Cell Division, Differentiation and Diversity

Regulation of the eukaryotic cell cycle

M phase:
 A checkpoint chemical triggers condensation of chromatin
 In metaphase a checkpoint ensures that the cell will complete mitosis

G0 phase:
 The resting phase is triggered during early G1 at the restriction point by a
checkpoint chemical

G1 phase:
 Checkpoint control mechanism ensures the cell is ready to enter the S phase

S (Synthesis) phase:
 There is a specific sequence of gene replication
 Those active in all cells first followed by those that are inactive

G2 phase:
 Special chemicals ensure that the cell is ready for mitosis by stimulating
proteins that will be involved in making chromosomes condense and in
formation of the spindle

The checkpoints:
 Prevent uncontrolled division that would lead to tumours
 Detect and repair damage to DNA
 These events occur in a specific order to ensure the cycle cannot be reversed
and that DNA is only duplicated once during each cell cycle

Budding (Yeasts):
 Divides by mitosis
 A bud is formed at the surface of the cell
 One daughter nucleus migrates into the bud
 The bud increases in size and breaks off from the parent cell, producing a
new genetically identical yeast cell

Meristem cells:
 At the tips of roots and shoots
 Divide to produce undifferentiated plant cells
Mitosis
 Occurs whenever an increase in cells is needed
 Occurs in the division of zygotes into a multicellular organism
 Occurs in the formation of clones of T and B lymphocytes and plasma cells in
the immune response
 Occurs in asexual reproduction

Interphase:
 Before a cell divides, its chromosomes are replicated
 ATP is synthesised and it provides energy for cell division
 Organelles are replicated and the cell grows in size
 Protein synthesis occurs
 Genetic material is checked for errors

Prophase:
 Chromosomes condense, becoming shorter and fatter and visible under LM
 Nuclear envelope breaks down and chromosomes lie freely in the cytoplasm
 Centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell forming a spindle which extend
to the equator of the cell

Metaphase:
 Chromosomes line up in the middle / at the equator
 The spindle fibres from each pole attach to the centromere of the
chromosomes

Anaphase:
 The spindle fibres contract and the centromeres split
 The pairs of sister chromatids separate and are dragged to opposite poles
assuming a V shape
 A complete set of chromosomes is found at each pole

Telophase:
 Chromatids reach their respective poles and uncoil (become long and thin).
They are chromosomes again and are not visble under LM
 Spindle fibres break down and the nuclear envelope forms around each
group of chromosomes forming two nuclei

Cytokinesis:
 The cytoplasm divides and a plasma membrane forms two daughter cells
 They are genetically identical to each other and the parent cell
 The cell enters interphase again.
Before the division of a cell’s nucleus, the genetic material must replicate:
 This happens so the cells are genetically identical / have same DNA and both
daughter cells have the correct number of chromosomes.

Why stain cells:

 So chromosomes, chromatin, nucleus , etc. are visible
 To distinguish between different stages of mitosis
 Staining provides a contrast between cell structures

How cell division in plants differs from in animals:

 Plant cells separate by forming a cell plate that is fused by vesicles released
by the Golgi apparatus. Cytokinesis starts from the middle of cell. Only occurs
in meristem. There are no centrioles used to pull chromatids apart
 In animal cells cytokinesis starts at the outer edge and most cells can divide

The significance of mitosis in the life cycle

Asexual reproduction:
 Single celled protocists e.g. amoeba divide by mitosis
 Some plants, e.g. strawberry, reproduce asexually by forming new plantlets
on the ends of stolons
 Fungi, e.g. single celled yeasts, can reproduce asexually by mitosis

Growth:
 All multicellular organisms grow by producing more cells that are genetically
identical to each other and to the parent cell.

Tissue repair:
 Wounds heal when growth factors, secreted by platelets, macrophages and
damaged cells of the blood vessel walls, stimulate the proliferation of
endothelial and smooth muscle cells to repair damaged blood vessels

Gene:
 A segment of DNA that codes for a trait

Bivalent:
 Forms when a pair of homologous chromosomes replicate to give pairs of
chromatids which pair up

Chromatin:
 All of the nucleic acids in the nucleus
 Chromatid:
 Replicated chromosome

Homologous Chromosomes:
 One chromosome is maternal and the other is paternal
 Have the centromere in the same position and the same banding pattern
 Same genes in the same place (loci) and are usually the same length
 Pair up in meiosis and form bivalents
 Each individual pair is a homologous pair

Meiosis
 Occurs in diploid cells (single set of unpaired chromosomes) to produce
haploid gametes (two complete sets of chromosomes).
This ensures the normal chromosome number is maintained through
generations
 The gametes are genetically unique
 All somatic cells descend from a zygote (fertilized egg cell that results from
the union of a female gamete with a male gamete

Leads to genetic variation:

 Crossing over occurs when non-sister chromatids wrap around each other
and exchange some of their genetic material so that alleles are shuffled. This
produces a large number of allele combinations
 Independent assortment occurs when the homologous pairs are arranged
randomly, with the members of each pair facing opposite poles of the cell.
 This is vital to a species’ survival, especially when the environment changes,
as some individuals will have characteristics that enable them to better
adapted.

Prophase 1 Chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down. Spindle fibres
form. Homologous chromosomes pair up forming bivalents. Crossing over occurs.
Metaphase 1 The pairs of homologous chromosomes attach along the cell equator. Each attaches
to a spindle fibre by its centromere. Independent assortment occurs.
Anaphase 1 Homologous chromosomes are pulled by the spindle fibres to opposite poles. The
centromeres do not divide. The crossed-over areas separate from each other
resulting in genetic variation
Telophase 1 Two new nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes and the
chromosomes uncoil. The cell divides by cytokinesis. Each new cell is haploid
Prophase 2 Nuclear envelope breaks down again and chromosomes recondense. The
chromatids of each chromosome are no longer identical. Spindle fibres reform.
Metaphase 2 Chromosomes attach by their centromere to the equator of the spindle.
Independent arrangement occurs again which leads to more genetic variation.
Anaphase 2 The centromeres divide and the chromatids are split apart by motor proteins that
drag them to opposite poles. The chromatids are randomly segregated.
Telophase 2 Chromatids uncoil and the cell undergoes cytokinesis. Four haploid cells are
produced and nuclear envelopes form around each of them.

Why meiosis requires twice as many stages as mitosis:

 To halve the chromosome number
 To separate homologous pairs of chromosomes and sister chromatids
because, DNA previously replicated

Difference in products of mitosis and meiosis:

 In mitosis, the cells produces are genetically identical and are diploid. Only
two cells are produced.
 In meiosis, the cells produced are not genetically identical and are haploid.
They are gametes and four cells are produced.

Copy the notes on Cell Differentiation and Diversity

Tissue

Squamous epithelium
 is present in the alveoli or cheek lining or in blood vessels
 Acts as a surface or short diffusion pathway
 Is large, thin, and flat

Ciliated epithelium
 Is present in the bronchiole, trachea or airways
 Secretes and moves mucus
 Stem cells
 Stem cells are undifferentiated and genetically identical cells
 Are able to express all of their genes
 Are pluripotent
 They can divide by mitosis in order to provide more cells that can also
differentiate into specialised cells.

Unipotent:
 Can only produce one type of cell

Multipotent:
 Produce a selection of cells

Pluripotent:
 Can produce several types of cell

Totipotent:
 Produces all types of cells

Embryonic stem cells:

 Are present in an early embryo formed when the zygote begins to divide

Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to extract from embryo Human embryos are used which creates ethical issues as some
Can produce any type of cell, people believe it destroys the future potential of human life.
so have the potential to cure Scientists do not completely understand how embryonic stem
hundreds of diseases. cells work so there might be unknown long-term health effects.
Studying these cells would Transplanted stem cells can have high rejection rates
likely cause progress in cancer Embryonic cells can sometimes divide uncontrollably, forming
research as they are very tumors.
similar to cancerous cells

Hayflick Limit:
 Cells can only undergo a certain number of divisions.
Adult stem cells:
 Found in the inner lining of the small intestine, skin and bone marrow
 Are multipotent
 Most cells in adult organisms are specialised and this is normally irreversible
 Some cells, e.g. red blood cells and xylem vessels lose their nuclei once
specialised, therefore lose their potency

 Can treat diseases of the blood, e.g. sickle cell anaemia and leukaemia, and of
the immune system, e.g. SCID.
 They are used to restore the patient’s blood system after treatment for
specific types of cancer.

Pros:
 No embryo is destroyed so not an ethical issue
 If taken from the person to be treated, will not be rejected by the body

Cons:
 Are difficult to find and extract from tissue
 Are low in numbers
 Can only produce a few types of cell

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS):

 Are developed in labs by reprogramming differentiated cells to switch on
certain genes and become undifferentiated.
 iPS cells are created from adult unipotent cells. T
 iPS have shown a self-renewal property, in that they can divide indefinitely to
give limitless supplies.

Stem cell uses in research and medicine

 Bone-marrow stem cells can be made to develop into liver cells to treat liver
disease.
 Stem cells directed to become nerve tissue can be used to treat Alzheimer’s,
Parkinson’s diseases or repair spinal cord injuries.
 Stem cells may eventually be used to treat arthritis, stokes, burns, vision and
hearing loss.

Erythrocytes (red blood cells) and neutrophils (white blood cells) both derive from
stem cells in the bone marrow.