TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN CELLS

As we have seen before, the cell membrane in a cell controls what enters and leaves it. This is because it is a
semi-permeable membrane, meaning it allows some particles to pass through it, while it blocks bigger ones.

Think about a cell membrane like a mask. It is good at blocking out viruses, but it still allows air to pass
through for us to breathe.

Substances move using 3 methods:

• Diffusion
• Osmosis
• Active transport

DIFFUSION

This is defined as the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of lower
concentration until they are evenly distributed.

Therefore, they move down a concentration gradient.

E.g. spraying air freshener, oxygen entering cells for respiration, carbon dioxide moving out of cells to be
excreted, oxygen produced by plants leaves plant cells via diffusion as well.

OSMOSIS

This is defined as the movement of water molecules from an area with a large water concentration (dilute
solution) to an area with a lower water concentration (concentrated solution) through a semi-permeable
membrane.

E.g. water moves into cells to keep hydrated, water enters plant roots, water in urine is reabsorbed by the
kidney, plant cells absorb water to keep turgid (upright).

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

In active transport, unlike osmosis, particles move against the concentration gradient using energy
produced via respiration. Particles move from a low concentration to a higher concentration.

E.g. minerals move into plant roots, sugars move into plant phloems, glucose is absorbed by the gut.
ENVIRONMENT & CLIMATE

POLLUTION

Caused by the Industry:

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Caused by Agricultural Practices

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Improper Disposal of Garbage

THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Coral reefs – they are at risk of destruction due to sewage, oil, fertilizer run off, chemicals, pH changes and
climate changes.

Cause Effect
Sewage, oil, fertilizer Directly destroys the reefs; blocks sunlight and stops photosynthesis of their
algae.
Temperature Rising temperatures kills the reefs, causing coral bleaching, where the corals turn
white.
Overfishing This has wiped out many herbivorous fish, leaving seaweed to grow unchecked.
This starves the reef of sunlight.
Weather patterns Weather events have become worse due to climate change. There are often huge
waves that destroy reefs
pH The pH of water has become more acidic, which makes it difficult for the corals
to produce their calcium carbonate (their skeleton)

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CLIMATE CHANGE

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CONSERVATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

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THE CARBON CYCLE

Humans negatively affect the carbon cycle, since we increase the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. We
do this by deforestation and burning fossil fuels. The emissions from vehicles are another source.

Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, the increased amount in the atmosphere would contribute to the
greenhouse effect, causing a rise in the earth’s temperature. Many plants and animals may not be able to
adapt to this temperature change and can die and become extinct.

We can reduce the amount of carbon dioxide we emit by using renewable sources of energy e.g. wind and
solar energy instead of burning fossil fuels. Reforestation on a large scale can absorb carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere. From an individual perspective, we can encourage carpooling, walking, biking as means of
transport, and also conserving electricity wherever possible.

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THE WATER CYCLE

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THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is unusable by plants. It must be converted into nitrate. This is termed
fixation and is done by bacteria, called nitrifying bacteria.

Nitrogen is essential to plants since it is a major component of chlorophyll and is used to make protein.

From the soil, nitrates are assimilated by plants. Animals obtain nitrate by consuming the plants.

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REPRODUCTION

Reproduction can be sexual or asexual.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

This involves one parent only. All offspring are identical to the parent.

There are many forms: Binary fission, Vegetative propagation, Artificial vegetative propagation, Cloning

BINARY FISSION

Occurs in unicellular organisms, e.g. Amoeba. The parent cell splits into 2 identical daughter cells.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

New plants are formed from perennating organs e.g. rhizomes, stem tubers, bulbs and corms OR from the
outgrowths of the old plant, e.g. crab grass.

ARTIFICAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

We use vegetative propagation to reproduce plants using cuttings or grafting. Cuttings are parts of plants
which develop roots to become new plants e.g. sugar cane, yam. In grafting, a shoot, the scion, is attached to
the stem of a vigorous root system, the stock. The shoot grows into a new plant. E.g. citrus, mango.

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

In plants that undergo sexual reproduction, flowers produce the gametes and ensure that fertilisation
occurs via pollination.

POLLINATION

This refers to the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. This leads to fertilisation. There
are 2 types of pollination:

• Self-pollination – pollen is transferred to the stigma of the same flower or to the stigmas of other
flowers of the same plant.
• Cross pollination – pollen is transferred to the stigmas of flowers on different plants of the same
species.

Pollination can be achieved by wind or insects.

Structure Wind Pollinated Insect Pollinated

Flower Small and inconspicuous Large and conspicuous
Pollen grains Small, green, no scent, no nectar, no honey Large, bright, scented, nectar, honey
Stamens Long filaments with loosely attached Short filaments with firm anthers that are
anthers that hang outside the flower inside the flower
Stigmas Large, branched and feathery. Hang outside Flat and sticky inside the flower. The insect
the flower to catch pollen. brushes past and deposits pollen.
Examples Grass, sugar cane, maize Flamboyant, pride of Barbados

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FERTILISATION

FRUITS

Fruits protect the seeds and also help in dispersing them. There are 2 main types:

• Succulent – the layers of the pericarp are fleshy e.g. orange, mango and tomato
• Dry – pericarp is thin and dry e.g. the pod of the pride of Barbados, capsule of castor oil.

Like flowers, seeds can be dispersed via animals and wind, but also water and mechanically.

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