micro-
room temperature adapted from Ming et al. and Xiao et al.[152,153] extruder in which direct thermoset resin impregnation
and (2) using resin that solidifies at room temperature
takes place. Melted thermoplastic is then applied to the
wet roving while it is being laid. The thermoplastic mate-
resins.[155] Griffini et al.[156] developed a process in which rial solves the binding issue of 3D printed FRPC; how-
a dual-cure resin was used. The resin consisted of a ever, the process is plagued with low fiber volume ratios
photo-curable acrylic resin combined with a thermally of less than 40%.
curable resin. Fast UV-curing enabled rapid 3D-printing, The disadvantages of AM processes in general are
and thermal curing enhanced the mechanical properties that (i) they are much slower than the previously pres-
of the product.[157,158] ented manufacturing processes, (ii) they require expen-
Ming et al.[152] and Xiao et al.[153] developed a second sive resin systems, some of which have limitations in
direct writing AM process (Figure 20 on the left), in terms of mechanical attributes, (iii) they are inherently
which the resin system solidifies at room temperature. weaker in the z-direction because each layer is hardened
95 wt% epoxy resin (E-20 [D.E.R. 671]) was combined separately, and (iv) they lack the means to achieve a good
with 5 wt% of the curing agent dicyandiamide (DICY). roving consolidation during polymerization so that the
An interaction between amino and cyan groups in the components have a higher volume percentage of
DICY molecules enabled an extended pot life for temper- entrapped air (5%–15% by volume).[154] At the moment,
atures below 150
C. The resin system has a high melting AM FRPC produced with continuous fibers is more lim-
point (64–76
C) and is solid at room temperature. The ited in terms of mechanical properties than those pro-
polymeric chains only possess intermolecular forces duced with short fibers, as the length of the fibers is
before it comes to the cross-linking reaction. As tempera- much longer than the critical length of the polymer sys-
ture rises, the forces weaken, decreasing the viscosity of tem, making higher fiber volume ratios easily achiev-
the resin system rapidly. Ming et al. and Xiao et al. used able.[154] Recently, a new process was developed in which
a temperature of 130
C when impregnating the roving conventional resin systems as well as traditional consoli-
and when processing the impregnated roving. As the rov- dation methods can be used to reduce the amount of
ing is placed on its platform, it is rapidly cooled down to entrapped air: wet fiber placement.
room temperature. The curing agent is latent and is initi-
ated at higher temperatures. The products were cured in
an oven under a vacuum (0.1 MPA). First, the oven was 2.4.1 | Wet fiber placement
set to a temperature of 130
C to remove trapped air in
the product and then to a temperature of 160
C to cure Wet fiber placement (WFP) is a process that is currently
the product. being researched and developed at the Leibniz-Institut
In terms of geometrical complexity, AM is the most für Verbundwerkstoffe (IVW) in Kaiserslautern, Ger-
versatile manufacturing process for resin-impregnated many.[18] A novel AM process that utilizes conventional
ARRABIYEH ET AL. 15

resin systems—with the aid of a tooling mold. Figure 22 process, which means that the process has high reproduc-
illustrates a schematic of a standard WFP machine tool. ibility and stability.[18] In addition, the process can be
The roving is drawn from a spool under tension and is implemented to enhance existing techniques in the
redirected to an impregnation unit that saturates the roving industry, in which the processing of nonwoven fabrics is
with fresh resin. In the example presented in Figure 22, a combined with wet fiber placement.
siphon impregnation system is used,[10] which is further
elaborated in Section 3. Theoretically, the roving can be
directly maneuvered from the impregnation unit to the 3 | IN SITU ROVING
feeding rollers, which direct the roving to a compression- I M P R E GNA T I O N SY ST E M S
molding tool; however, this is not possible because the
forces required to pull the roving from most impregnation Roving impregnation systems can be categorized into
units are rather high. The feeding rollers would press a resin bath and closed impregnation systems. Resin bath
high amount of resin out of the roving, decreasing the resin impregnation systems were initially developed during the
volume ratio and potentially causing fiber damage to 1960s. In the last 60–70 years, resin bath systems only
achieve such high pulling forces. A roving conveying sys- improved incrementally. In general, there are two catego-
tem is thus implemented to decrease the required pulling ries of resin bath impregnation systems, a dip-type, and a
forces by feeding rollers. The conveying system comprises a drum-type bath system—both illustrated in Figure 24.[10]
number of motor-driven rollers that exploit the Euler- The simplest impregnation system available on the
Eytelwein principles and reduce the force that is needed to market is the dip-type resin bath system, which was ini-
pull the roving using the friction coefficient of the roller tially developed for pultrusion.[162] Rovings are pulled off
surface. Both the Euler-Eytelwein principles and the roving spool racks and are drawn through a container, that
method by which the motors reduce pulling forces are is filled with resin. Each roving moves through a complex
elaborated further in Section 4.1. arrangement of pins and rollers, resulting in high friction
A smaller version of such a system can be mounted to and tension.[163] Rovings are impregnated via consolida-
an industrial robot or a gantry system. The roving would tion. Drum-type resin bath systems have been developed
be placed in a wet compression molding tool, giving the from the dip-type system for filament winding.[164,165] The
placed roving a fixed frame in which the resin can be roving itself is not pulled through the resin reservoir in the
cured—the process is depicted in Figure 23. The roving container. Instead, a large roller or drum that rotates
has already got a suitable fiber volume ratio, and around its axis comes in contact with the resin, forming a
entrapped air is reduced by the wet compression molding thin film of resin on its surface. The roving is guided to the
drum and absorbs the resin via the hydrostatic and capil-
lary principles, which will be further elaborated in Sec-
tion 4. A set of additional pins and rollers that are
mounted above resin level help further with the consolida-
tion while squeezing out entrapped air.
The advantage of bath-type systems lies in their sim-
plicity and availability. However, these processes have
significant drawbacks. For one, bath-type resin impreg-
nation systems waste a high amount of resin, increasing
the material costs.[166] The baths have poor control over
fiber volume ratio with the fibers usually taking up a
higher amount of resin than needed.[10] Temperature and
humidity also change the viscosity of resin over time
until the resin can no longer be used.[167] Moreover, open

F I G U R E 2 2 Schematic of a wet fiber placement machine tool

adapted from May et al.[18] FIGURE 23 Wet fiber placement manufacturing process
16 ARRABIYEH ET AL.

viscosity is not suitable, as the hydrostatic and the capillary

pressure are not sufficient to ensure a high level of impreg-
nation quality.
The siphon impregnation system is a low-pressure
impregnation system that was developed at the Leibniz-
Institut für Verbundwerkstoffe (IVW) in Kaiserslautern,
Germany. The roving is drawn through a tube made of
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) in a sinusoidal path. The
roving is injected with resin at the entry point and is
moved to curved sections, in which hydrostatic and capil-
FIGURE 24 Resin bath impregnation systems
lary pressure are applied on both sides of the roving—
more on the topic in Section 4.2. Rovings with different
numbers of filaments can be moved through the devices at
a high pace with a constant fiber volume ratio.[10,178–180] A
schematic of the sinusoidal path in a siphon impregnation
system is presented in Figure 25.
In high-pressure impregnation systems, the roving is
drawn through a slightly tapered injection chamber and
is injected with resin under high pressure, directly infus-
ing the roving with resin. In pultrusion processes, injec-
tion chambers can be combined with consolidation dies,
heating dies, and heaters, integrating all their functions
into one single pultrusion unit.[181–183] As the fibers of
FIGURE 25 Schematic of roving path in siphon impregnation the roving are saturated with resin, they have also been
system pushed away from the injection chamber walls and are
compacted. The fibers are squeezed together, making
resin injection more difficult; this is why high injection
systems have dead zones in which no resin circulation pressures are required to squeeze resin between the
occurs, causing different viscosities in the same con- compacted filaments.[184] Entrapped air is squeezed out
tainer; this may even lead to an early solidification of as the cross-section of the cavity narrows down.[167]
resin in those dead zones.[168] A large quantity of time Resins with high viscosity can be used with these types of
and operating expenses are required to clean and systems. High-pressure impregnation systems are com-
exchange the resin in the containers. In addition, resin pact with no moving parts, which makes their design
materials are mostly composed of a blend of organic com- simple. One drawback would be that the backflow of the
pounds, some of which are volatile organic compounds. resin cannot be controlled effectively[10] and may cause
Due to their potential risk for the environment, these are a drop in injection pressure.[98] Therefore, injection pres-
often subject to very strict legal specification. Compliance sure ranges of 2–15 bar occur during the process.[185] The
with the regulations is an added expense.[166] backflowing resin flows to the entrance of the device, as
In order to overcome some disadvantages of open it is wider and easier to flow through. Another limiting
baths, closed and semi-closed impregnation systems have factor for high-pressure impregnation systems is that they
been developed. These can be categorized in high-pressure are more difficult to control, especially for thicker rov-
impregnation systems[166,169–171] and low-pressure impreg- ings. Adding to this, the cavity is adjusted to suit only a
nation systems.[172–177] In low-pressure impregnation sys- set volume of roving, and the narrow cavity the roving
tems, the resin is sprayed or injected with a low-pressure passes through might damage the outgoing roving.[10]
method.[10] The roving is drawn over a number of convex Injection chambers in different shapes have been
surfaces—among them pins and rollers—using hydrostatic reported in literature. Figure 26 depicts a chamber with a
and capillary pressure to impregnate the roving with resin. conical shape and a droplet shape.
Low-pressure impregnation systems have lower fiber com- Each impregnation system has its own use case.
paction; this means that different fiber volumes and more Miaris attempted to categorize each system according to
sensitive rovings can be used here. One of the disadvan- the resin viscosities and roving thicknesses in the process
tages in these types of processes is that resin with higher (Table 1).
ARRABIYEH ET AL. 17

FIGURE 26 High-pressure impregnation chamber

T A B L E 1 Impregnation process compatibility to roving

thickness and resin viscosity according to Miaris[10] FIGURE 27 Tension build-up on a pin according to Euler[194]
Resin Roving
Impregnation process viscosity thickness
Resin bath impregnation Low/ Low/medium resistance values were used to determine the loss in
medium tensile strength; they determined a tensile strength loss
Low-pressure impregnation Low/ Low/medium of 12.5%–27.3%. The values were close to those obtained
system medium from the tensile tests they conducted, which showed a
High-pressure impregnation Medium/ Medium/high tensile strength loss of 14.4%–31.9%.
systems high Figure 27 demonstrates the distribution of forces
according to Euler-Eytelwein.[194] The pulling force F2 is
larger than the pulled force F1. To move the roving in the
4 | MAIN EFFECTS ON THE direction of force F2, it needs to surpass a sum of
ROVING DURI N G PROCES S I N G the force F1 and the resistance FR, which again results
from the friction coefficient μ and the wrapping angle β.
4.1 | Roving tension Equation (1) demonstrates this relationship according to
Euler-Eytelwein[194]:
Roving tension has a direct impact on the fiber volume
ratio, fiber alignment, and void content of the final prod- F 2 ¼ F 1 eμβ : ð1Þ
uct.[22] In winding processes, roving tension is also used
to control the deposition accuracy of fibers on the The wrapping angle β and the friction coefficient μ are
winding core. Tensioning systems such as brakes inside the main influences on the pulling force F2. When more
the roving spools and various pin arrangements are than one pin is used, the cumulative wrapping angle β =
used to apply tension to the roving. Roving spool brake Pn
βk can be used in Equation (1), with βk, k = {1…n},
systems can apply resistance mechanically via a spring k¼1
system, pneumatically or electrically via an electromag- denoting the individual wrapping angles of n pins.
net.[22,186–188] Fiber tension has to be adjusted high Researchers often use a tension sensor to measure the
enough to achieve sufficient resin impregnation but low roving tension in specific points in the system, so that
enough so that no severe damage occurs to the fila- they can adjust process parameters to determine the rov-
ments of the roving.[189] Filaments in a roving have ing tension.[195–197]
small diameters that may be as low as 7 μm for carbon
and 15 μm for glass fibers. Both materials are consid-
ered brittle.[10] When conveying rovings over convex 4.1.1 | Motor-driven rollers
surfaces, filament damage was found to be influenced
by parameters such as the diameter of the convex sur- The Euler-Eytelwein principles are also used to reduce the
face, the number of convex surfaces, and applied pre- tension on a conveyed roving. Figure 28 depicts a sche-
tension.[190,191] The breaking of single filaments is matic of the power transmission on a roller that is driven
caused by bending stresses and friction.[192] Akkus et al. by its motor. In this scenario, a torque equilibrium around
investigated the effect of pin diameter on the roving the pivot A can be assumed for the forces F2, F1, and torque
and found that a smaller diameter increases filament Mt, the mathematical product of the circumferential force
damage.[193] Toptaş et al.[190] measured the change in FU, and radius r according to Equation (2). The pulling
electrical resistance on conductive carbon fibers to force F2 results when the maximum transmissible circum-
determine the percentage of filaments that break while ferential force FU,max is subtracted from the pulled force F1
being conveyed over a five-pulley system. The electrical as given in Equation.[3] According to the Euler-Eytelwein
18 ARRABIYEH ET AL.

FIGURE 29 Impregnation process adapted from Miaris[10]

FIGURE 28 Power transmission on a motor driven roller

divided the process into three zones: the entry zone, the
relationship, presented in Equation (1), the maximum impregnation zone, and the contact zone. In the entry zone,
transmissible circumferential force FU,max results from the a resin film is formed between the pin and roving. The
pulled force F1, the wrapping angle β, and the friction coef- thickness of the resin film is determined by the resin dosing
ficient μ (Equation (4)). When a conveying system uses one rate. As the roving enters the impregnation zone in which
motor to drive multiple rollers simultaneously, the power shear tension develops on the resin film—hydrostatic and
of the motor is divided among the number of active rollers. capillary pressure are formed here. In the contact zone, the
roving gets in contact with the convex surface, maximizing
Mt Pt friction, and further compacting the fiber-resin bed, press-
FU ¼ ¼ , ð2Þ
r 2πrnt ing out entrapped air.[199] When the roving touches the pin,
no more resin can diffuse into the roving.
ΣM A ¼ 0 ¼ F U,max þ F 2  F 1 ; F 2 ¼ F 1  F U,max : ð3Þ

Substituting Equation (1) gives: 4.2.1 | Hydrostatic pressure

 
  1 In order to define the pressure occurring between the rov-
F U,max ¼ F 1  1  eμβ ¼ F 2   1 ≥ FU : ð4Þ
eμβ ing and the resin, Blok et al.[200] have shown that a flexible
impermeable tape that comes in contact with a rotating
cylinder and a lubricating oil film will cause oil pressure
between the tape and the cylinder. Figure 30 shows the
4.2 | Roving impregnation forces acting upon a piece of roving that is being drawn
over a pin. The hydrostatic oil pressure P for a constant
Roving impregnation is both a mechanical and rheolog- film thickness H and a roving width W can be calculated
ical process. Hydrostatic pressure is required to push using the force dFN divided by the affected area A.[10]
resin in between the fibers of a roving. This pressure
can either be generated by pushing the resin into the dF N dF N
σ ¼ Pmax ¼ ¼ , ð5Þ
roving via high-pressure impregnation systems or by dA Wrdφ
pressing the roving against convex surfaces such as pul-
leys and pins. When a moving roving is drawn over a Cai et al.[201] and Lee et al[202] substituted the normal
convex surface on which a thin film of resin is formed, force dFN in Equation (5) to simulate the impregnation
the fibers of the roving are pulled into the resin film. process on the surface of a winding core during filament
Normal forces that are generated between a roving winding. Equation (8) describes the simplified version of
under tension and a convex surface apply hydrostatic Equation (5), which they used to express the pressure
pressure on the resin[198] that diffuses the resin into the developing under a roving while taking geometrical char-
roving. This hydrostatic pressure combined with the acteristics and tension of the roving into account. The
capillary phenomenon is the driving force in pin- equation is derived as followed:
assisted impregnation processes.[10]
Figure 29 depicts a schematic that shows the impregna- dφ
dF N ¼ ðF þ F þ dF Þsin ð6Þ
tion process on a convex surface.[10] Chandler et al.[198] 2
ARRABIYEH ET AL. 19

averaged flow rate ν with permeability K, pressure gradi-

ent rP, and viscosity η – see Equation (10).[10,131,205–207]
Viscosity can be defined as the fluid's resistance to
flow.[208] A permeability equation based on the research
of Kozeny and Carman[184,209–211] (Equation (11)) allows
to estimate the permeability in longitudinal direction via
the fiber volume ratio (eF), the fiber radius (rF), and the
Kozeny constant k, a geometric factor.

KrP
υ¼ , ð10Þ
FIGURE 30 Segment of a roving being drawn over a pin η

For small deflection angles, dFdφ ≈ 0 and sin r F 2 ð1  e F Þ3

(dφ/2) ≈ dφ/2; this leads to the approximation: dFN ≈ Fdφ. K¼ : ð11Þ
4keF 2
Substitution in Equation (5) finally results in:

F Gutowski et al.[212] suggested a heuristic permeability

σ ¼ Pmax ¼ : ð7Þ
Wr model to calculate permeability in transverse
direction[184,213]:
Gaymans et al.[198] and Bates et al.[203] proposed that
qffiffiffiffi 3
the pressure increases along the convex surface propor-
rF2
ea
eF1
tionally to the increase in tension on the roving. K¼   , ð12Þ
4k 0 ea
þ 1
eF

4.2.2 | Fluid film thickness

where k0 and ea are empirical values that are derived
[200]
In their study, Blok et al. found that when a flexible from the highest possible fiber compaction degree,
impermeable tape comes in contact with a lubricated, depending on the fiber-packing geometries described in
rotating cylinder, an oil film with constant thickness H is the next topic.
formed between tape and cylinder[204]:

 2 4.2.4 | Fiber volume ratio

W ηU 3
H ¼ 1:4r : ð8Þ
F
The fiber volume ratio—here characterized as the param-
eter eF—is the ratio between the volume of the fibers and
Here, F is the tape pretension, W the tape width, r the the amount of resin transported using the roving. Equa-
radius of the cylinder, η the oil viscosity, and U the relative tion (13) can be used to calculate the fiber volume ratio
speed between tape and cylinder. When a permeable roving eF based on the volume of the fiber VF and the matrix
is used instead, this film thickness is not constant. Chandler material VM or their mass (mF and mM) and density (ρF
et al.[199] proposed a linear relationship in which an initial and ρM).[18]
film thickness of H is reduced to zero at the contact point.
In this relation, the film thickness h is defined by the con- VF mF
eF ¼ ¼  : ð13Þ
tact length L of the impregnation zone and the variable x, V F þ V M m F þ mM  ρ F
ρM
which describes the direction in which the roving is drawn.
 x
h¼H 1 : ð9Þ Gibson[213] described the maximum fiber ratio for
L the two cases in which a square and triangular fiber-
packing geometry is formed—see Figure 31. In these
theoretical cases, the maximum possible fiber volume
4.2.3 | Fluid flow ratio is about 90.7%.[215] According to Schürmann, a
fiber volume ratio of 60% is widely considered to be
The most common model to describe fluid flow through good; values above 65% cause rovings to be so
a porous material is Darcy's law; it correlates the volume- compacted, that it becomes more difficult for matrix
20 ARRABIYEH ET AL.

F I G U R E 3 1 Idealized square and triangular fiber-packing

F I G U R E 3 2 Methods used for roving spreading: Roving
geometries adapted from Gibson[215]
deflection on pins as well as other convex surfaces[218] and counter-
rotating convex surfaces[219]

material to entirely wet all the fibers.[7] A uniform fiber

distribution with a high fiber volume ratio is necessary
for high mechanical resistance.[29] For a specific range
in fiber volume ratio, it can be stated that an increase
in fiber volume ratio is proportional to an increase in
composite strength.[216]

4.3 | Roving spreading

In manufacturing processes, that involve roving impreg-

nation and processing, a defined roving width can be very
important. A large roving width can decrease the overall
thickness of the roving and make it easier to squeeze
resin through; it may also influence the fiber compaction
in the final product, depending on the manufacturing
process. In filament winding, for instance, it is desired to
wind the roving without gaps or overlaps—a constant
width would be needed to fulfill this. The width of the
roving can be adjusted using a variety of process modifi-
cations[217]—see Figures 32 and 33. One of the more
widely used methods is drawing the roving over convex F I G U R E 3 3 Methods used for roving spreading: Using
surfaces—a method also called roving deflection. The vacuum (Fukui effect)[220] and the Venturi effect[221]
curvature of such convex surfaces causes the filaments of
the roving to have radii between R1 and R2. Filaments
that have a larger radius are subject to higher tensile effective spreading than with roving deflection. Another
stress, causing the filaments to squeeze closer to the con- method that makes use of convex surfaces was developed
vex surface. By contrast, the overall thickness of the rov- by Meyer.[219] In this method, the roving is drawn
ing decreases as the filaments spread wider across the through two counter-rotating shafts with a convex outer
convex surface.[222] Pins are often used for roving contour. Due to the convex surface of the outer contour
deflection. and the alternating change in the vertical position of the
In order to reduce the effect of overlapping filaments, roving, the filaments are pulled apart easier than with
Kern[218] developed a process in which the roving is the previously mentioned methods.
drawn over a convex surface that is under mechanical Fluid mechanics are also used to initiate filament
vibration. The highest tensile stress on the roving is at spreading. Kawabe and Tomoda[220] patented a process
the center of the convex surface, which is why filaments in which a roving is spread using the Fukui effect. The
tend to drift away from the center, enabling more roving is guided over pins through a cavity. A vacuum
ARRABIYEH ET AL. 21

that causes an inhomogeneous pressure distribution is in which rovings are not wound around a rotating core.
applied as shown in Figure 33 (top). The vacuum results Pultrusion processes are now able to produce curved
in a spreading effect. A pressure gradient moves the fila- profiles, profiles with variable cross-sections by using
ments sidewise.[223,224] blow molding methods, and profiles with different fiber
Another fluid mechanical effect that can be used is orientations using pullwinding methods.
the Venturi-effect. Daniels[221] developed and patented a
process in which a roving is drawn through two Venturi
nozzles. In the first nozzle, low pressure is used to spread 6 | FUTURE SCOPE
the filaments. In the second nozzle, the counter current
is used to spread the filaments further until they are Each one of the four processes: wet filament winding,
homogenized. The process is depicted in Figure 33 coreless winding, pultrusion, and additive manufacturing
(bottom). has its limitations, that researchers around the world
The easiest method to implement is roving deflection attempted to overcome. Established processes such as
on pins, which is why it is also most frequently applied. pultrusion and wet filament winding will continue to
The hardest method to implement is spreading via the overcome limitations. With the recent interest in
Fukui effect because the roving has to be almost tension- hydrogen-powered vehicles, research on improved
free. The method that is ultimately used depends on the methods to manufacture pressure vessels via filament
application and on what type of roving is being used.[217] winding is being conducted. A high potential is seen for
the usage of pultruded parts in the field of space travel as
it can be used to manufacture diverse products needed
5 | C ON C L U S I ON S for the tasks ahead. The possibility of transporting an
entire pultrusion system into space has been demon-
Recently, research conducted in the processing of fiber- strated by NASA[225]—an important accomplishment
reinforced polymer composites (FRPCs) made of in-line when considering space travel and the colonization of
impregnated continuous rovings has broken through other planets. In addition, researchers are currently
previous barriers, as new manufacturing and in-line developing weldable pultrusion profiles, thus expanding
impregnation methods are constantly emerging. This their applications immensely. Pultrusion can also be
paper presented these new manufacturing processes combined with other technologies, such as preforming—
and categorized them according the method by which laying techniques, in which dry fiber is used to form a
the pull-off forces are applied to in-line impregnated semi-finished form. The combination of such technolo-
rovings. The categories presented are pultrusion, wet fil- gies with pultrusion systems can bring even higher effi-
ament winding, coreless winding, and additive ciency with even more geometric possibilities and
manufacturing. Each of these processes is used for dif- potentials regarding fiber orientation.[226]
ferent applications. Pultrusion is mostly used to manu- Processes such as coreless winding and additive
facture profile products. Filament winding is mostly manufacturing with thermoset resin systems are still in
used for axisymmetric products, such as different varia- their infancy. Architectural designs will probably start to
tions of pipe products and pressure vessels. Coreless depend more and more on coreless winding, building an
winding is mostly used to manufacture truss structures entire industry around the process. Additive manufactur-
that cannot be produced with filament winding. And ing processes that employ thermoset resins will continue
finally, additive manufacturing is a process that is used to improve until they become a stable alternative to
when rapid prototyping or small quantities of a product Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)—a more established
are required. process in which thermoplastic polymer can be combined
Conventional pultrusion and wet filament winding with continuous rovings.[227] Wet fiber placement—a
processes have mostly been subject to geometrical limi- process in which rovings, that are impregnated with con-
tations that researchers overcame by developing modi- ventional thermoset resin, are placed in a tooling mold—
fied manufacturing methods, using different resin is a process, that is currently in development; it is set to
systems, and by postprocessing products differently— expand upon existing processes in the industry, making it
cutting wound components into pieces and glue them both its own additive manufacturing process and a sup-
together to have a different shape, for example. This plementary process.
patchworking method is one of many examples that
demonstrate how winding processes managed to over- ACKNOWLEDGMENT
come geometrical limitations. As a matter of fact, cor- The project “TopComposite” (topology-optimized and
eless winding is only a variety of wet filament winding resource-efficient composites for mobility and
22 ARRABIYEH ET AL.

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