STEAM BOILERS

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 Steam Boilers

1 Uses for Steam

2 Types of Steam Boiler
3 Problem areas
4 Principles of Boiler
Water Treatment
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 Uses for Steam
Overview
1 Uses list
2 Summary of uses
3 Purpose of a boiler
4 Steam Generation System
5 The age of steam is not dead!

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 Summary of uses
z Heating
z As a Raw Material
z Motive Force
z Cleaning/Disinfection/Sterilisation

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Purpose of a boiler

Heat Source

Heat Sink

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 Why is water used so widely?
(a) Hot Water System
1,000 kg/hr Water
100°C 100°C
Heat Heat
In Out

419,000 kJ/hr

0°C 0°C

1,000 kg/hr Water

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 Why is water used so widely?
(b) Steam System
1,000 kg/hr Steam
at 100°C 1.01 bar

100°C 100°C
Heat Heat
In Out

2,675,000 kJ/hr

0°C 0°C
1,000 kg/hr Water

6 times the heat transfer - same mass transfer!

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 Definition of a Steam Boiler

“A device for converting

water to steam under
controlled conditions of
temperature & pressure.”

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 Definition of a Cooling Tower

“A device which provides

optimum air/water contact
in order to cool that water
by evaporation”.

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Importance of Latent Heat of Evaporation

Boiler & cooling tower

both cool by
evaporation.
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 Steam Generation System
Deaerator Vent

Processes
Clarifier

Superheater

Feedwater
Filters Pump Economizer
Turbine
Condenser

Vent

Ion
Exchange
Boiler
Stage Heater
Flash Tank

Blowdown
Heat Exchanger
Sewer

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 THE AGE OF STEAM IS NOT DEAD!
z Nuclear Power Stations
z Refineries
z Paper mills
z Nuclear Submarines
z Pharmaceutical Industries
z Food & beverage
z Dairies
z Petrochemicals/fertilizers/basic chemicals
z etc. etc.

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 Types of Steam Boiler
Overview
1 Fire/Smoke Tube
2 Water Tube
3 Once-through/coil generators

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 Fire Tube Boilers
Heat Source inside tubes, water in
pressure vessel heated by tubes

Boiler
Water

Heat

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 Basic Construction
Steam Out
Flue

BOILER WATER

BOILER WATER

Fuel BOILER WATER

FURNACE
Hot Gases

Air
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 Applications

z Low Pressures (<120 psig)

z Low - Medium Outputs (<10,000 kg/hr)
z Portable
z Low efficiency

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 Fire Tube Boiler

Bulk boiler water surrounds the fire

(energy) in the tube
Capacity is generally rated as horsepower
1 horsepower will generate 34.5 pounds of
steam per hour
Fire tube boilers are normally “multi-pass”

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 Fire Tube Boiler

Most fire tube boilers are sold as package units

The large, main fire tube is referred to as the
Morrison tube.
Fire tube capacities range from 5-1500 HP
The steam bubbles are produced on the top half
of the tube
The tubes are in staggered rows

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 Fire Tube Boiler

¾ Dryback/Wetback style
¾ 15-800 hp
¾ Heating or Processing
¾ Steam (15-250 psi) or
¾ Hot Water (30 lbs. and up)
¾ Oil, Natural Gas or combination
¾ Alternate fuel capability
¾ Low NOx capability

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Fire Tube Boiler

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Water Tube Boiler

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 Water Tube Boiler

Bulk boiler water is inside the tubes

Capacity is normally expressed in pounds
or kilograms per hour of steam
Generally have a Steam drum and a Mud
drum
Types are normally “A”, “D”, & “O”

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 Water Tube Boiler

Capacities range from 4500 kg/hr

(10,000 lbs/hr) to large utility boilers
Steam bubbles produced in the tube
and cause circulation throughout the
boiler
Designed to run at full load

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 Water Tube Boiler

Tubes Names:
Generating,
Downcomer,
Wall, and
Floor tubes

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 Water Tube Boilers
Heat source on outside, water
enclosed in tube
Heat
Heat Heat

Heat Boiler Heat

Water

Heat Heat

Heat
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Basic Elements & Nomenclature
Steam
Downcomers Drum Risers

Superheater

Economiser

Mud Fuel
Drum

Air Inlet

Ash

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 Natural Circulation

Cooler Warmer
Heavier Lighter
Water Water

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 Different Designs

‘O’ Type ‘D’ Type ‘A’ Type

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 Applications
z Medium - High Pressures (>120 psig)
z Power Generation
z High Outputs (>10,000 kg/hr)
z High Efficiency

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 Special Designs
1 Once-Through Boilers
2 Electrode Boilers
3 Electric boilers

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 Once-Through Boilers (Coil Generators)

Make Up Condensate.
Flue
FEED
STEAM Wet Steam
TANK
SEPARATOR

Blowdown

Fuel
Feed Pump
(Positive Dispalcement)
Burner

Air

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 Problem Areas
Overview
1 Scale
2 Corrosion
3 Deposition/Fouling
4 Carryover
5 Where problems occur

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 Scale formation
Reaction
Scale

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3Ø + H2O + CO2

HEATÖ

HIGH pHÖ

ÕLOW pH
CO2 REMOVAL (Degassing)Ö

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 Temperature Gradients
Without Scale With Scale

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 Scale can lead to:
/ Loss of efficiency
/ Higher fuel consumption
/ Blockages
/ Tube failure
1 In severe cases, explosions!

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 Causes
z High Temperatures & Pressures
z Bare metal surfaces
z Under-deposit corrosion
z Oxygen and/or CO2
z Low pH excursions
z High pressure systems - caustic
embrittlement

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 Problems Caused by Water Impurities
Corrosion
Corrosion cell
Natural Water Dissociation
2H2O Ù 2OH- + 2H+
Anode ½O2 2OH- 2H+
½O2 Cathode
Reactions Reactions
Fe0 ÖFe2+ + 2e- 2OH- 2H+ + 2e- ÖH2O + H2×
2Fe2++4OH- ÖFe(OH)2 4e- ½O2 + H2O + 2e-Ö2OH-
2Fe(OH)2 + ½O2 Ö Fe2O3Ø+H2O+2e-

Anions
Fe2O3
Fe0 Electrons Fe0

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 Corrosion in Boiler Systems

Feed Temperature
Condensate Oxygen for
°C °F saturation
Vent Make-up water ppm
Lid 0 32 14.16
5 41 12.37
10 50 10.92
15 59 9.76
20 68 8.84
25 77 8.11
30 86 7.83
T 35 95 7.04
Overflow
40 104 6.59
50 122 5.57
Supplementry 60 140 4.76
steam line 70 158 3.89
80 176 2.89
Lagging 90 194 1.63
100 212 0

Boiler feed suction

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 Generation of Carbon Dioxide
Hard makeup water
Ca(HCO3)2 Ö CaCO3Ø + H2O + CO2×
Calcium Calcium
Carbonate Carbon
Bicarbonate
(Scale) Dioxide

CO2 + H2O ÙH2CO3

Carbon Carbonic
Dioxide Acid

Softened makeup water

2NaHCO3 ÖNa2CO3 + H2O + CO2×
Carbon
Sodium
and/or Carbonate Dioxide

2NaHCO3 Ö 2NaOH + 2CO2 ×

Sodium Sodium Carbon
Bicarbonate Hydroxide Dioxide
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 Condensate Corrosion
Causes of Condensate Corrosion
Carbon Dioxide
Reaction
CO2 + H2O Ö H2CO3
Gouging Corrosion

Oxygen
Pitting Corrosion

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 High Pressure Systems

MAGNETITE
NaOH

STEAM OUT

NaOH
NaOH
NaOH
NaOH Fe3O4
POROUS DEPOSIT

BOILER WATER IN

NaOH
MAGNETITE

Porous deposits provide conditions that cause high concentration of boiler water
solids, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
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 Fouling caused by :
/ Scale deposits
/ Metal oxide solubility
/ Feed contamination
/ Precipitation Treatment & no dispersant

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 Causes
1 Priming - Mechanical
2 Foaming - Chemical

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 Priming
Priming Caused by :
Rapid drop in boiler pressure
Rapid increase in Steam load

Both lead to :
Increase in specific volume of steam
Increase in steam velocity.

Boiler Water in ‘ Sucked out’ of the boiler.

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 Priming

Steam Steam
+
Water
psi psi

Normal Operation Priming

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 Boiler Water Carryover
Priming
2
Specific volume, m3/kg

1.5

0.5

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Pressure, bar

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 Foaming

Normal Operation Slight Foaming

Severe Foaming DANGER!

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 Causes of foaming

z High TDS/Alkalinity
z High Suspended Solids
z Contaminated feedwater - organics, etc.

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 Priming/foaming can lead to:

/ Contaminated Steam/Condensate
/ Extremely high boiler TDS levels
/ Uncovered tubes
1 In extreme cases tube failure/explosions

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Where problems occur in steam system
Deaerator Vent
DS C C
Processes
Clarifier

Superheater
C
Feedwater C
Filters Pump Economizer
C Turbine
Condenser

D SC
SC Vent

Ion S S
Exchange C C
D Boiler
Stage Heater D
Flash Tank

Blowdown S
Heat Exchanger Scale Corrosion Deposition
Sewer
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Principles of Boiler Water Treatment
Overview
1 Scale Control
2 Corrosion Control
3 Suspended Solids Control
4 Alkalinity Builders
5 Special Applications
6 Integrated Approach
7 Programming

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 Treatment Methods

External Methods - Applied outside boiler

Internal Methods - Applied inside boiler

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 External Methods

z Precipitation Softening (Lime-Soda)

z Base Exchange Softening
z Reverse Osmosis
z De-Alkalisation
z De-Mineralisation

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1) Principles of Ion Exchange

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 Resin Bead
Incoming / untreated water

2+
Fe 2+ Mg

Ca 2+

Na +
Ca 2+ Na +

Na + Na +

Na + Na +

Na + Na +

Na +

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 Resin Bead
2+
Ca

Ca 2+

Mg 2+ Treated Water

Na +
Na + Fe 2+
Na +

Na +

Na +

Na + Na +

Na +

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 10% Brine Regeneration
Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+ Na+

Na +
Na+ Na+

Na+
Na+ Na+

Fe2+ Mg2+
Na+ Na+
Na+
Na+ Ca++

Na +
Na +

Ca2+ To drain
Na+

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 Regeneration Cycle
1) Backwash
2) Brine draw
3) Slow rinse
4) Fast rinse

Brine 5) On-line

Drain

Service

Drain Drain Drain

1 2 3 4 5

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 Raw Water
De-Cationisation
Mg2+ Ca 2+ Cl -

Na +
SO42-
H+ Mg2+

HSO3-

H+
H+

H+
Ca 2+ H+

H+
H+

2- Cl -
SO4 H+
HCO3-

Treated Water
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Acid
H+ H+
Regeneration of Cation Resin

H+ H+
H+
H+ H+
H+
H+
H+

H+ H+

H+ H+ H+

H+
Mg 2+
Ca 2+

H+
H+
To drain
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 De-Anionisation
From Cation Bed
H+ H+
H+ Cl -

HCO3- H+
OH -
H+
OH -
SO42-
Cl -

HCO3- OH -

OH - SO42- H+
OH -
H+
OH -
H+
H+
OH - OH -
H+
OH -
Demineralised Water
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Caustic Soda Regeneration of Anion Resin
OH - OH - OH -

OH - OH -

OH - OH -
OH -
OH -
OH -

OH -
OH -
OH -
OH -
OH -
OH -
OH -
OH - Cl -

SO42- HCO3-

To Drain
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 Internal Methods

1 Carbonate Cycle (precipitation)

2 Phosphate (precipitation)
3 Chelant (solublisation)
4 Phosphate/Chelant (Combination)

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 Carbonate Cycle
Makeup
Water
B/X
Makeup Softening Heat &
Water Pressure
Ca(HCO3)2 Ö2NaHCO3 NaOH
Heat &
Pressure

Na2CO3

CaCO3Ø + 2NaHCO3
Boiler
BoilerWater
WaterSodium
SodiumCarbonate
CarbonateAlkalinity
Alkalinity(2(M-P))
(2(M-P))must
mustbe
be>250
>250ppm
ppm
and
and boiler pressure must be <150 psig. REQUIRES DISPERSANTSfor
boiler pressure must be <150 psig. REQUIRES DISPERSANTS for
Calcium Carbonate conditioning.
Calcium Carbonate conditioning.
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 Phosphate Programme

3Ca++ + 2PO43- Ö Ca3(PO4)2Ø

Phosphate
Phosphatereserve
reserveofof30-50
30-50ppm
ppmPO PO44(as
(asPO
PO44))must
mustbebe
maintained
maintainedin
inboiler
boilerwater,
water,equivalent
equivalentto to50-80
50-80ppm
ppmasasNa
Na33PO
PO44
Phosphate
Phosphateprecipitate
precipitateforms
formsin
inthe
theboiler
boilerwater
waterand
andis
isremoved
removed
by
bybottom
bottomblowdown
blowdown(not(notcontinuous
continuousblowdown)
blowdown)
Dispersant
Dispersant(known
(knownas
assludge
sludgeconditioner)
conditioner)required
requiredfor
for
Calcium
Calcium Phosphate, which otherwise will form a stickydeposit.
Phosphate, which otherwise will form a sticky deposit.

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 External Methods
z De-Aeration
z De-Alkalisation (De-Mineralisation)
z Oxygen Scavengers

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A deaerator heats boiler feedwater
under slight pressure to force
oxygen out. The vessel also
breaks the water stream into small
droplets to provide increased
surface area allowing the oxygen
to escape more easily.

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Vent
Deaerator
Dome

Storage Section

Feedwater Pump

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 Deaerator

Makeup Water Condensate

Feedwater
To Boiler

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 Oxygen Scavengers
Sulphite
Na2SO3 + 1/2O2 Ö Na2SO4
Bisulphite
NaHSO3 + NaOH Ö Na2SO3 + H2O
Metabisulphite
Na2S2O5 + H2O Ö 2NaHSO3
Less
Lessbisulphites
bisulphitesare
arerequired
requiredthan
thansulphite,
sulphite,per
perppm
ppmof
ofoxygen
oxygenininthe
the
water (5.9 for Metabisulphite, 6.5 for Bisulphite and 7.88 for Sulphite).
water (5.9 for Metabisulphite, 6.5 for Bisulphite and 7.88 for Sulphite).
Bisulphites
Bisulphitesmust
mustbe
beused
usedwhere
wherefree
freehydroxide
hydroxideis
ispresent
presentfor
forsulphite
sulphite
to
tobe
beproduced.
produced.
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 Oxygen Scavengers
Hydrazine
N2H4 +O2 Ö N2 + H2O
As oxygen scavenger, dose rate 1:1
Usually dose an excess; 1.5-2:1
Normally use catalysed hydrazine for BWT
Feedwater pH >9.5
Suitable for up to 2,500 psig
Passivates metal surface:
O2
4Fe3O4 6Fe2O3
N2 + 2H2O N2H4
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 Hydrazine Substitutes
Carbodihydrazide Ascorbic Acid DEHA MEKO
Feedrate 1.41:1 11:01 1.24:1 5.45:1
Same or slower than V. slow @ low temp. Slow. Requires large
Reaction Faster than hydrazine
hydrazine Faster than hydrazine excess
No inorganic solids, No inorganic solids,
Safer to handle than No inorganic solids Ver
volatile, safe to handle, volatile, safe to handle,
Advantages hydrazine. Volatile safe to handle (GRAS).
volatile, attemporation volatile, attemporation
treatment - no solids. Performs well at low pH
acceptable, residual test acceptable, residual test

More expensive than

hydrazine, poor
Expensive, unacceptabl Decomposes to produce
performance at low tem Poor performance, not
Disadvantages for superheater layup if ammonia, not FDA
not FDA approved, FDA approved
flush/drain not possible. approved, expensive.
decomposes to produce
ammonia.

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 Condensate Protection
z Neutralising Amines
z Filming Amines
z Combination and Blends.

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 Condensate Protection
Neutralising Amines Carbon CO2
Dioxide
Bicarbonate
Amines HCO3- Carbonate CO3-
Bicarbonate Boiler Hydroxide OH-
Feed Water
Amine Amine
In Solution In Steam
R-NH-R or R-NH2 R-Nl2 R-NH2-R

Water Steam
H2O H2O
CO2

Vent
Amine Carbonate Amine + H2CO3
R-NH3CO3 R-NH2 Carbonic CO2+ H2O
or or Acid
R-NH2CO3- R R-NH- R
Condensate
+ + +
Filming Amines Amine Molecule
+ + + + + + + + +
Metal Surface
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 Condensate Protection
Corrosion vs. pH

Corrosion Rate

Ideal
Range

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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 Dispercants
Scale Control
Remove scale-forming salts
Corrosion (condensate) control
Dissolved iron in condensateðBoilerðInsoluble Iron
Treatment
Dispersants
- - + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ -
- - + + +
+ - + - + +

No Dispersant With Dispersant

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 Why do we need them?
pH Control
Silica Control
SiO2 + 3NaOH Ö NaSiO3 + H2O
OH Alk must be 1.7 × Silica Conc.
Magnesium Scale Control
MgCl2 + 2NaOH Ö Mg(OH)2 + 2NaCl

MgCl2 + SiO2 Ö MgSiO3 + 2NaCl + H2O

Two products form insoluble complex of
magnesium hydroxysilicate.
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 Integrated approach to BWT

Makeup Scale Suspended

water Control Solids
purification Control

Condensate Oxygen
Alkalinity Corrosion Removal
Control Control

Boiler/feed
T.D.S. corrosion
Control control
Blowdown Carryover
Control Prevention
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 Boiler Water Treatment Control
Steam
Header

T.D.S. Control

1" Below Minimum

Water Level
Control Valve
Feed
Boiler
Water
T.D.S.
Controller

T.D.S. Probe
Blowdown
Control Valve Vessel and Drain

De-Sludging Timer.
Controller

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 Solids or Water Balance
In = Out
Evaporation
E
Feed
F Blowdown
B
F = E+B
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Typical Boiler T.D.S. Control Limits

Carryover + Deposition

3500

3250 Ideal

3000

Wasting Fuel + Water + Chemicals

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 Boiler Alkalinity
Wasted Chemical
High Boiler T.D.S. High Blowdown
High Boiler Alkalinity Carryover
M = 1200

Ideal

OH = 350
Reduced Protection Against Silica
and Magnesium Carbonate Scale
Formation

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 Sulphite Reserve

Wasting High High

and
Chemical Boiler T.D.S. Blowdown
70

50 Ideal

30

Reduced Corrosion Protection

+ Oxygen Removal

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 Phosphate Reserve

Wasting Chemical

70

50 Ideal

30

Reduced Scale Protection

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 Dissolve Oxygen,
Solubilities & Reaction Times °C °F Oxygen for
1 Saturation
10 mg/l Uncatalysed and Catalysed ppm
Hydrazine = 25 0 32 14.16
9 3
mg/l Uncatalysed and Catalysed 5 41 12.37
8 Sodium Sulphite = 100
10 50 10.92
7 Temperature = 200C 15 59 9.76
6 pH = 10 20 68 8.84
25 77 8.11
5 Water : Deionised
30 86 7.83
4 Curve 1 : Uncatalysed Hydrazine 35 95 7.04
3 Curve 2 : Catalysed Hydrazine 40 104 6.59
2 2 Curve 3 : Uncatalysed Sodium Sulphite 50 122 5.57
60 140 4.76
1 Curve 4 : Catalysed Sodium Sulphite
4 70 158 3.89
0
80 176 2.89
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
90 194 1.63
Time in Minutes
100 212 0
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 TREATMENT

1. SURVEY

2. WATER ANALYSIS

3. PRODUCTS SELECTION

4. CALCULATIONS

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 1 - SUVERY

1. Site name:
2. No. Of boilers
3. Steaming capacity (kg/hr)
4. Operation hours (day/week0
5. Boiler pressure (Psi)
6. Feed Temp (0C)
7. Condensate return (%)
8. Use of steam
9. Softener size (cu ft)
10. Deateator size
11. Dosing system
12. Blow down system
13. Current treatment

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 2-WATER ANALYSIS

Sample Total Ca Alkalinity Cl- TDS pH Fe SO3 PO4

hardness Hardness Total
P M OH

Raw

Soft

Feed

Cond.

Boiler

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 3 CALCULATIONS (SHELL BOILER)

Determine Cmax and limiting factor

Max TDS : 3500 ppm

Max [Link] : 1200 ppm

Max S.S : 50

Max Silica : 133

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CTDS = 3500
Feed TDS + (O2 x 8)

CAlk = 1200
Feed [Link] – Feed T. Hardness

CS.S = 50
Feed T. Hardness + Feed T. Fe

C max IS LOWEST ONE

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Blow down % = 100
C

Feed = Steam + Blow down

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 Testing & Monitoring Boiler Sampling & Analysis
Boiler System Testing - What, Where & Why
?
Sample Analysis Reason
Main Water T.D.S. Hardness pH To Check variability of supply

Treated water at Hardness Alkalinity (P+M) To check treatment plant operation is

each stage T.D.S. satisfactory. Also used to check
Ph condensate return.
pH Low Corrosive
Feed Water
Hardness Contamination or poor treatment plant operation
T.D.S. Condensate return
Alkalinity (P+M) Condensate treatment Dosing neutralising Amine
Temperature For oxygen scavenger Dosing
Boiler Water Oxygen scavenger reserve Low Corrosion / High Waste
Phosphate reserve Low Scale forming / High Waster
‘M’ Alkalinity Low Corrosion / High Carryover
‘OH’ Alkalinity Low Scaling / High Carryover
T.D.S. Low Waste / High Carryover
pH Low Corrosive
Condensate pH Low Corrosive / High Carryover
T.D.S. High Carryover
Iron High Corrosion
[Link] Slide 95 Printed on 5/17/2008
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What if ? Boilers RE-TEST
NEXT SHIFT
HIGH FEED HIGH T.D.S. IN INCREASE
NO YES
HARDNESS BOILER WATER BLOWDOWN 10%

YES NO

CHECK LOW T.D.S. IN REDUCE

IF FAULTY YES
PRE-TREATMENT BOILER WATER BLOWDOWN 10%
PLANT OPERATION
NO
TRACE SOURCE
& RECTIFY OK BUT STILL HIGH HIGH CORRECTED* REDUCE SULPHITE
SULPHITE RESERVE YES NO
DOSE RATE 10%

CHECK FOR NO
YES CONDENSATE CHECK DOSING PUMP
CONTAMINATION LOW CORRECTED* CHECK FW
YES + INCREASE SULPHITE
SULPHITE RESERVE TEMPERATURE DOSE RATE BY 10% SAME
NO OK
LOW FW TEMP. PROBLEM
CALL A.T.C.I. NO TEMP. REPEATED YES CALL
ENGINEER RECHECK AFTER 1 HOUR MORE A.T.C.I.
HIGH CORRECTED* REDUCE PHOSPHATE THAN ENGINEER
PHOSPHATE RESERVE YES
DOSE RATE 10% TWICE
NO
CHECK DOSING PUMP
LOW CORRECTED* YES + INCREASE PHOSPHATE
PHOSPHATE RESERVE
DOSE RATE BY 10%

*CORRECTED SPECIFIED T.D.S. NO RECHECK AFTER 1 HOUR

RESERVE = ACTUAL RESERVE X
ACTUAL T.D.S.
REDUCE ALKALINITY
HIGH CORRECTED OH* YES
ALKALINITY RESERVE BUILDER DOSE RATE 10%
3500
e.g. = 30 X
2000 NO

= 50 CHECK DOSING PUMP

LOW CORRECTED OH* YES + INCREASE ALKALINITY
ALKALINITY RESERVE BUILDER DOSE BY 10%
NO

NO ACTION
REQUIRED

[Link] Slide 96 Printed on 5/17/2008