4

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

There are some ideas n information regarding the grinding process in this
chapter. It is written based on overview the study of researcher, collection crucial
information from the journal and the related material where it was enlighten us more
about the grinding process.

2.2 THE GRINDING PROCESS

Grinding process for the material removal is called abrasion. An abrasive

material rubs against the metal part and clears or removes tiny pieces of material. The
process implies that instead of cutting like a lathe bit, the material is slowly and steadily
worn away. This is because compared to the material being ground, the abrasive is
harder. The grinding wheel actually acts like many hundreds of very small lathe bit,
each cutting off some metal. The abrasive must be strong enough to bear any kind of
forces acting upon it while grinding. Usually some sort of impact shock occurs when the
abrasive comes in contact with the material. Grinding abrades material in a similar way
to sanding. The grinding operation is performed on a several machines like the lathe and
the mill, with the appropriate add-on accessories and the most important of which is the
spindle. Spindle as a machine tool is used for grinding. There are different spindles for
performing different types of grinding. Grinding is also considered to be a finishing
process or finishing operation having many different applications in the machine tool
industry.
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Grinding machine was originally used almost exclusively for truing tool steel
parts which had been distorted by hardening. The great improvements which have been
made both in grinding machines and abrasives wheel, however, have resulted in the
application of the grinding process to the finishing. The part first is reduced to nearly
size by turning in some of lathe, and then is ground to the finished dimension. Grinding
is the only practicable method because it enables parts to be finished accurately to a
given dimension in less time than would be required by any other known method.

There are several types of grinding machines have been developed for handling
the various kinds of work to which the grinding process is applicable which are
cylindrical grinding, (Noyes, H. F, 1910), surface grinding, (Noyes, H. F, 1910),
Cylinder grinding, (Hamilton, Douglas T , 1915,) and centerless grinding (Robert H.
Todd, 1994). The surface grinding which horizontal spindle surface grinder will be use
in this experiment.

2.2.1 Surface Grinding

Surface Grinding is a manufacturing process which moves or grinding wheel

relative a surface in a plane while a grinding wheel contacts the surface and removes a
minute amount of material, such that a flat surface is created. The term surface grinding
designates any process which accurately processes or grinds a surface. Surface grinding
methods include horizontal-spindle reciprocating table (figure 2.1), horizontal-spindle
rotary table (figure 2.2), vertical-spindle rotary table (figure 2.3), vertical-spindle
reciprocating table (figure 2.4), and vertical-spindle swivel head surface grinding (figure
2.5) which had shown below. (Source: Engineers edge, 2011)
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Figure 2.1: Horizontal-spindle reciprocating table

Figure 2.2: Horizontal-spindle rotary table

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Figure 2.3: Vertical-spindle rotary table

Figure 2.4: Vertical-spindle reciprocating table

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Figure 2.5: Vertical-spindle swivel head

Source: Engineers edge, 2011

Grinding covers a wide range of finishing and machining tasks like as abrade
hard materials, improve surface finish, tighten the tolerance on cylindrical or flat
surfaces by removing a small amount of material, resharpening cutting tools, surface
grinding of mold sections, surface grinding of work fixtures, internal diameter and outer
diameter grinding of valve bodies, and many other useful applications. The material is
too hard to be machined economically. If the surface is adequately supported, grinding
can produce flatness tolerances of less than ±0.0001 in. (±0.0025 mm) on a 5 x 5 in.
(127 x 127 mm) steel surface as removes excessive material. Grinding should be used
when size tolerance specifications are beyond the capability of turning. It is also applied
if the requirements of surface finish are too tight for hard turning.

Parts may require surface grinding for several reasons. The following are a few
of the more common reasons which are produce a very flat surface, very accurate
thickness tolerance specified, a very smooth surface roughness Ra is specified required
and cutting tool sharpening. Surface grinding machines and processes where first
developed to manufacture very tight tolerances, smooth surface finishes, and removing
material from very hard materials.
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2.3 MECHANISM OF GRINDING

Knowledge of the basic principles of a machining is an essential prerequisite for

the full realisation of its potential. As the grinding process contains a large number of
grain points acting on the component parts, material removal is made up of the sum of
many different cutting that remove the individual chips from the material surface (figure
2.6)

Figure 2.6: Illustration of the surface grinding process showing Mechanism of Stock
Removal

Source: Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences, 2001

Grinding is used primarily as a precision machining method in which chip

formation proceeds. The direction of the cutting feed will force the chip formation
which proportional to that direction. In order to form a chip, the grains cutting into the
component must be harder than the material which is to be grinded. Moreover, in the
case some of grinding, honing and free abrasive grinding operations with bonded grains,
the force-bonded will exist and that is cutting edge engagement. This working principle
can be found with most machining methods with geometrically undefined cutting edges.
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Only when the cutting edge has penetrated deeply enough into the work piece that chip
thickness corresponds to the grain cutting depth and lead the formation chip begin
(figure 2.7).

Figure 2.7: Illustration of the cutting edge of the wheel in grinding process

Source: Manufacturing process 2; grinding, honing and laping, 2009

In the grinding process, if the tool is pressed against the work piece with
increased force, but constant surface pressure, the grain can no longer roll in these
conditions. The cutting edges make fine scratch marks in the machining location. This is
due to the grain is pressed against the surface of the work piece with limited force due
to the constant surface pressure, cutting edge engagement where called the force-bound.
Besides the cutting edge, there is the distribution of the friction force in the grinding
process. The distribution of force and energy can be considered both microscopically
with relation to the individual grits as well as macroscopically on the scale of the entire
grinding wheel. The large degree of the friction force was formed at the cutting edge
influenced the formation of the chips.
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Figure 2.8: The influence of friction on the cutting depth and machining efficiency: low
friction

Figure 2.9: The influence of friction on the cutting depth and machining efficiency:
high friction

Source: Manufacturing process 2; grinding, honing and laping, 2009

Friction that occurs between the abrasive grains and work piece is direct
influenced on grinding force, power, specific energy and wheel (figure 2.8). In addition,
high-friction force which is shown in figure 2.9 may intensify the heat generation and
lead to thermal damage in the surface layer of the ground work. The larger contact area
and the stronger friction between tool and work are both main characteristics of
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grinding in comparison to cut. Adhesion, plastic deformation, and plowing also have
their contributions to the friction coefficient (J Goddard, 1959).

Based on the basic cutting action of an active grain, Cai et al (1996), had
proposed a new grinding parameter Cge to evaluate the grinding capability of wheel. For
single-grit of the grinding and the ordinary grinding Cge can be, respectively, expressed
as in Eq. (2.1) and (2.2)

(2.1)

(2.2)

where A is the mean cross-section area of unreformed chip, Fgn is the mean normal force
of an active grain, and Fn′=Fn/b is the specific normal grinding force, where Fn the
normal grinding force, b the grinding width, and heq is the equivalent grinding thickness
as in Eq.(2.3).

(2.3)

Where vw is the worktable speed, ap the wheel depth of cut and vs is the wheel speed.

For ordinary grinding and snagging grinding, the Cge can also be expressed as in
Eq.(2.4).

(2.4)
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where Zw is the metal removal rate. By monitoring the process forces, Cge can be
obtained and used easily for different grinding methods. Eq. (2.1) shows that
the Cge reflects the grinding capability of a mean active grain of the wheel. The
larger Cge indicates the higher grinding capability of the wheel. So Cge can be named as
‘grinding capability parameter’. The heavy grinding experimental results show that the
parameter Cge has close relations to wheel wear rate Zs, metal removal rate Zw, specific
energy µ and grinding force ratio λ (λ=Fn/Ft) (figure 2.10).

Figure 2.10: Relation between Cge, Zs, Zw, µ and λ.

Source: ScienceDirect
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2.4 GRINDING PARAMETER

2.4.1 The Depth of Cut

The parameter that we concentrate on this project is a depth of cut. The depth of
cut means a universal term used to describe how deep a tool will be set to cut into the
surface or edge of a work piece. This term can be applied to any cutting tool such as
saw blades, drill bits, router bits, shaper cutters, molding knives, etc. The grinding depth
of cut has a decisive influence on the chip removal process when machining, as the
contact length goes up with increasing depth of cut. (Fritz Klocke, 2009). Methods for
determining depth of cuts are recommended for determining feeds. The cut should be
deep as the grinding wheel will stand, without crowding or springing the work. The
depth of cut also depends on the hardness of the material. In cylindrical grinding, the cut
depends on the diameter of the work. Generally, a cut of 0.001 to 0.003 inch in depth is
used, depending on the size and condition of the grinding machine. Instead, for
finishing process the depth of cut is always slight, where generally from 0.0005 inch to
as little as 0.00005 inch. We can see the volume of sparks thrown off during the process
and it was consider an indication of the depth of cut. Moreover, an uneven amount of
sparks indicates that the work piece or wheel is not concentric.

2.5 THERMAL ANALYSIS

The cutting process involves several plastic deformations in the primary and
secondary zones. The work done that causing the plastic deformation gets converted
into heat. The rubbing of the machined surface on the flan face is one of the source heat
generations. The friction on the rake face, plastic deformation in the primary zone and
secondary zone and friction on the flank face, all these four source of heat are tend to
raise the temperature during the grinding process. The distribution of heat generated
between tool and work piece may vary according to the conditions of the process which
are early wear of tool, dimensional in accuracy of machined surface, and damage of
surface properties of machined component. The experimental determination of tool
temperatures at different points on the tool is using tool-work piece as a thermocouple.
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Figure 2.11: Tool-work piece thermocouple

Source: Fundamentals of metal cutting and machine tools, 2003

The tool-work piece thermocouple is the method which makes use the emf
produces between hot contact of tool and work piece and their cold ends. If the cold
ends of the two are joined, a small current will flow which can be measured by a
voltmeter (figure 2.11). the work piece is insulated from the chuck and tail stock center.
The end of the work piece in the chuck is connected to copper wire which is connected
to a slip ring fixed at the far end of the spindle dipped in a mercury cup. The magnitude
of the current depends on the temperature different between the hot and the cold
junctions, and the nature of the tool and work piece. The introduction of a copper wire
in the circuit does not affect the output as long as the temperature at its junction with the
tool and the work piece are the same.

The grinding operations are known to be capable of generating intense and

potentially damaging heat fluxes in the grinding zone. The heat is then transferred away
from the grinding zone by the bodies involved, including the work piece, chips,
grinding wheel, grinding fluid, and surroundings (Ihab M. Hanna, 2006). Therefore,
work piece quality and burn avoidance is often being priority where it is commonly
interest in modelling the thermal aspects of grinding to focus on determining the amount
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of heat going into the work piece along with it is subsequent temperature rise. In
addition, according to the Jaegar (1992) , he had considered the heat partition between
the individual grains in the grinding wheel and the work material in the contact zone.
The effort was done to quantify and analyze the thermal aspect of grinding using heat
partition to obtain the temperature reaches on the ground surface at the tip of a grinding
grit (Jaeger, 1992). They assumed that the average abrasive grain presents a zero rake
angle, and considered the heat partition at the shear plane. They had fund the mean
temperature across the shear to be 1163degC and also reported that 65% of the shear
energy passes off with the chip, while 35% flows into the work piece.

Apart from that, Hahn R.S. (1956) noted that many researchers consider
grinding to be similar to milling on a micro scale. From his opinion, there should be
little different between grinding and cutting apart from the size scale where leads him
suggests that the main source of the heat generation that should be considered is a
frictional rubbing forces on the clearance face of grits. Further points out is the grinding
process appears where it can see from the view of the workpiece. It is a tremendous
barrage of small intense heat sources moving over the grinding zone. It was moving
much more slowly along the surface of the workpiece. If the grinding wheel rotates at
high speed and is composed of small grits, and if the work speed is relatively low, the
wheel source can be represented as a continuous band source moving over the surface of
the work.

However, there is another researcher proposed their opinions with the different
of views. Ruisseaux, D. (1970) had considered the temperatures in the vicinity of the
chip formation and related it to the temperature experienced by the work piece surface
which are remains after grinding. The relation is establishes by considering grinding
geometry which is the results indicates that the temperatures predicted at the region of
the chip formation can be substantially greater than those which results on the surface of
the remaining work piece. In addition, the work piece temperature is virtually
unaffected by the local chip shear plane temperatures. The conclusion that had been
done by the author is the modelling the grinding zone heat as a moving uniform band
source is generally sufficient for computing the work piece temperatures.
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While that, the different consideration that had been done for his thermal
analysis. the distribution of the total grinding energy among the chip formation,
plowing, and sliding energy component, and the portions of each of these energies
which are conducted as heat to the work piece (Malkin and Anderson, 1974). They
relate these results of the calculations of grinding temperatures and work piece burn,
concluding that almost all of plowing and sliding energies about 55% of the chip
formation energy is conducted to the work piece.

The equivalent thermal model developed in the present investigation is simple

and represents the process more realistically, especially the heat partition. The model
developed
provides a better appreciation of the cut-off operation; a realistic estimation of the heat
partition between the wheel, the work piece, and the chip; thermal gradients in the work
piece due to abrasive cut-off operation, and an insight into the wear of the cut-off
wheels.

2.6 GRINDING SURFACE FINISH

The influence of cutting fluids on surface finish is relatively small and, in

general fluids with greater lubricating action impart a somewhat better finish. The more
important point is to ensure proper filtration of the fluid because suspended particles of
abrasive and metal can cause deep scratches. Isolated scratch marks are a sure sign of
dirty fluid. The remedy in such cases is to clean the tank and use magnetic separators at
frequent intervals.

Beside the depth-of-cut, surface finish is also influenced by the other cutting
parameters. The finish can be improved somewhat by reducing the job speed (rotation
speed in outside diameter grinding and reciprocation speed in surface grinding) and
reducing the traverse feed (table traverse in outside diameter grinding, cross feed in
surface grinding, longitudinal feed in centreless grinding etc.)

In addition, surfaces having local, regular groove cavities arranged in a regular

way show many advantageous features. This is regarding to the mainly tribological
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effects. The reduction of fluid and boundary friction coefficients, absorption of small
hard particles from the lubricant, reduction of residual stress and shape deviation, better
leak-tightness of static and dynamic couplings and better adherence of coating and
adhesive bonds, those are main features of regular surface texture (RST) .

There are several method which may be generated by RST which are precise
diamond turning (W. Gao, 2003), rolling (H. Ike1996), embossing (M. Plancak, 1998)
and (U.Petterson, 2006) etching (E. Fornies, 2005) and (Z. Xi.D, 2003), vibrorolling
(V. P. Bulatov, 1997) abrasive jet machining (D. Arola, 2002) and EDM (H.
Ramasamy, 2004). There are a lots of recent papers that had demonstrated impressive
results using laser surface texturing. The first that had been presented was “Pattern
grinding” with the wheel shaped in a special way in 1989 (P. Stepien, 1989) which was
simple, cheep and productive alternative to better known methods of RST generation
(O.Ajayi, 2005), (K.L Choo, 2004), (D. Du, 2005), (M.H Hong, 2003) and (Y.-C. Lee,
2005). A schematic view of the wheel surface reproduction is given in figure 2.12 for
two variants of the method. The third variant involves grinding with the wheel having a
single helical groove in two reverse passes of the work material. Examples of the three
basic types of RST are given in figure 2.13.

Figure 2.12: Schematic views of a grinding with the wheel having single (a) and double
(b) helical grooves for shaping regular patterns on a flat surface.

Source: International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2007

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NOMENCLATURE:

fd dresser feed rate (pitch of helical groove)

d grinding (groove) depth
h height of a helical groove (dressing depth)
H wheel height
L longitudinal pitch of grooves shaped on work-material
Vs grinding speed
Vw work material speed

Figure 2.13: Three types of the grooved surface (top view photographs) obtained with
the wheels having helical grooves (black areas represent fragments of flat “plateau”
surface).

Source: Technical University of Koszalin, 2006

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2.7 SELECTION OF CUTTING FLUID IN GRINDING PROCESS

Cutting fluids are essential in most metal cutting operations. During a machining
process, considerable heat and friction are created by the plastic deformation in the
primary and secondary zones. The work done in causing the plastic deformation gets
into heat. Cost effectiveness of all machining processes has been eagerly investigated.
This is mainly affected selection of suitable machining parameters like cutting speed,
feed rate and depth of cut according to cutting tool and work piece material. The
selection of optimum machining parameters will result in longer tool life, better surface
finish and higher material removal rate. The friction between work piece-cutting tool
and cutting tool-chip interfaces cause high temperature on cutting tool where absolutely
gets into heat. The effect of this generated heat decreases tool life, increases surface
roughness and decreases the dimensional sensitiveness of work material.

Because of the particular significance of cooling for the cutting operation, this
process is called cooling lubricant and the fluids used are called coolants. Besides the
term ‘coolant’ which is commonly used in general, there are also numerous other terms
for specific applications such as, cutting oils, grinding oils, reaming oils, deep hole
drilling oils, and honing oils. There is no doubt that wet machining is applied very much
more frequently than dry machining especially in the case where machining of difficult-
to-cut materials, when more heat would be observed. (Yardimeden, A. 2007). Choosing
coated cutting tools are an expensive alternative and generally it is a suitable approach
for machining some materials such as titanium alloys, heat resistance alloys etc. When
the cutting fluids was used, it accelerated heat dissipation with increased tool life
service life to make higher cutting speeds. Moreover, the lubricant between tool, chip
and work piece with reduced tool wear and improvement of the quality of the work
piece surface finish. In addition, lubricants of sliding points outside the actual cutting
zone between tool, work piece and chips, and improved chip removal. (Mang, T. 2007).
When machining by cutting, a very reactive ‘clean’ work piece material surface is
continuously generated which can tend to react adhesively on the cutting surface of the
tool in the work piece material-tool contact zone. The action mechanism then was added
by the coolant penetration into the contact surface and the machining process will run
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smoothly by secure the longer tool life, better surface finish and higher material removal
rate.

2.8 SELECTION OF THE WHEEL

The modern grinding wheel, when properly selected for the work upon which it
is used, is very efficient, especially for the finishing of work accurate. The term “grade”
as applied to a grinding wheel, refers to the tenacity with which the bond holds the
cutting points or abrasive grains in place and does not refer to the hardness of the
abrasive. A wheel from which the abrasive grains can easily be dislodged is called
“soft” or soft grade, whereas, one which holds the grains more securely is called “hard
wheel”.

The grain or coarseness of a grinding wheel is very common term related to the
grinding wheel where there are two kinds of grain wheel which are straight and
combination. In a straight-grain wheel, all the particles of abrasive used are about the
same size, whereas, in a combination grain wheel, the particles of abrasive used are of
different sizes. The exact combination of grains in a wheel is not specified by the wheel
manufacturer. It requires considerable experimenting to determine the correct sizes and
portions of abrasive grains for a combination wheel. Moreover, a combination wheel
will generally remain in a good cutting condition longer in a straight grain wheel.
Another term that common used in grinding wheel is abrasive for grinding wheel. The
abrasive is used in the manufacturer of grinding wheels are both natural and artificial.
SiC is an abrasive and it is used in the manufacture of grinding wheels for material of
low tensile strength, such as cast iron, brass, etc. The constituents of this abrasive are
coke and sand. The coke supplied the carbon and the sand supplied the silicon. The
important properties of an abrasive are hardness, toughness, absence of impurities,
uniformity and fracture or sharpness. In as much these qualities vary, to some extent, in
different abrasives, grinding wheels may be produced which posses varying
characteristics, and, therefore, grinding that are effective are not only metals of different
composition but various other materials.
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When selecting a grinding wheel, there are several factors which must be
considered. The grade and grain depend largely upon the area of contact between the
wheel and the work piece which the type of the material to be ground and its degree of
hardness. A harder wheel should be used on the soft machine rather than hardened.
When the wheel is a from a proper grade, the small teeth or cutting particles are held in
place by the bond until they become dull to cut effectively where increasing of friction.
Obviously, these grains will dull sooner when grind hard than soft steel, hence, as a
general rule, the harder the material, the softer the wheel.

Moreover, the selected material for this study is SiC. Grinding the SiC is
difficult because of their superior properties that is low fracture toughness which
making it very susceptible to cracking (Agarwal, S. 2010). Since the SiC is an advanced
ceramic material, an efficient grinding of high performance ceramics requires judicious
selection of operating parameters to maximize removal rate while controlling surface
integrity (Xu, H.H.K. 1996). Further studied had been done on one of the parameter that
involved when using the ceramics material. In the high speed grinding process, an
increase in the wheel speed would reduce the maximum chip thickness, and thus the
grinding force (Klocke, F. 1997). As Marinescu, I. (2000) stated, this would cause the
ductile flow by reducing the tendency for brittle fracture. Besides, by increased the
wheel speed will results in increasing the depth of cut or the feed rate where lead to
obtain higher material removal rate, without detoriating the ground surface integrity
(Rao, P.V. 2010). So, the selection of the wheel at last will also give an effect on the
grinding parameters due to its properties.

2.9 MATERIAL IN THE GRINDING PROCESS

The material that was selected for undergoing grinding process in these
experiments is Haynes 242 alloy. The 242 alloy is an age-hardenable material which is
supplied in the annealed condition. The high strength which yield strength approaching
200 ksi (1380 Mpa) which is shows in figure 2.14 is the features of Haynes 242 alloy
which an information that are based on work conducted principally by Haynes
International, Inc. Moreover, Haynes is registered trademark and 242 is a trademark of
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Haynes International, Inc. (M.K Miller, 2002). Another feature that matches with the
242 alloy is additional resistance to corrosion which is shown in Table 2.1 that can be
supplied in a cold-worked condition. The both features are the critical considerations in
the selection of materials for plastic deformation and processing equipments.

Figure 2.14: Comparison alloys based on yield strength

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Table 2.1: Comparison alloys based on corrosion resistance

Source: Haynes International, Inc 2009

A microstructural characterization has been performed on a Haynes 242- nickel-

molybdenum-chromium superalloy. The microstructural characterizations were
performed with the ORNL energy-compensated optical position-sensitive atom probe.
(M.K. Miller, 2000). According to the Pike, L.M. (2000) to the microstructures of the
242 alloy that obtained, there was an experiments that was done in order to compare it
with the mechanical properties after a one step heat treatment and two step heat
treatment where the superalloy was given a standard anneal of 0.5 h at 1006 °C and
water quenched to room temperature prior to a two step heat treatment 16 h at 704
°C+16 h at 650 °C or a one step heat treatment of 48 h at 650 °C. The superalloy was
cooled to room temperature after each stage.

The mechanical properties of these materials at 650 °C were determined and the
results are summarized in Table 2.2. Although these two heat treatments produced
materials with similar mechanical properties, the yield strength and ultimate tensile
strength were significantly lower and the elongation and reduction in area were
significantly higher after the first stage (16 h at 704 °C) of the two-stage heat treatment.
Therefore, the second low temperature stage of the heat treatment (16 h at 650 °C) is an
important step in producing the desired mechanical properties. At 650°C, the fracture
mode started as intergranular and then changed to shear. No difference in the fracture
mode was observed between the two heat treatments.
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Heat treatment Yield Ultimate tensile Elongation, Reduction in

strength strength, MPa % area, %
MPa

48 h at 650 °C 622 1022 24.6 32.1

16 h at 704 °C 435 916 36.1 39.7

16 h at 704 °C+16 652 1015 23.0 27.6

h at 650 °C

Table 2.2: Summary of the mechanical properties of Haynes 242 as a function of the
heat treatment

Source: Materials Science and Engineering