Government Boys Higher Secondary School

VENNANDUR, Rasipuram Tk, Namakkal

+2
PHYSICS
Student Name :
Class :
Group :
Year : 20 - 20

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed

K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
PG Assistants in Physics
Govt. Boys Hr. Sec. School
Vennandur, Rasipuram Tk
Namakkal District
 CONTENT

Unit Topic Page

BOOK BACK MCQ’S 1 – 18

1 ELECTROSTATICS 19 – 47

2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 48 – 66

3 MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 67 – 105

4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT 106 – 141

5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 142 – 150

6 OPTICS 151 – 196

7 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER 197 – 211

8 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS 212 – 231

9 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS 232 – 256

10 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 257 – 268

11 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS 269 – 275

12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

1. Electrostatics
1. Two identical point charges of magnitude –q are fixed
as shown in the figure below. A third charge +q is
placed midway between the two charges at the point P.
Suppose this charge +q is displaced a small distance
from the point P in the directions indicated by the
arrows, in which direction(s) will +q be stable with
respect to the displacement?
a) A1 and A2 b) B1 and B2
c) both directions d) No stable
Ans: b
2. Which charge configuration produces a uniform electric field?
a) point charge
b) infinite uniform line charge
c) uniformly charged infinite plane
d) uniformly charged spherical shell
Ans: c
3. 𝑞1
What is the ratio of the charges 𝑞2
for the following
electric field line pattern?
1 25
a) b)
5 11
11
c) 5 d)
25
Ans: d
4. An electric dipole is placed at an alignment angle of 30° with an electric field of
2 × 105 𝑁 𝐶 −1 . It experiences a torque equal to 8 N m. The charge on the dipole if the dipole
length is 1 cm is
a) 4 mC b) 8 mC c) 5mC d) 7 mC
Ans: b
5. Four Gaussian surfaces are given below with charges inside each
Gaussian surface. Rank the electric flux through each Gaussian
surface in increasing order.

a) 𝐷<𝐶< 𝐵<𝐴 b) 𝐴<𝐵= 𝐶<𝐷

c) 𝐶<𝐴= 𝐵<𝐷 d) 𝐷>𝐶> 𝐵>𝐴

Ans: a
6. The total electric flux for the following closed surface which is kept inside water ____________
a) 80𝑞 b) 𝑞
𝜀𝑜 40𝜀𝑜
c) 𝑞 d) 𝑞
80 𝜀𝑜 160𝜀𝑜

Ans: b

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 1 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

7. Two identical conducting balls having positive charges q1 and q2 are separated by a center to
center distance r. If they are made to touch each other and then separated to the same distance,
the force between them will be
a) less than before b) same as before
c) more than before d) zero
Ans: c
8. Rank the electrostatic potential energies for the given system of charges in increasing order.

a) 1=4<2<3 b) 2=4<3<1 c) 2=3<1<4 d) 3<1<2<4

Ans: a
9. An electric field 𝐸 = 10 𝑥 𝑖 exists in a certain region of space. Then the potential difference V =
Vo – VA, where Vo is the potential at the origin and VA is the potential at x = 2 m is:
a) 10 V b) - 20 V c) + 20 V d) - 10 V
Ans: b
10. A thin conducting spherical shell of radius R has a charge Q which is uniformly distributed on
its surface. The correct plot for electrostatic potential due to this spherical shell is

Ans: b
11. Two points A and B are maintained at a potential of 7 V and -4 V respectively. The work done
in moving 50 electrons from A to B is
a) 8.80 × 10−17 𝐽 b) −8.80 × 10−17 𝐽
c) 4.40 × 10 𝐽 −17 d) 5.80 × 10−17 𝐽
Ans: a
12. If voltage applied on a capacitor is increased from V to 2V, choose the correct conclusion.
a) Q remains the same, C is doubled
b) Q is doubled, C doubled
c) C remains same, Q doubled
d) Both Q and C remain same
Ans: c
13. A parallel plate capacitor stores a charge Q at a voltage V. Suppose the area of the parallel plate
capacitor and the distance between the plates are each doubled then which is the quantity that
will change?
a) Capacitance b) Charge
c) Voltage d) Energy density
Ans: d
14. Three capacitors are connected in triangle as shown in the
figure. The equivalent capacitance between the points A & C is
a) 1 𝜇𝐹 b) 2 𝜇𝐹

1
c) 3 𝜇𝐹 d) 𝜇𝐹
4
Ans: a

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 2 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

15. Two metallic spheres of radii 1 cm and 3 cm are given charges of −1 × 10−2 𝐶 and
5 × 10−2 𝐶 respectively. If these are connected by a conducting wire, the final charge on the
bigger sphere is
a) 3 × 10−2 𝐶 b) 4 × 10−2 𝐶 c) 1 × 10−2 𝐶 d) 2 × 10−2 𝐶
Ans: a

2. Current Electricity
1. The following graph shows current versus voltage
values of some unknown conductor. What is the
resistance of this conductor?
a) 2Ω b) 4Ω

c) 8Ω d) 1Ω

Ans: a
2. A wire of resistance 2 ohms per meter is bent to form a
circle of radius 1m. The equivalent resistance between its
two diametrically opposite points, A and B as shown in the
figure is
𝜋
a) π Ω b) Ω
2
𝜋
c) 2π Ω d) Ω
4

Ans: a
3. A toaster operating at 240 V has a resistance of 120 Ω. The power is
a) 400 W b) 2 W c) 480 W d) 240 W
Ans: c
4. A carbon resistor of 47 ± 4.7 𝑘Ω to be marked with rings of different colours for its
identification. The colour code sequence will be
a) Yellow – Green – Violet – Gold b) Yellow – Violet – Orange – Silver
c) Violet – Yellow – Orange – Silver d) Green – Orange – Violet - Gold
Ans: b
5. What is the value of resistance of the following resistor? (Brown, Black, Yellow)
a) 100 kΩ b) 10 kΩ c) 1 kΩ d) 1000 kΩ
Ans: a
6. Two wires of A and B with circular cross section made up of the same material with equal
lengths. Suppose RA = 3 RB, then what is the ratio of radius of wire A to that of B?
1 1
a) 3 b) 3 c) d)
3 3
Ans: c
7. A wire connected to a power supply of 230 V has power dissipation P1. Suppose the wire is cut
into two equal pieces and connected parallel to the same power supply. In this case power
𝑃
dissipation is P2. The ratio 2 is
𝑃1
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4
Ans: d

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 3 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

8. In India electricity is supplied for domestic use at 220 V. It is supplied at 110 V in USA. If the
resistance of a 60W bulb for use in India is R, the resistance of a 60W bulb for use in USA will
be
𝑅 𝑅
a) R b) 2R c) d)
4 2
Ans: c
9. In a large building, there are 15 bulbs of 40W, 5 bulbs of 100W, 5 fans of 80W and 1 heater of
1kW are connected. The voltage of electric mains is 220V. The minimum capacity of the main
fuse of the building will be
a) 14A b) 8A c) 10𝐴 d) 12𝐴
Ans: d
10. There is a current of 1.0 A in the circuit shown below.
What is the resistance of P?
a) 1.5 Ω b) 2.5 Ω

c) 3.5 Ω d) 4.5 Ω

Ans: d
11. What is the current out of the battery?
a) 1A b) 2A

c) 3A d) 4A

Ans: a
12. The temperature coefficient of resistance of a wire is 0.00125 per °C. At 300 K, its resistance is
1 Ω. The resistance of the wire will be 2 Ω at
a) 1154 K b) 1100 K c) 1400 K d) 1127 K
Ans: d
13. The internal resistance of a 2.1 V cell which gives a current of 0.2 A through a resistance of
10 Ω is
a) 0.2 Ω b) 0.5 Ω c) 0.8 Ω d) 1.0 Ω
Ans: b
14. A piece of copper and another of germanium are cooled from room temperature to 80 K. The
resistance of
a) each of them increases
b) each of them decreases
c) copper increases and germanium decreases
d) copper decreases and germanium increases
Ans: d
15. In Joule’s heating law, when I and t are constant, if the H is taken along the y axis and I2 along
the x axis, the graph is
a) straight line b) parabola c) circle d) ellipse
Ans: a

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 4 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

1. The magnetic field at the center O of the
following current loop is
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
a) ⊗ b) ⊙
4𝑟 4𝑟
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
c) ⊗ d) ⊙
2𝑟 2𝑟
Ans: a
2. An electron moves straight inside a charged parallel plate
capacitor of uniform charge density σ. The time taken by
the electron to cross the parallel plate capacitor when the
plates of the capacitor are kept under constant magnetic
field of induction 𝐵 is
𝑒𝑙𝐵 𝑙𝐵
a) 𝜀𝑜 b) 𝜀𝑜
𝜎 𝜎𝑙
𝑙𝐵 𝑙𝐵
c) 𝜀𝑜 d) 𝜀𝑜
𝑒𝜎 𝜎
Ans: d
3. The force experienced by a particle having mass m and charge q accelerated through a potential
difference V when it is kept under perpendicular magnetic field 𝐵 is
2𝑞3 𝐵𝑉 𝑞 3 𝐵2 𝑉 2𝑞3 𝐵2 𝑉 2𝑞3 𝐵𝑉
a) b) c) d)
𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚 𝑚3
Ans: c
4. A circular coil of radius 5 cm and 50 turns carries a current of 3 ampere. The magnetic dipole
moment of the coil is
a) 1.0 amp – m2 b) 1.2 amp – m2 c) 0.5 amp – m2 d) 0.8 amp – m2
Ans: b
5. A thin insulated wire forms a plane spiral of N = 100 tight turns carrying a current I = 8 mA
(milli ampere). The radii of inside and outside turns are a = 50 mm and b = 100 mm
respectively. The magnetic induction at the center of the spiral is
a) 5 μT b) 7 μT c) 8 μT d) 10 μT
Ans: b
6. Three wires of equal lengths are bent in the form of loops. One of the loops is circle, another is
a semi-circle and the third one is a square. They are placed in a uniform magnetic field and
same electric current is passed through them. Which of the following loop configuration will
experience greater torque?
a) circle b) semi-circle
c) square d) all of them
Ans: a
7. Two identical coils, each with N turns and radius R are
placed coaxially at a distance R as shown in the figure.
If I is the current passing through the loops in the same
direction, then the magnetic field at a point P which is
𝑅
at exactly at 2 distance between two coils is
8𝑁𝜇𝑜 𝐼 8𝑁𝜇𝑜 𝐼
a) b) 3
5𝑅 5 2𝑅
8𝑁𝜇𝑜 𝐼 4𝑁𝜇𝑜 𝐼
c) d)
5𝑅 5𝑅
Ans: b

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 5 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

8. A wire of length l carries a current I along the Y direction and magnetic field is given by
𝛽
𝐵 = 3 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘 𝑇. The magnitude of Lorentz force acting on the wire is

2 1 1
a) 𝛽𝐼𝑙 b) 𝛽𝐼𝑙 c) 2𝛽𝐼𝑙 d) 𝛽𝐼𝑙
3 3 2
Ans: a
9. A bar magnet of length l and magnetic moment M is
bent in the form of an arc as shown in figure. The new
magnetic dipole moment will be
3
a) M b) 𝑀
𝜋
2 1
c) 𝑀 d) 𝑀
𝜋 2
Ans: b
10. A non-conducting charged ring of charge q, mass m and radius r is rotated with constant
angular speed ω. Find the ratio of its magnetic moment with angular momentum is
𝑞 2𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
a) b) c) d)
𝑚 𝑚 2𝑚 4𝑚
Ans: c
11. The vertical component of Earth’s magnetic field at a place is equal to the horizontal
component. What is the value of angle of dip at this place?
a) 30° b) 45° c) 60° d) 90°
Ans: b
12. The BH curve for a ferromagnetic material is shown in the
figure. The material is placed inside a long solenoid which
contains 1000 turns/cm. The current that should be passed in
the solenoid to demagnetize the ferromagnet completely is
a) 1.00 mA b) 1.25 mA

c) 1.50 mA d) 1.75 mA

Ans: b
2 2
13. Two short bar magnets have magnetic moments 1.20 Am and 1.00 Am respectively. They are
kept on a horizontal table parallel to each other with their north poles pointing towards the
south. They have a common magnetic equator and are separated by a distance of 20.0 cm. The
value of the resultant horizontal magnetic induction at the mid-point O of the line joining their
centers is (Horizontal components of Earth’s magnetic induction is 3.6 × 10-5 Wb m-2)
a) 3.60 x 10-5 Wb m-2 b) 3.50 x 10-5 Wb m-2
c) 2.56 x 10-4 Wb m-2 d) 2.20 x 10-4 Wb m-2
Ans: c
14. A flat dielectric disc of radius R carries an excess charge on its surface. The surface charge
density is σ. The disc rotates about an axis perpendicular to its plane passing through the center
with angular velocity ω. Find the magnitude of the torque on the disc if it is placed in a uniform
magnetic field whose strength is B which is directed perpendicular to the axis of rotation
1 1 1 1
a) 𝜎𝜔𝜋𝐵𝑅 b) 𝜎𝜔𝜋𝐵𝑅2 c) 𝜎𝜔𝜋𝐵𝑅3 d) 𝜎𝜔𝜋𝐵𝑅4
4 4 4 4
Ans: d

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 6 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

15. A simple pendulum with charged bob is oscillating with time period T and let θ be the angular
displacement. If the uniform magnetic field is switched ON in a direction perpendicular to the
plane of oscillation then
a) time period will decrease but θ will remain constant
b) time period remain constant but θ will decrease
c) both T and θ will remain the same
d) both T and θ will decrease
Ans: c
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternating Current
1. An electron moves on a straight line path XY as shown in the
figure. The coil abcd is adjacent to the path of the electron. What
will be the direction of current, if any, induced in the coil?

a) The current will reverse its direction as the electron goes past the coil
b) No current will be induced
c) 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑
d) adcb
Ans: a
2. A thin semi-circular conducting ring (PQR) of radius r is falling
with its plane vertical in a horizontal magnetic field B, as shown
in the figure. The potential difference developed across the ring
when its speed v, is
a) Zero
𝐵𝑣𝜋 𝑟 2
b) and P is at higher potential
2
c) 𝜋𝑟𝐵𝑣 and R is at higher potential
d) 2𝑟𝐵𝑣 and R is at higher potential
Ans: d
2
3. The flux linked with a coil at any instant t is given by ∅𝐵 = 10𝑡 − 50𝑡 + 250. The induced
emf at t = 3s is
a) -190 V b) -10 V c) 10 V d) 190 V
Ans: b
4. When the current changes from +2A to −2A in 0.05 s, an emf of 8 V is induced in a coil. The
co-efficient of self-induction of the coil is
a) 0.2 H b) 0.4 H c) 0.8 H d) 0.1 H
Ans: d
5. The current i flowing in a coil varies with time as shown in the
figure. The variation of induced emf with time would be

Ans: a
2
6. A circular coil with a cross-sectional area of 4 cm has 10 turns. It is placed at the centre of a
long solenoid that has 15 turns/cm and a cross-sectional area of 10 cm2. The axis of the coil
coincides with the axis of the solenoid. What is their mutual inductance?
a) 7.54 𝜇𝐻 b) 8.54 𝜇𝐻 c) 9.54 𝜇𝐻 d) 10.54 𝜇𝐻
Ans: a

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 7 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

7. In a transformer, the number of turns in the primary and the secondary are 410 and 1230
respectively. If the current in primary is 6A, then that in the secondary coil is
a) 2 𝐴 b) 18 𝐴 c) 12 𝐴 d) 1 𝐴
Ans: a
8. A step-down transformer reduces the supply voltage from 220 V to 11 V and increase the
current from 6 A to 100 A. Then its efficiency is
a) 1.2 b) 0.83 c) 0.12 d) 0.9
Ans: b
9. In a series RL circuit, the resistance and inductive reactance are the same. Then the phase
difference between the voltage and current in the circuit is
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
a) b) c) d) 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
4 2 6
Ans: a
10. In an electrical circuit, R, L, C and AC voltage source are all connected in series. When L is
removed from the circuit, the phase difference between the voltage and current in the circuit is
𝜋 𝜋
. Instead, if C is removed from the circuit, the phase difference is again 3 . The power factor of
3
the circuit is
1 1 3
a) b) c) 1 d)
2 2 2
Ans: c
11. In a series resonant RLC circuit, the voltage across 100 Ω resistor is 40 V. The resonant
frequency ω is 250 rad / s. If the value of C is 4 µF, then the voltage across L is
a) 600 V b) 4000 V c) 400 V d) 1 V
Ans: c
12. An inductor 20 mH, a capacitor 50 μF and a resistor 40 Ω are connected in series across a
source of emf v = 10 sin 340 t. The power loss in AC circuit is
a) 0.76 W b) 0.89 W c) 0.46 W d) 0.67 W
Ans: c
13. The instantaneous values of alternating current and voltage in a circuit are 𝑖 = 1
sin(100𝜋𝑡) 𝐴
2
1 𝜋
and 𝑣 = sin(100𝜋𝑡 + 3 ) 𝑉. The average power in watts consumed in the circuit is
2
1 3 1 1
a) b) c) d)
4 4 2 8
Ans: d
14. In an oscillating LC circuit, the maximum charge on the capacitor is Q. The charge on the
capacitor when the energy is stored equally between the electric and magnetic fields is
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
a) b) c) d) 𝑄
2 3 2
Ans: c
20
15. 𝐻 inductor is connected to a capacitor of capacitance C. The value of C in order to impart
𝜋2
maximum power at 50 Hz is
a) 50 𝜇𝐹 b) 0.5 𝜇𝐹 c) 500 𝜇𝐹 d) 5 𝜇𝐹
Ans: d

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 8 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

5. Electromagnetic Waves
1. 1
The dimension of 𝜇 is
𝑜 𝜀𝑜

a) [𝐿𝑇 −1 ] b) 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 c) 𝐿−1 𝑇 d) [𝐿−2 𝑇 2 ]

Ans: b
2. If the amplitude of the magnetic field is 3 × 10−6 T, then amplitude of the electric field for a
electromagnetic waves is
a) 100 V m-1 b) 300 V m-1 c) 600 V m-1 d) 900 V m-1
Ans: d
3. Which of the following electromagnetic radiation is used for viewing objects through fog?
a) microwave b) gamma rays c) X- rays d) infrared rays
Ans: d
4. Which of the following are false for electromagnetic waves?
a) transverse b) mechanical waves
c) longitudinal d) produced by accelerating charges
Ans: c
5. Consider an oscillator which has a charged particle and oscillates about its mean position with a
frequency of 300 MHz. The wavelength of electromagnetic waves produced by this oscillator is
a) 1 m b) 10 m c) 100 m d) 1000 m
Ans: a
6. The electric and the magnetic field, associated with an electromagnetic wave, propagating
along X axis can be represented by
a) 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 𝑗 and 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜 𝑘 b) 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 𝑘 and 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜 𝑗
c) 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 𝑖 and 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜 𝑗 d) 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 𝑗 and 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜 𝑖
Ans: b
−1
7. In an electromagnetic wave in free space the rms value of the electric field is 3 V m . The peak
value of the magnetic field is
a) 1.414 × 10−8 𝑇 b) 1.0 × 10−8 𝑇
c) 2.828 × 10 𝑇 −8 d) 2.0 × 10−8 𝑇
Ans: a
8. During the propagation of electromagnetic waves in a medium:
a) electric energy density is double of the magnetic energy density
b) electric energy density is half of the magnetic energy density
c) electric energy density is equal to the magnetic energy density
d) both electric and magnetic energy densities are zero
Ans: c
9. If the magnetic monopole exists, then which of the Maxwell’s equation to be modified?
𝑄𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
a) 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = b) 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝜀𝑜
𝑑
c) 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜇𝑜 d) 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 = − ΦB
𝑑𝑡
Ans: b
10. A radiation of energy E falls normally on a perfectly reflecting surface. The momentum
transferred to the surface
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
a) b) 2 c) 𝐸𝑐 d) 2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Ans: b

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 9 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

 12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

11. Which of the following is an electromagnetic wave?

a) α – rays b) β – rays c) γ – rays d) all of them
[
Ans: c
12. Which one of them is used to produce a propagating electromagnetic wave?
a) an accelerating charge
b) a charge moving at constant velocity
c) a stationary charge
d) an uncharged particle
Ans: a
6
13. Let 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑜 sin(10 𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) be the electric field of plane electromagnetic wave, the value of ω is
a) 0.3 × 10−14 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1 b) 3 × 10−14 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1
c) 0.3 × 1014 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1 d) 3 × 1014 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1
Ans: d
14. Which of the following is NOT true for electromagnetic waves?
a) it transport energy b) it transport momentum
c) it transport angular momentum
d) in vacuum, it travels with different speeds which depend on their frequency
Ans: d
15. The electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave are
a) in phase and perpendicular to each other
b) out of phase and not perpendicular to each other
c) in phase and not perpendicular to each other
d) out of phase and perpendicular to each other
Ans: a
6. Optics
1. The speed of light in an isotropic medium depends on,
a) its intensity
b) its wavelength
c) the nature of propagation
d) the motion of the source with respect to medium
Ans: b
2. A rod of length 10 cm lies along the principal axis of a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm in
such a way that its end closer to the pole is 20 cm away from the mirror. The length of the
image is,
a) 2.5 cm b) 5 cm c) 10 cm d) 15 cm
Ans: b
3. An object is placed in front of a convex mirror of focal length of f and the maximum and
minimum distance of an object from the mirror such that the image formed is real and
magnified.
a) 2f and c b) c and ∞ c) f and O d) None of these
Ans: d
4. For light incident from air on a slab of refractive index 2, the maximum possible angle of
refraction is,
a) 30° b) 45° c) 60° d) 90°
Ans: a
5. Stars twinkle due to,
a) reflection b) total internal reflection c) refraction d) polarization
[
Ans: c

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 10 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

 12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

6. If the velocity and wavelength of light in air is Va and λa and that in water is Vw and λw, then the
refractive index of water is,
𝑉𝑤 𝑉𝑎 𝜆𝑤 𝑉𝑎 𝜆𝑎
a) b) c) d)
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑤 𝜆𝑎 𝑉𝑤 𝜆𝑤
[
Ans: b
7. When a biconvex lens of glass having refractive index 1.47 is dipped in a liquid, it acts as a
plane sheet of glass. This implies that the liquid must have refractive index,
a) less than one b) less than that of glass
c) greater than that of glass d) equal to that of glass
Ans: d
8. The radius of curvature of curved surface at a thin planoconvex lens is 10 cm and the refractive
index is 1.5. If the plane surface is silvered, then the focal length will be,
a) 5 cm b) 10 cm c) 15 cm d) 20 cm
Ans: b
9. An air bubble in glass slab of refractive index 1.5 (near normal incidence) is 5 cm deep when
viewed from one surface and 3 cm deep when viewed from the opposite face. The thickness of
the slab is,
a) 8 cm b) 10 cm c) 12 cm d) 16 cm
Ans: c
10. A ray of light travelling in a transparent medium of refractive index n falls, on a surface
separating the medium from air at an angle of incidents of 45o. The ray can undergo total
internal reflection for the following n,
a) n = 1.25 b) n = 1.33 c) n = 1.4 d) n = 1.5
Ans: d
11. A plane glass is placed over a various coloured letters (violet, green, yellow, red) The letter
which appears to be raised more is,
a) red b) yellow c) green d) violet
Ans: d
12. Two point white dots are 1 mm apart on a black paper. They are viewed by eye of pupil
diameter 3 mm approximately. The maximum distance at which these dots can be resolved by
the eye is, [take wavelength of light, λ = 500 nm]
a) 1 m b) 5 m c) 3m d) 6 m
Ans: b
13. In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the slit separation is doubled. To maintain the same fringe
spacing on the screen, the screen-to-slit distance D must be changed to,
𝐷 𝐷
a) 2𝐷 b) c) 2𝐷 d)
2 2
Ans: a
14. Two coherent monochromatic light beams of intensities I and 4I are superposed. The maximum
and minimum possible intensities in the resulting beam are
a) 5I and I b) 5I and 3I c) 9I and I d) 9I and 3I
Ans: c
−3
15. When light is incident on a soap film of thickness 5 × 10 𝑐𝑚, the wavelength of light
reflected maximum in the visible region is 5320 Å. Refractive index of the film will be,
a) 1.22 b) 1.33 c) 1.51 d) 1.83
Ans: b

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 11 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

 12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

16. First diffraction minimum due to a single slit of width 1.0 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 is at 30°. Then
wavelength of light used is,
a) 400 Å b) 500 Å c) 600 Å d) 700 Å
Ans: b
17. A ray of light strikes a glass plate at an angle 60°. If the reflected and refracted rays are
perpendicular to each other, the refractive index of the glass is,
3 3
a) 3 b) c) d) 2
2 2
Ans: a
18. One of the of Young’s double slits is covered with a glass plate
as shown in figure. The position of central maximum will,

a) get shifted downwards

b) get shifted upwards
c) will remain the same
d) data insufficient to conclude
Ans: b
19. Light transmitted by Nicol prism is,
a) partially polarised b) unpolarised
c) plane polarised d) elliptically polarised
Ans: c
20. The transverse nature of light is shown in,
a) interference b) diffraction
c) scattering d) polarisation
Ans: d

7. Dual Nature Of Radiation And Matter

1. The wavelength λe of an electron and λp of a photon of same energy E are related by
1
a) 𝜆𝑝 ∝ 𝜆𝑒 b) 𝜆𝑝 ∝ 𝜆𝑒 c) 𝜆𝑝 ∝ d) 𝜆𝑝 ∝ 𝜆2𝑒
𝜆𝑒
Ans: d
2. In an electron microscope, the electrons are accelerated by a voltage of 14 kV. If the voltage is
changed to 224 kV, then the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electrons would
a) increase by 2 times b) decrease by 2 times
c) decrease by 4 times d) increase by 4 times
[
Ans: c
−6
3. A particle of mass 3 × 10 𝑔 has the same wavelength as an electron moving with a velocity
6 × 106 𝑚 𝑠 −1 . The velocity of the particle is
a) 1.82 × 10−18 𝑚 𝑠 −1 b) 9 × 10−2 𝑚 𝑠 −1
c) 3 × 10 −31 −1 d) 1.82 × 10−15 𝑚 𝑠 −1
𝑚𝑠
Ans: d
4. When a metallic surface is illuminated with radiation of wavelength λ, the stopping potential is
V. If the same surface is illuminated with radiation of wavelength 2λ, the stopping potential is
𝑉
. Th e threshold wavelength for the metallic surface is
4
5
a) 4𝜆 b) 5𝜆 c) 𝜆 d) 3𝜆
2
Ans: d

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 12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

5. If a light of wavelength 330 nm is incident on a metal with work function 3.55 eV, the electrons
are emitted. Then the wavelength of the emitted electron is (Take ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝐽 𝑠)
a) < 2.75 × 10−9 𝑚 b) ≥ 2.75 × 10−9 𝑚
c) ≤ 2.75 × 10 −12 d) < 2.5 × 10−10 𝑚
𝑚
[[
Ans: b
6. In photoelectric emission, a radiation whose frequency is 4 times threshold frequency of a
certain metal is incident on the metal. Then the maximum possible velocity of the emitted
electron will be
ℎ𝑐 2ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
a) b) c) d)
𝜆 𝜆 3𝜆 2𝜆
Ans: d
7. A photoelectric surface is illuminated successively by monochromatic light of wavelength λ
𝜆
and 2 . If the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons in the second case is 3
times that in the first case, the work function at the surface of material is
ℎ𝑣𝑜 6ℎ𝑣𝑜 ℎ𝑣𝑜 ℎ𝑣𝑜
a) b) c) 2 d)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 2𝑚
Ans: b
8. Two radiations with photon energies 0.9 eV and 3.3 eV respectively are falling on a metallic
surface successively. If the work function of the metal is 0.6 eV, then the ratio of maximum
speeds of emitted electrons will be
a) 1 : 4 b) 1 : 3 c) 1:1 d) 1 : 9
Ans: b
15
9. A light source of wavelength 520 nm emits 1.04 × 10 photons per second while the second
source of 460 nm produces 1.38 × 1015 photons per second. Then the ratio of power of second
source to that of first source is
a) 1.00 b) 1.02 c) 1.5 d) 0.98
Ans: c
10. The mean wavelength of light from sun is taken to be 550 nm and its mean power is
3.8 × 1026 𝑊. The number of photons received by the human eye per second on the average
from sunlight is of the order of
a) 1045 b) 1042 c) 1054 d) 1051
Ans: a
11. The threshold wavelength for a metal surface whose photoelectric work function is 3.313 eV is
a) 4125 Å b) 3750 Å c) 6000 Å d) 2062.5 Å
Ans: b
12. A light of wavelength 500 nm is incident on a sensitive plate of photoelectric work function
1.235 eV. The kinetic energy of the photo electrons emitted is be (Take ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝐽 𝑠)
a) 0.58 eV b) 2.48 eV c) 1.24 eV d) 1.16 eV
Ans: c
13. Photons of wavelength λ are incident on a metal. The most energetic electrons ejected from the
metal are bent into a circular arc of radius R by a perpendicular magnetic field having
magnitude B. The work function of the metal is
ℎ𝑐 𝑒 2 𝐵2 𝑅2 ℎ𝑐 𝑒 𝐵𝑅 2
a) − 𝑚𝑒 + b) + 2𝑚𝑒
𝜆 2𝑚𝑒 𝜆 2𝑚𝑒
ℎ𝑐 2 2 2
𝑒 𝐵 𝑅 ℎ𝑐 𝑒 𝐵𝑅 2
c) − 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 − d) − 2𝑚𝑒
𝜆 2𝑚𝑒 𝜆 2𝑚𝑒
Ans: d

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12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

14. The work functions for metals A, B and C are 1.92 eV, 2.0 eV and 5.0 eV respectively. The
metals which will emit photoelectrons for a radiation of wavelength 4100Å is/are
a) A only b) both A and B c) all these metals d) none
Ans: b
15. Emission of electrons by the absorption of heat energy is called ____________ emission.
a) photoelectric b) field c) thermionic d) secondary
Ans: c

8. Atomic And Nuclear Physics

1. Suppose an alpha particle accelerated by a potential of V volt is allowed to collide with a
nucleus whose atomic number is Z, then the distance of closest approach of alpha particle to the
nucleus is
𝑍 𝑉 𝑍 𝑉
a) 14.4 Å b) 14.4 Å c) 1.44 Å d) 1.44 Å
𝑉 𝑍 𝑉 𝑍
Ans: c
2. In a hydrogen atom, the electron revolving in the fourth orbit, has angular momentum equal to
ℎ 4ℎ 2ℎ
a) ℎ b) c) d)
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Ans: d
3. Atomic number of H-like atom with ionization potential 122.4 V for n = 1 is
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4
Ans: c
4. The ratio between the first three orbits of hydrogen atom is
a) 1:2:3 b) 2:4:6 c) 1:4:9 d) 1:3:5
Ans: c
5. The charge of cathode rays is
a) positive b) negative c) neutral d) not defined
Ans: b
6. In J.J. Thomson e/m experiment, a beam of electron is replaced by that of muons (particle with
same charge as that of electrons but mass 208 times that of electrons). No deflection condition
is achieved only if
a) B is increased by 208 times b) B is decreased by 208 times
c) B is increased by 14.4 times d) B is decreased by 14.4 times
Ans: c
7. The ratio of the wavelengths for the transition from n =2 to n = 1 in Li++, He+ and H is
a) 1:2:3 b) 1:4:9 c) 3:2:1 d) 4:9:36
Ans: d
8. 𝑟
The electric potential between a proton and an electron is given by 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 ln , where ro is a
𝑟𝑜
constant. Assume that Bohr atom model is applicable to potential, then variation of radius of nth
orbit rn with the principal quantum number n is
1 1
a) 𝑟𝑛 ∝ b) 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛 c) 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 2 d) 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2
𝑛 𝑛
Ans: b
27 64
9. If the nuclear radius of 𝐴𝑙 is 3.6 fermi, the approximate nuclear radius of 𝐶𝑢 is
a) 2.4 b) 1.2 c) 4.8 d) 3.6
Ans: c

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12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

10. The nucleus is approximately spherical in shape. Then the surface area of nucleus having mass
number A varies as
a) 𝐴2 3 b) 𝐴4 3 c) 1
𝐴 3 d) 𝐴5 3
Ans: a
7
11. The mass of a 3𝐿𝑖 nucleus is 0.042 u less than the sum of the masses of all its nucleons. The
binding energy per nucleon of 73𝐿𝑖 nucleus is nearly
a) 46 MeV b) 5.6 MeV c) 3.9 MeV d) 23 MeV
Ans: b
12. 𝑀𝑝 denotes the mass of the proton and 𝑀𝑛 denotes mass of a neutron. A given nucleus of
binding energy B, contains Z protons and N neutrons. The mass M(N,Z) of the nucleus is
given by(where c is the speed of light)
a) 𝑀 𝑁, 𝑍 = 𝑁𝑀𝑛 + 𝑍𝑀𝑝 − 𝐵𝑐 2 b) 𝑀 𝑁, 𝑍 = 𝑁𝑀𝑛 + 𝑍𝑀𝑝 + 𝐵𝑐 2
c) 𝑀 𝑁, 𝑍 = 𝑁𝑀𝑛 + 𝑍𝑀𝑝 − 𝐵/𝑐 2 d) 𝑀 𝑁, 𝑍 = 𝑁𝑀𝑛 + 𝑍𝑀𝑝 + 𝐵/𝑐 2
Ans: c
13. A radioactive nucleus (initial mass number A and atomic number Z) emits 2α and 2
positrons. The ratio of number of neutrons to that of proton in the final nucleus will be
𝐴−𝑍−4 𝐴−𝑍−2 𝐴−𝑍−4 𝐴 − 𝑍 − 12
a) b) c) d)
𝑧−2 𝑧−6 𝑧−6 𝑧−4
Ans: b
14. The half-life period of a radioactive element A is same as the mean life time of another
radioactive element B. Initially both have the same number of atoms. Then
a) A and B have the same decay rate initially b) A and B decay at the same rate always
c) B will decay at faster rate than A d) A will decay at faster rate than B.
Ans: c
15. A system consists of No nucleus at t = 0. The number of nuclei remaining after half of a half-life
1
(that is, at time 𝑡 = 2 𝑇1 )
2
𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜
a) b) c) d)
2 2 4 8
Ans: b
9. Semiconductor Electronics
1. The barrier potential of a silicon diode is approximately,
a) 0.7 𝑉 b) 0.3 𝑉 c) 2.0 𝑉 d) 2.2 𝑉
Ans: a
2. Doping a semiconductor results in
a) The decrease in mobile charge carriers b) The change in chemical properties
c) The change in the crystal structure d) The breaking of the covalent bond
Ans: c
3. A forward biased diode is treated as
a) An open switch with infinite resistance
b) A closed switch with a voltage drop of 0 V
c) A closed switch in series with a battery voltage of 0.7V
d) A closed switch in series with a small resistance and a battery.
Ans: d
4. If a half –wave rectified voltage is fed to a load resistor, which part of a cycle the load current
will flow?
a) 0° − 90° b) 90° − 180° c) 0° − 180° d) 0° − 360°
Ans: c

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 15 K. Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

 12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

5. The primary use of a Zener diode is

a) Rectifier b) Amplifier c) Oscillator d) Voltage regulator
Ans: d
6. The principle in which a solar cell operates
a) Diffusion b) Recombination c) Photovoltaic action d) Carrier flow
Ans: c
7. The light emitted in an LED is due to
a) Recombination of charge carriers
b) Reflection of light due to lens action
c) Amplification of light falling at the junction
d) Large current capacity
Ans: a
8. When a transistor is fully switched on, it is said to be
a) Shorted b) Saturated
c) Cut-off d) Open
[
Ans: b
9. The specific characteristic of a common emitter amplifier is
a) High input resistance b) Low power gain
c) Signal phase reversal d) Low current gain
Ans: c
10. To obtain sustained oscillation in an oscillator,
a) Feedback should be positive
b) Feedback factor must be unity
c) Phase shift must be 0 or 2π
d) All the above
Ans: d
11. If the input to the NOT gate is A = 1011, its output is
a) 0100 b) 1000 c) 1100 d) 0011
Ans: a
12. The electrical series circuit in digital form is
a) AND b) OR c) NOR d) NAND
Ans: a
13. Which one of the following represents forward bias diode?

Ans: a
14. The given electrical network is
equivalent to

a) AND gate b) OR gate c) NOR gate d) NOT gate

Ans: c
15. The output of the following circuit is 1 when the
input ABC is
a) 101 b) 100
c) 110 d) 010
Ans: a

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12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

10. Communication Systems

1. The output transducer of the communication system converts the radio signal into _________
a) Sound b) Mechanical energy c) Kinetic energy d) None of the above
Ans: a
2. The signal is affected by noise in a communication system
a) At the transmitter b) At the modulator c) In the channel d) At the receiver
Ans: c
3. The variation of frequency of carrier wave with respect to the amplitude of the modulating
signal is called ____________
a) Amplitude modulation b) Frequency modulation
c) Phase modulation d) Pulse width modulation
Ans: b
4. The internationally accepted frequency deviation for the purpose of FM broadcasts.
a) 75 kHz b) 68 kHz c) 80 kHz d) 70 kHz
Ans: a
5. The frequency range of 3 MHz to 30 MHz is used for
a) Ground wave propagation b) Space wave propagation
c) Sky wave propagation d) Satellite communication
Ans: c
11. Recent Developments In Physics
1. The particle size of ZnO material is 30 nm. Based on the dimension it is classified as
a) Bulk material b) Nanomaterial
c) Soft material d) Magnetic material
Ans: b
2. Which one of the following is the natural nanomaterial?
a) Peacock feather b) Peacock beak c) Grain of sand d) Skin of the Whale
Ans: a
3. The blue print for making ultra durable synthetic material is mimicked from
a) Lotus leaf b) Morpho butterfly c) Parrot fish d) Peacock feather
Ans: c
4. The method of making nanomaterial by assembling the atoms is called
a) Top down approach b) Bottom up approach
c) Cross down approach d) Diagonal approach
Ans: b
5. “Sky wax” is an application of nano product in the field of
a) Medicine b) Textile c) Sports d) Automotive industry
Ans: c
6. The materials used in Robotics are
a) Aluminium and silver b) Silver and gold
c) Copper and gold d) Steel and aluminum
Ans: d
7. The alloys used for muscle wires in Robots are
a) Shape memory alloys b) Gold copper alloys
c) Gold silver alloys d) Two dimensional alloys
Ans: a

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12-Standard www.nammakalvi.in PHYSICS Book Back MCQ’s

8. The technology used for stopping the brain from processing pain is
a) Precision medicine b) Wireless brain sensor
c) Virtual reality d) Radiology
Ans: c
9. The particle which gives mass to protons and neutrons are
a) Higgs particle b) Einstein particle c) Nanoparticle d) Bulk particle
Ans: a
10. The gravitational waves were theoretically proposed by
a) Conrad Rontgen b) Marie Curie
c) Albert Einstein d) Edward Purcell
Ans: c

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

1. ELECTROSTATICS
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (BOOK BACK)
1. What is meant by quantisation of charges?
 The charge ‘q’ of any object is equal to an integral multiple of this fundamental unit of charge ‘e’
 (i.e) q=ne where, n is integer and e=1.6 x 10-19 C
2. Write down Coulomb’s law in vector form and mention what each term represents.
 Let q1 and q2 be the two point charges seperated at the distance r.
 According to Coulom’s Law:
 The force on the point charge q2 exerted by another point charge q1 is
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹21 = 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2 21
 Similarly the force on the point charge q1 exerted by another point charge q2 is
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 = 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2 12
 Here, 𝑟12 → unit vector directed from q1 to q2
 𝑟21 → unit vector directed from q2 to q1

3. What are the differences between Coulomb force and gravitational force?
Coulomb force Gravitational force
 It acts between two charges  It acts between two masses
 It can be attractive or repulsive  It is always attractive
 It is always greater in magnitude  It is always lesser in magnitude
 It depends on the nature of the medium  It is independent of the medium
 If charges are in motion, another force called  Gravitational force is the same whether two
Lorentz force come in to play in addition to masses are at rest or in motion
Coulomb force
4. Write a short note on superposition principle.
 According to Superposition principle, the total force acting on a given charge is equal to the vector
sum of forces exerted on it by all the other charges.
5. Define ‘Electric field’.
 The electric field at a point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ from the point charge ‘q’ is the force experienced by a unit
charge.
 Its S.I unit is NC -1
6. What is mean by ‘Electric field lines’?
Electric field lines :
 A set of continuous lines which are the visual representation of the electric field in some region of
space.
7. The electric field lines never intersect. Justify.
 If two lines cross at a point, then there will be two different electric field vectors at the same point.
 If some charge is placed at the intersection point, then it has to move in two different directions at
the same time, which is physically impossible.
 Hence electric field lines do not intersect.
8. Define ‘Electric dipole’
 Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance constitute an electric dipole.
 (e.g) CO, HCl, NH4 , H2O

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

9. What is the general definition of electric dipole moment?

 The magnitude of the electric dipole moment (p) is equal to the product of the magnitude of one of
charges (q) and the distance (2a) between them. (i.e) |𝑝 | = q.2a
 Its unit is C m
10. Define ‘electrostatic potential”.
 The electric potential at a point is equal to the work done by an external force to bring a unit positive
charge with constant velocity from infinity to the point in the region of the external electric field.
 Its unit is volt (V)
11. What is an equipotential surface?
 An equipotential surface is a surface on which all the points are at the same potential.
12. What are the properties of an equipotential surface?
 For a point charge the equipotential surfaces are concentric spherical surfaces.
 For a uniform electric field, the equipotential surfaces form a set of planes normal to the electric field.
13. Give the relation between electric field and electric potential.
 The work done in moving a unit charge through a distance ‘dx’ in an electric field ‘E’ is dW = - E dx
 Here negative sign indicates work done is against the electric field.
 This work done is equal to the potential difference and hence,
dV = - E dx
𝒅𝑽
𝑬= −
𝒅𝒙
 Thus the electric field is the negative gradient of electric potential
14. Define ‘electrostatic potential energy’.
 The electric potential energy of two point charges is equal to the amount of work done to assemble
the charges or work done in bringing a charge from infinite distance. (i.e) U = W = q V
 Its SI unit is Joule (J)
15. Define ‘electric flux’
 The number of electric field lines crossing a given area kept normal to the electric field lines is
called electric flux ( 𝜱𝑬 ).
 Its S.I unit is N m2 C-1
 It is a scalar quantity.
16. What is meant by electrostatic energy density?
 The energy stored per unit volume of space is defined as energy density and it is derived as,
𝑈 1
𝑈𝐸 = = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2
17. Write a short note on ‘electrostatic shielding’.
 By Gauss law, we conclude that the electric field inside the charged spherical shell is zero.
 If a conductor has cavity, then whatever the charges at the surfaces or whatever the electrical
disturbances outside, the electric field inside the cavity is zero.
 A sensitive electrical instrument which is to be protected from external electrical disturbance is kept
inside this cavity. This is called electrostatic shielding. (e.g) Faraday cage
18. What is Polarisation?
 In the presence of external electric field, dipole moment is induced in the dielectric along the
direction of the field.
 Polarisation (𝑷 ) is defined as the total dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric.

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

19. What is dielectric strength?

 The maximum electric field the dielectric can withstand before it breakdowns is called dielectric
strength.
 The dielectric strength of air is 3 x 106 V m-1.
 If the applied electric field is increases beyond this, a spark is produced in the air (i.e) it becomes a
conductor
20. Define ‘capacitance’. Give its unit.
 The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of charge (Q) on either of the
conductor plates to the potential difference (V) existing between the conductors. (i.e.) C = Q/V
 Its unit is farad (F) or C V -1
21. What is ‘action of points’ or ‘corona discharge’?
 Smaller the radius of curvature, larger the charge density. Hence charges are accumulated at the
sharp points.
 Due to this, the electric field near this sharp edge is very high and it ionized the surrounding air.
 The positive ions are repelled and negative ions are attracted towards the sharp edge.
 This reduces the total charge of the conductor near the sharp edge. This is called action of points or
corona discharge

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (CONCEPTUAL)

22. What is Electrostatics?
 The branch of electricity which deals with stationary charges is called electrostatics.
23. What is called triboelectric charging?
 Charging the objects through rubbing is called triboelectric charging.
24. Like charges repels. Unlike charges attracts. Prove.
 A negatively charged rubber rod is repelled by another negatively charged rubber rod.
 But a negatively charged rubber rod is attracted by a positively charged glass rod.
 This proves like charges repels and unlike charges attracts.
25. State conservation of electric charges.
 The total electric charge in the universe is constant and charge can neither be created nor be destroyed
 In any physical process, the net change in charge will be zero. This is called conservation of charges.
26. State Coulomb’s law in electrostatics
 According to Coulomb law, the force on the point charge q2 exerted by another point charge q1 is
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹21 = 𝑘 2 𝑟21
𝑟
 Where, k → constant, 𝑟21 → unit vector directed from q1 to q2
27. Define relative permittivity.
 From Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force is
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹21 = 𝑟21 = 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 21
 Here 𝜺 = 𝜺𝝄 𝜺𝒓 is called permittivity of any medium
 𝜺𝝄 is called permittivity of free space or vacuum and 𝜺𝒓 is called relative permittivity.
 Thus The ratio of permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of free space is called relative
𝜀
permittivity or dielectric constant. [ 𝜀𝑟 = ].
𝜀𝑜
 It has no unit and for air 𝜀𝑟 = 1 and for other dielectric medium 𝜀𝑟 > 1

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 21 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

28. Define one coulomb (1 C)

 The S.I unit of charge is coulomb (C)
 One Coulomb is that charge which when placed in free space or air at a distance 1 m from an equal
and similar charge repels with a force of 9 x 109 N
29. Define linear charge density.
𝒒
 The charge per unit length is called linear charge density. [𝝀 = ]
𝒍
 Its S.I unit is C m-1
30. Define surface charge density.
𝒒
 The charge per unit area is called surface charge density. [𝝇 = ]
𝑨
 Its S.I unit is C m-2
31. Define volume charge density.
𝒒
 The charge per unit volume is called volume charge density. [𝝆 = ]
𝑽
 Its S.I unit is C m-3
32. Define potential difference. Give its unit.
 The electric potential difference is defined as the work done by an external force to bring unit
positive charge from one point to another point against the electric field.
 Its unit is volt (V)
33. State Gauss law.
 Gauss law states that if a charge ‘Q’ is enclosed by an arbitrary closed surface, then the total electric
1
flux through the closed surface is equal to times the net charge enclosed by the surface.
𝜀𝑜
𝑸𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆
𝝓𝑬 = 𝑬. 𝒅𝑨 =
𝜺𝟎
34. During lightning, it is safer to sit inside bus than in an open ground or under tree. Why?
 The metal body of the bus provides electrostatic shielding, where the electric field is zero.
 During lightning the electric discharge passes through the body of the bus.
35. Define electrostatic induction.
 The phenomenon of charging without actual contact of charged body is called electrostatic
induction.
36. Define dielectrics or insulators.
 A dielectric is a non- conducting material and has no free electrons. The electrons in a dielectric are
bound within the atoms.
 (e.g) Ebonite. glass and mica
37. What are called non-polar molecules? Give examples.
 A non-polar molecule is one in which centres of positive and negative charges coincide.
 It has no permanent dipole moment.
 (e.g) H2 , O2 , CO2
38. What are called polar molecules? Give examples.
 A polar molecule is one in which the positive and negative charges are separated even in the absence
of an external electric field.
 They have a permanent dipole moment.
 (e.g) H2O, N2O, HCl, NH4

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 22 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

39. Define electric susceptibility.

 For dielectrics, the polarization is directly proportional to the strength of the external electric field.
(i.e) 𝑷 = 𝝌𝑬 𝑬𝑬𝒙𝒕
 Where 𝝌𝑬 a constant is called the electric susceptibility, which is defined as polarization per unit
electric field.
 Its unit is C2N-1m
40. Define dielectric breakdown.
 When the external electric field applied to dielectric is very large, it tears the atoms apart so that the
bound charges become free charges. Then the dielectric starts to conduct electricity. This is called
dielectric breakdown.
41. What is called a capacitor?
 Capacitor is a device used to store electric charge and electric energy.
 It consists of two conducting plates or sheets separated by some distance.
 Capacitors are widely used in many electronic circuits and in many area of science and technology.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 Mark Questions)
1. Discuss the basic properties of electric charge.
(i) Electric charge :
 Like mass, the electric charge is also an intrinsic and fundamental property of particles.
 The unit of electric charge is coulomb
(ii) Conservation of electric charge :
 The total electric charge in the universe is constant and charge can neither be created nor be
destroyed.
 In any physical process, the net change in charge will be zero. This is called conservation of charges
(iii) Quanisation of charge :
 The chage ‘q’ of any object is equal to an integral multiple of this fundamental unit of charge ‘e’
(i.e) q = ne
 where n → integer and e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
2. Define superposition principle. Explain how superposition principle explains the interaction
between multiple charges.
Superposition principle :
 According to Superposition principle, the total force acting on a given charge is equal to the vector
sum of forces exerted on it by all the other charges.
Explanation :
 Consider a system of ‘n’ charges q1 , q2 , … ,qn
 By Coulomb’s law, force on q1 by q2 , … ,qn are
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 = 2 𝑟21
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟21
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹13 = 2 𝑟31
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟31

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 23 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
 finally 𝐹1𝑛 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟𝑛21
𝑟𝑛1
𝜊

 Then total force action on q1 due to all charges,

𝐹1𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝐹1𝑛
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹1𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2 𝑟21 + 2 𝑟31 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 2 𝑟𝑛1
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟21 𝑟31 𝑟𝑛1
3. Explain Electric field at a point due to system of charges (or) Superposition of electric fields.
Superposition of electric field :
 The electric field at an arbitrary point due to system of point charges is simply equal to vector sum
of the electric fields created by the individual point charges. This is called superposition of electric
fields.
Explanation :
 Consider a system of ‘n’ charges q1 , q2 , … ,qn
 The electric field at ‘P’ due to ‘n’ charges
1 𝑞1
𝐸1 = 2 𝑟1𝑃
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟1𝑃
1 𝑞2
𝐸2 = 2 𝑟2𝑃
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟2𝑃
 finally,
1 𝑞𝑛
𝐸𝑛 = 2 𝑟𝑛𝑃
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟𝑛𝑃
 The total electric field at ‘P’ due to all these ‘n’ charges will be,
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝐸𝑛
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞𝑛
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2 𝑟1𝑃 + 2 𝑟2𝑃 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 2 𝑟𝑛𝑃
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟1𝑃 𝑟2𝑃 𝑟𝑛𝑃
4. List the properties of electric field lines.
Electric field lines :
 A set of continuous lines which are the visual representation of the electric field in some region of
space.
Properties of electric field lines :
1. They starts from positive charge and end at negative charge or at infinity.
2. The electric field vector at a point in space is tangential to the electric field line at that point.
3. The electric field lines are denser in a region where the electric field has larger magnitude and less
dense in region where the electric field is of smaller magnitude. (i.e.) the number of lines passing
through a given surface area perpendicular to the line is proportional to the magnitude of the electric
field.
4. No two electric fid lines intersect each other
5. The number of electric field lines that eminent from the positive charge or end at a negative charge is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the charges.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 24 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

5. Derive an expression for torque experienced by an electric dipole placed in the uniform
electric field.
 Let a dipole of moment 𝑝 is placed in an uniform electric
field 𝐸
 The force on ‘+q’ = +𝒒 𝐸
 The force on ‘-q’ = −𝒒 𝐸
 Then the total force acts on the dipole is zero.
 But these two forces constitute a couple and the dipole
experience a torque which tends to rotate the dipole along
the field.
 The total torque on the dipole about the point ‘O’
𝜏 = 𝑂𝐴 × −𝑞 𝐸 + 𝑂𝐵 × +𝑞 𝐸
𝜏 = 𝑂𝐴 −𝑞 𝐸 sin 𝜃 + 𝑂𝐵 +𝑞 𝐸 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵 𝑞𝐸 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 2𝑎𝑞𝐸 sin 𝜃 [∵ 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑎]
𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃
 where, 2𝑎𝑞 = 𝑝 → dipole moment
 In vector notation, 𝜏 = 𝑝 × 𝐸
 The torque is maximum, when 𝜃 = 90°
 If the electric field is not uniform, in addition to the torque,
there will be net force acting on the dipole.
6. Obtain an expression electric potential at a point due to a point charge.
 Potential due to a point charge :
 Consider a point charge +q at origin.
 ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from origin.
 By definition, the electric field at ‘P’ is
1 𝑞
𝐸= 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
 Hence electric potential at ‘P’ is
𝑟

𝑉= − 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑟 =
∞
𝑟
1 𝑞
𝑉=− 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
∞
𝑟
1 𝑞
𝑉= − 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟 𝑟 [∵ 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑟 𝑟]
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
∞
𝑟
𝑞 1
𝑉= − 𝑑𝑟 ∵ 𝑟. 𝑟 = 1
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟2
∞

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 25 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

𝑞 1𝑟
𝑉= − −
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 ∞
𝑞 1 1
𝑉= −
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 ∞
𝟏 𝒒
𝑽=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓
 If the source charge is negative ( - q ) , then the potential also negative and it is given by
𝟏 𝒒
𝑽= −
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓

7. Obtain an expression for potential energy due to a collection of three point charges which are
separated by finite distances.
 Electrostatic potential energy of a system of charges is defined as the work done to assemble the
charges consider a point charge q1 at ‘A’
 Electric potential at ‘B’ due to q1 is,
𝟏 𝒒𝟏
𝑽𝟏𝑩 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟏𝟐
 To bring second charge q2 to ‘B’, work has to be done against the electric field created by q1. The
work done on the charge q2 is,
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑾 = 𝒒𝟐 𝑽𝟏𝑩 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟏𝟐
 This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy of system of two charges q1 and q2
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑼= − − − − − (𝟏)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟏𝟐
 The potential at ‘C’ due to charges q1
𝟏 𝒒𝟏
𝑽𝟏𝑪 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟏𝟑
 The potential at ‘C’ due to charges q2
𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑽𝟐𝑪 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟐𝟑
 To bring third charge q3 to ‘C’, work has to be done against the electric field due to q1 & q2.
 Thus work done on charge q3 is,
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
𝑾 = 𝒒𝟑 𝑽𝟏𝑪 + 𝑽𝟐𝑪 = +
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟑
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
𝑼= + − − − − − −(𝟐)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟑
 Hence the total electrostatic potential energy of system of three point charges is
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
𝑼= + + − − − − − −(𝟑)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟑

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 26 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

8. Obtain an expression for electrostatic potential energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field.
 Potential energy of dipole in uniform electric field:
 Let a dipole of moment 𝑝 is placed in a uniform electric field 𝐸
 Here the dipole experience a torque, which rotate the dipole along the field.
 To rotate the dipole from 𝜃 ′ to 𝜃 against this torque, work has to be done by an external torque
(𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) and it is given by,
𝜃 𝜃

𝑊= 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑝 𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜃′ 𝜃′
𝜃
𝑊 = 𝑝 𝐸 − cos 𝜃 𝜃′ = −𝑝 𝐸 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 ′
𝑊 = 𝑝 𝐸 cos 𝜃 ′ − cos 𝜃
 This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy of
the dipole.
 Let the initial angle be 𝜃 ′ = 90°, then
𝑈 = 𝑊 = 𝑝 𝐸 cos 90° − cos 𝜃
𝑈 = − 𝑝 𝐸 cos 𝜃 = 𝑝 . 𝐸
 If 𝜃 = 180°, then potential energy is maximum
 If 𝜃 = 0°, then potential energy is minimum
9. Explain the process of electrostatic induction.

Electrostatic induction:
 The type of charging without actual contact of charged body is called electrostatic induction.
 Let a negatively charged rubber rod is brought near to spherical conductor, electrons in the
conductor are repelled to farther side and hence positive charges are induced near the region of the
rod. So the distribution of charges are not uniform, but the total charge is zero
 If the conducting sphere is connected to ground, the electrons are flows to the ground, but the
positive charges will not flow to the ground, because they are attracted by the negative charges of the
rod.
 When the grounding wire is removed from the sphere, the positive charges remain near the rod.
 If the charged rod is taken away, the positive charges are distributed uniformly on the surface of the
sphere.
 Thus the neutral conducting sphere becomes positively charged without any contact.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 27 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

10. Derive an expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.

 Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor :
 Consider a capacitor consists of two parallel plates
each of area ‘A’ separated by a distance ‘d’
 Let σ be the surface charge density of the plates.
 The electric field between the plates,
𝜍 𝑄
𝐸= =
𝜀𝑜 𝐴 𝜀𝑜
 Since the field is uniform, the potential difference
between the plates,
𝑄
𝑉=𝐸𝑑= 𝑑
𝐴 𝜀𝑜
 Then the capacitance of the capacitor,
𝑄 𝑄
𝐶= = 𝑄
𝑉 𝑑
𝐴 𝜀𝑜
𝐴 𝜀𝑜
𝐶=
𝑑
 Thus capacitance is,
1. directly proportional to the Area (A) and
2. inversely proportional to the separation (d)
11. Derive an expression for energy stored in capacitor
 Energy stored in capacitor:
 Capacitor is a device used to store charges and energy.
 When a battery is connected to the capacitor, electrons of total charge ‘-Q’ are transferred from one
plate to other plate. For this work is done by the battery.
 This work done is stored as electrostatic energy in capacitor.
 To transfer ′dQ′ for a potential difference ‘V’, the work done is
𝑄 𝑄
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑄 [∵ 𝑉 = ]
𝐶 𝐶
 The total work done to charge a capacitor,
𝑄
𝑄
𝑄 1 𝑄2 𝑄2
𝑊= 𝑑𝑄 = =
𝐶 𝐶 2 0
2𝐶
0
 This work done is stored as electrostatic energy of the capacitor, (i.e)
𝑄2 1
𝑈𝐸 = = 𝐶𝑉 2 [∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉]
2𝐶 2
𝐴𝜀
 We know that, 𝑉 = 𝐸 𝑑 & 𝐶 = 𝑑 𝑜
1 𝐴 𝜀𝑜 2
𝑈𝐸 = 𝐸𝑑
2 𝑑
1
𝑈𝐸 = 𝐴 𝑑 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2
2
 where, 𝐴 𝑑 → Volume
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 28 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

 The energy stored per unit volume of space is defined as energy density (uE)
1
𝑈𝐸 𝐴 𝑑 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2 1
2
𝑢𝐸 = = = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑑 2
1
𝑢𝐸 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2
2
 We infer that the energy is stored in the electric field existing between the plates of the capacitor.
 Once the capacitor is allowed to discharge, the energy is retrieved.
12. Explain in detail how charges are distributed in a conductor and the principle behind the
lightning conductor.
 Distribution of charges in a conductor :
 Consider two conducting spheres ‘A’ and ‘B’
of radii r1 and r2. Let r1 > r2
 Let the two spheres are connected by a thin
conducting wire.
 If a charge ‘Q’ is given to either A or B, this
charge is redistributed in both the spheres until
their potential becomes same.
 Now they are uniformly charged and attain electrostatic equilibrium.
 At this stage, let the surface charge densities of A and B are 𝝇𝟏 and 𝝇𝟐 respectively, then
 Charge residing on surface of A = 𝒒𝟏 = 𝝇𝟏 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐𝟏
 Charge residing on surface of B = 𝒒𝟐 = 𝝇𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐𝟐
 Then the total charge ; 𝒒𝟏 + 𝒒𝟏 = 𝑸
 There is no net charge inside the conductors.
 Electrostatic potential on the surface of A and B is
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑽𝑨 = & 𝑽𝑩 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟏 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟐
 Under electrostatic equilibrium, 𝑽𝑨 = 𝑽𝑩
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝟏 𝒒𝟐
=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟏 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟐
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
=
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
𝝇𝟏 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝝇𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐𝟐
=
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
𝝇 𝟏 𝒓𝟏 = 𝝇 𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝝇 𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
 Thus the surface charge density is inversely proportional to the radius of the sphere.
 Hence for smaller radius , the charge density will be larger and vice versa
 Principle of lightning conductor (Action of point) :
 Action of point is the principle behind the lightning conductor.
 We know that smaller the radius of curvature, the larger is the charge density.
 If the conductor has sharp end which has larger curvature (smaller radius), it has a large charge
accumulation.
 As a result, the electric field near this edge is very high and it ionizes the surrounding air.
 The positive ions are repelled at the sharp edge and negative ions are attracted towards the sharper edge.
 This reduces the total charge of the conductor near the sharp edge. This is called action of points or
corona discharge.
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 29 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

13. Explain the principle, construction and action of lightning conductor.

 Lightning conductor :
 This is a device used to protect tall building from lightning strikes;
 It works on the principle of action of points or corona discharge.
 It consists of a long thick copper rod passing from top of the building
to the ground.
 The upper end of the rod has a sharp spike or a sharp needle. The
lower end of the rod is connected to the copper plate which is buried
deep in to the ground.
 When a negatively charged cloud is passing above the building, it
induces a positive charge on the spike.
 Since the charge density is large at the spike, action of point takes place.
 This positive charge ionizes the surrounding air which in turn neutralizes the negative charge in the
cloud.
 The negative charge pushed to the spikes passes rough the copper rod and is safely diverted to the
Earth.
 Thus the lighting arrester does not stop the lightning, but it diverts the lightning to the ground safely
14. Give the applications and disadvantage of capacitors
Applications of capacitor:
 Flash capacitors are used in digital camera to take photographs
 During cardiac arrest, a device called heart defibrillator is used to give a sudden surge of a large
amount of electrical energy to the patient’ chest to retrieve the normal heart function. This
defibrillator uses a capacitor of 175 µF charged to a high voltage of around 2000 V
 Capacitors are used in the ignition system of automobile engines to eliminate sparking.
 Capacitors are used to reduce power fluctuations in power supplies and to increase the efficiency of
power transmission.
Disadvantages :
 Even after the battery or power supply is removed, the capacitor stores charges and energy for some
time. It caused unwanted shock.
15. Define equipotential surface. Give its properties.
 Equipotential surface:
 An equipotential surface is a surface on which all the points are at the same potential.
1. For a point charge the equipotential surfaces are concentric spherical surfaces.
2. For a unielectric field, the equipotential surfaces form a set of planes normal to the electric field
 Properties :
 The work done to move a charge ‘q’ between any two points A and B is W=q(VA - VB). If A and B
lie on the same equipotential surface then VA = VB Hence work done is zero (W = 0)
 The electric field is always normal to an equipotential surface.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 30 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

16. Write a note on microwave oven.

 Microwave oven :
 It works on the principle of torque acting on an electric dipole.
 The food we consume has water molecules which are permanent electric dipoles. Oven produces
microwaves that are oscillating electromagnetic fields and produce torque on the water molecules.
 Due to this torque on each water molecule, the molecules rotate very fast and produce thermal
energy.
 Thus, heat generated is used to heat the food.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 mark Questions)

1. Explain in detail Coulomb’s law and its various aspects.
Coulomb’s law :
 Consider two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance ‘r’
 According to Coulomb law, the force on the point charge q2
exerted by q1 is
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹21 = 2 𝑟12
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟12
Important aspects :
 Coulomb law states that the electrostatic force is
1) directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of two point charges
2) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
 The force always lie along the line joining the two charges.
1
 In S.I units, 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀 = 9 × 109 𝑁 𝑚2 𝐶 −2
𝜊
 Here 𝜀𝜊 is the permittivity of free space or vacuum and its value is
1
𝜀𝜊 = = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2
4𝜋𝑘
 The magnitude of electrostatic force between two charges each of 1 C separated by a distance of 1 m
is 9 × 109 𝑁
 The Coulomb law in vacuum and in medium are,
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹21 = 2 𝑟12 & 𝐹21 = 2 𝑟12
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟12 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟12
 where, 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 → permittivity of the medium
𝜀
 Thus the relative permittivity of the given medium is defined as , 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑟
𝑜
 For air or vacuum, 𝜀𝑟 = 1 and for all other media 𝜀𝑟 > 1
 Coulomb’s law has same structure as Newton’s law of gravitation. (i.e)
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝑘 2 & 𝐹𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐺
𝑟 𝑟2
9 2 −2 −11 2 −2
 Here 𝑘 = 9 × 10 𝑁 𝑚 𝐶 and 𝐺 = 6.626 × 10 𝑁 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
 Since ‘k’ is much more greater than ‘G’, the electrostatic force is always greater than gravitational
force for smaller size objects
 Electrostatic force between two point charges depends on the nature of the medium in which two
charges are kept at rest.
 Depending upon the nature of the charges, it may either be attractive or repulsive
 If the charges are in motion, another force called Lorentz force come in to play in addition with
Coulomb force.
 Electrostatic force obeys Newton’s third law. (i.e.) 𝐹21 = − 𝐹12

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 31 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

2. Define electric field. Explain its various aspects.

Electric field :
 The electric field at the point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ from the point
charge ‘q’ is the force experienced by a unit charge and is given by

𝐹 1 𝑞
𝐸= = 𝑟
𝑞𝑜 4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
Important aspects :
 If ‘q’ is positive, the electric field points away and if ‘q’ is negative the electric field points towards
the source charge.
 The force experienced by the test charge qo placed in electric field 𝐸 is, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸
 The electric field is independent of test charge (𝑞𝑜 ) and it depends only on source charge (𝑞)
 Electric field is a vector quantity. So it has unique direction and magnitude at every point.
 Since electric field is inversely proportional to the distance, as distance increases the field decreases.
 The test charge is made sufficiently small such that it will not modify the electric field of the source
charge.
 For continuous and finite size charge distributions, integration techniques must be used
 There are two kinds of electric field. They are
1. Uniform or constant field
2. Non uniform field

3. How do we determine the electric field due to a continuous charge distribution? Explain.
 Consider a charged object of irregular shape which is divided into a large
number of charge elements ∆𝑞1 , ∆𝑞2 , ∆𝑞3 , ⋯ ∆𝑞𝑛
 The electric field at ‘P’ due this charged object is equal to sum of all the
charged elements. (i.e.)
1 ∆𝑞1 ∆𝑞2 ∆𝑞𝑛
𝐸= 2 𝑟1𝑃 + 2 𝑟2𝑃 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 2 𝑟𝑛𝑃
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟1𝑃 𝑟2𝑃 𝑟𝑛𝑃
𝑛
1 ∆𝑞𝑖
𝐸= 2 𝑟𝑖𝑃
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟𝑖𝑃
𝑖=1

 For continuous distribution of charge, we have ∆q → 0 (= dq). Hence

1 𝑑𝑞
𝐸= 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

a) Linear charge distribution :

 If the charge ‘Q’ is uniformly distributed along the wire
of length ‘L’, then charge per unit length (i.e) linear
𝑄
charge density; 𝜆 = 𝐿
 Hence, 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆 𝑑𝑙
 Then the electric field due to line of total charge Q is
1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝜆 𝑑𝑙 𝜆 𝑑𝑙
𝐸= 2
𝑟= 2
𝑟= 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
b) Surface charge distribution :
 If the charge ‘Q’ is uniformly distributed on the surface of area ‘A’, then charge per unit area (i.e.)
𝑄
surface charge density; 𝜍 = 𝐴
 Hence, 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜍 𝑑𝐴
 Then the electric field due to surface of total charge Q is
1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝜍 𝑑𝐴 𝜍 𝑑𝐴
𝐸= 𝑟 = 𝑟 = 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
c) Volume charge distribution :
 If the charge ‘Q’ is uniformly distributed in a ‘V’, then charge per unit volume (i.e.) volume charge
𝑄
density; 𝜌 = 𝑉
 Hence, 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉
 Then the electric field due to volume of total charge Q is
1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 𝜌 𝑑𝑉
𝐸= 2
𝑟= 2
𝑟= 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
4. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its axial line.
Electric field due to dipole on its axial line :
 Consider a dipole AB along X - axis.
 Its dipole moment be p = 2qa and its direction
be along −q to +q.

 Let ‘C’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the midpoint ‘O’ on its axial line.
 Electric field at C due to +q (Along BC)
1 𝑞
𝐸+ = 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
 Electric field at C due to –q (Along CA)
1 𝑞
𝐸− = − 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
 Since +q is located closer to point ‘C’ than −q, 𝐸+ > 𝐸−
 By superposition principle, the total electric field at ‘C’ due to dipole is,
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐸+ + 𝐸−
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2
𝑝− 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 − 𝑎) 4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

𝑞 1 1
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2
− 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 − 𝑎) (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝑞 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝑞 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑟𝑎 − 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑟𝑎
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 − 𝑎)(𝑟 + 𝑎) 2
𝑞 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑟𝑎 − 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 + 2𝑟𝑎
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
𝑞 4𝑟𝑎
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2
2

 Here total electric field is in the direction of the dipole moment 𝑝.

 If r ≫ a, then neglecting a2. We get
𝑞 4𝑟𝑎
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 4
1 2.2𝑎𝑞
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 3

𝟏 𝟐𝒑
𝑬𝒕𝒐𝒕 = [∵ 𝑝 = 2𝑎𝑞𝑝]
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟑
5. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its equatorial line.
Electric field due to dipole on its equatorial line :
 Consider a dipole AB along X - axis.
 Its dipole moment be p = 2qa and its
direction be along −q to +q.
 Let ‘C’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from
the midpoint ‘O’ on its equatorial plane.
 Electric field at C due to +q (along BC)
1 𝑞
𝐸+ =
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 + 𝑎2 )
2

 Electric field at C due to −q (along CA)

1 𝑞
𝐸− =
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 + 𝑎2 )
2

 Here 𝐸+ = 𝐸−
 Resolve 𝐸+ and 𝐸− in to two components.
 Here the perpendicular components 𝐸+ sin 𝜃 and 𝐸− sin 𝜃 are equal and opposite will cancel each
other
 But the horizontal components 𝐸+ cos 𝜃 and 𝐸− cos 𝜃 are equal and in same direction −𝑝 will
added up to give total electric field. Hence

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 34 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐸+ cos 𝜃 −𝑝 + 𝐸− cos 𝜃 −𝑝

𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = −2 𝐸+ cos 𝜃 𝑝
1 𝑞
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = −2 cos 𝜃 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 + 𝑎2 )
2

1 2𝑞 𝑎
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )12
1 2𝑞𝑎
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )32
1 𝑝
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − [∵ 𝑝 = 2𝑎𝑞𝑝]
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )32
 If r ≫ a, then neglecting a2. We get
1 𝑝
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = −
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 (𝑟 2 )32

𝟏 𝒑
𝑬𝒕𝒐𝒕 = −
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟑
6. Derive an expression for electro static potential due to electric dipole.
Electrostatic potential due to dipole :
 Consider a dipole AB along X - axis.
 Its dipole moment be p = 2qa and its direction be
along −q to +q.
 Let ‘P’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the
midpoint ‘O’
 Let ∠POB = θ, BP=r1 and AP=r2
 Electric potential at P due to +q
1 𝑞
𝑉1 =
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟1
 Electric potential at P due to −q
1 −𝑞
𝑉2 =
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟2
 Then total potential at ‘P’ due to dipole is
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝑉= −
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟2
𝑞 1 1
𝑉= − − − − − − −(1)
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟1 𝑟2
 Apply cosine law in ∆ 𝑩𝑶𝑷
𝑟12 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑟𝑎 cos 𝜃

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

𝑎2 2𝑎
𝑟12 = 𝑟 2 1 + − cos 𝜃
𝑟2 𝑟
𝑎2
 If a≪ r then neglecting
𝑟2
2𝑎
𝑟12 = 𝑟 2 1 − cos 𝜃
𝑟
1
2𝑎 2
𝑟1 = 𝑟 1 − cos 𝜃
𝑟
1
−
1 1 2𝑎 2
= 1− cos 𝜃
𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟
1 1 𝑎
= 1 + cos 𝜃 − − − − − −(2)
𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟
 Apply cosine law in ∆ 𝑨𝑶𝑷
𝑟22 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑟𝑎 cos(180° − 𝜃)
𝑎2 2𝑎
𝑟22 =𝑟 2
1+ 2 + cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑎2
 If a≪ r then neglecting 𝑟2
2𝑎
𝑟22 = 𝑟 2 1 + cos 𝜃
𝑟
1
2𝑎 2
𝑟2 = 𝑟 1 + cos 𝜃
𝑟
1
−
1 1 2𝑎 2
= 1+ cos 𝜃
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟
1 1 𝑎
= 1 − cos 𝜃 − − − − − −(3)
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟
 Put equation (2) and (3) in (1)
𝑞 1 𝑎 1 𝑎
𝑉= 1 + cos 𝜃 − 1 − cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑞 𝑎 𝑎
𝑉= 1 + cos 𝜃 − 1 − cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑞 𝑎 𝑎
𝑉= 1 + cos 𝜃 − 1 + cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑞 2𝑎
𝑉= cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 𝑟
1 2𝑎𝑞
𝑉= cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
𝟏 𝒑
𝑽= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 [∵ 𝑝 = 2𝑎𝑞]
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝝄 𝒓𝟐

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

1 𝑝. 𝑟
𝑉= [∵ 𝑝. 𝑟 = 𝑝 cos 𝜃]
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
 Here 𝑟 is the unit vector along OP
 Case-1 : If 𝜃 = 0°; cos 0° = 1 then,
1 𝑝
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
 Case-2 : If 𝜃 = 180°; cos 180° = −1 then,
1 𝑝
𝑉=−
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
 Case-3 : If 𝜃 = 90°; cos 90° = 0 then,
𝑉=0
7. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an infinitely long charged wire.
Electric field due to infinitely long charged wire :
 Consider an infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge
density ‘𝜆’
 Let ‘P’ be point at a distance ‘r’ from the wire. Let ‘E’ be the electric
field at ‘P’
 Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length ‘L’ and radius ‘r’
 The electric flux through the top surface,

𝜙𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 90° = 0

 The electric flux through the bottom surface,

𝜙𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 90° = 0

 The electric flux through the curved surface,

𝜙𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0° = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴

𝜙𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 ∵ 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿

 Then the total electric flux through the Gaussian surface,

𝜙𝐸 = 𝜙𝑡𝑜𝑝 + 𝜙𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 + 𝜙𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝐿
 By Gauss law,
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝜆𝐿
𝜙𝐸 = = ∵ 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝜆 𝐿
𝜀0 𝜀0

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 37 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

𝜆𝐿
𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 =
𝜀0
𝝀
𝑬 =
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
 In Vector notation,
𝝀
𝑬 = 𝒓
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
 Here 𝒓 → unit vector perpendicular to the curved surface outwards.
 If 𝝀 > 0, then 𝑬 points perpendicular outward 𝒓 from the wire and if 𝝀 < 0, then 𝑬 points
perpendicular inward (−𝒓)
8. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an charged infinite plane sheet.
Electric field due to charged infinite plane sheet :
 Consider an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface
charge density ‘𝜍’
 ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from the sheet.
 Let ‘E’ be the electric field at ‘P’
 Here the direction of electric field is perpendicularly
outward from the sheet.
 Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length ‘2r’
and area of cross section ‘A’
 The electric flux through plane surface P

𝜙𝑃 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0° = 𝐸𝑑𝐴

 The electric flux through plane surface P'

𝜙𝑃′ = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0° = 𝐸𝑑𝐴

 The electric flux through the curved surface,

𝜙𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 90° = 0

 The total electric flux through the Gaussian surface,

𝜙𝐸 = 𝜙𝑃 + 𝜙𝑃′ + 𝜙𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸𝑑𝐴 + 𝐸𝑑𝐴 + 0

𝜙𝐸 = 2𝐸 𝑑𝐴

𝜙𝐸 = 2𝐸𝐴
 By Gauss law,
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝜍𝐴
𝜙𝐸 = = ∵ 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝜍 𝐴
𝜀0 𝜀0

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

𝜍𝐴
2𝐸𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝜍
𝐸=
2 𝜀0
 In vector notation,
𝜍
𝐸= 𝑛
2 𝜀0
 Here 𝑛→ unit vector perpendicular to the plane sheet outwards.
 If 𝜍 > 0, then 𝐸 points perpendicular outward (𝑛) from the plane sheet and if 𝜍 < 0, then 𝐸 points
perpendicular inward (−𝑛)
9. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an uniformly charged spherical shell.
Electric field due to charged spherical shell :
 Consider uniformly charged spherical shell of radius ‘R’ and charge ‘Q’
1) At a point outside the shell (r > R) :
 Let P be the point outside the shell at a distance ‘r’ from its centre.
 Here electric field points radially outwards if Q >0 and radially
inward if Q < 0.
 Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’ which encloses
the total charge ‘Q’
 Since 𝐸 and 𝑑𝐴 are along radially outwards, we have 𝜃 = 0°
 The electric flux through the Gaussian surface,

𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0° = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴

𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 ∵ 𝑑𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

 By Gauss law,
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑄
𝜙𝐸 = = ∵ 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝑄
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑄
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝜀0
1 𝑄
𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
 In vector notation,
1 𝑄
𝐸 = 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
 Here 𝑟 → unit vector acting radially outward from the spherical surface.
2) At a point on the surface of the shell (r = R):
 If the point lies on the surface of the charged shell, then r = R. Then the electric field,
1 𝑄
𝐸 = 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

3) At a point inside the shell (r < R) ∶

 Let ‘P’ be the point inside the charged shell at a distance ‘r’ from its
centre.
 Consider the spherical Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’
 Since there is no charge inside the Gaussian surface, Q = 0

 Electric flux through the Gaussian surface

𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0° = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴

𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 ∵ 𝑑𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

 Then from Gauss law,

𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑄
𝜙𝐸 = = =0 ∵𝑄=0
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 0
𝑬=𝟎
 Thus the electric field due to the uniform charged spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell.
10. Discuss the various properties of conductors in electrostatic equilibrium.
Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium :
 An electrical conductor has a large number of mobile charges which are free to move in the material.
 The resultant motion is zero and it implies that the conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium.
 Thus at electrostatic equilibrium, there is no net current in the conductor.
 A conductor at electrostatic equilibrium has the following properties.
Property - 1 :
 The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor. This is the regardless of whether the
conductor is solid or hollow.
Explanation:
 The electric field is not zero inside the metal, then there will be a force on the mobile charge carriers
due to this electric field.
 As a result, there will be a net motion of the mobile charges, which contradicts the conductors being
in electrostatic equilibrium.
 Thus the electric field is zero every where inside the conductor.
Property - 2 :
 There is no net charge inside the conductors. The charges must reside only on the surface of the
conductors.
Explanation:
 Form Gauss’s law, this implies that there is no net charge inside the conductor. Even if some charge
is introduced inside the conductor, it immediately reaches the surface of the conductor.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 40 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

Property - 3 :
 The electric field outside the conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the conductor and has a
𝜍
magnitude of 𝜀 , where 𝜍 is the surface charge density at that point
0

Explanation:
 If the electric field has components parallel to the surface of the conductor, then free electrons on the
surface of the conductor would experience acceleration. This means that the conductor is not in
equilibrium.
 Therefore at electrostatic equilibrium, the electric field must be perpendicular to the surface of the
conductor.
 For cylindrical Gaussian surface, the total electric flux is 𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 and the total charge inside the
surface is 𝑄 = 𝜍𝐴
 By Gauss law,
𝑄
𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀0
𝜍𝐴
𝐸𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝜍
𝐸=
𝜀0
 In vector notation,
𝜍
𝐸= 𝑛
𝜀0
Property - 4 :
 The electrostatic potential has the same value on the surface and inside of the conductor.
Explanation:
 The conductor has no parallel electric component on the surface which means that charges can be
moved on the surface without doing any work.
 This is possible only if the electrostatic potential constant at all points on the surface and there is no
potential difference between any two points on the surface.
 Since the electric field is zero inside the conductor, the potential is the same as the surface of the
conductor.
 Thus at electro static equilibrium, the conductor is always at equipotential.
11. Obtain Gauss law from Coulomb’s law.
Gauss law from Coulomb’s law :
 Consider a charged particle of charge ‘+q’
 Draw a Gaussian spherical surface of radius ‘r’ around this
charge.
 Due to symmetry, the electric field 𝑬 at all the points on the
spherical surface have same magnitude and radially outward in
direction.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 41 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

 If a test charge (qo) is placed on the Gaussian surface, by Coulomb law the force acting it is,
1 𝑄 𝑞𝑜
𝐹 =
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
 By definition, the electric field,
𝐹 1 𝑄
𝐸 = = − − − − − −(1)
𝑞𝑜 4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
 Since the area element 𝑑𝐴 is along the electric field 𝐸 , we have 𝜃 = 0°.
 Hence the electric flux through the Gaussian surface is,

𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0° = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴

𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 ∵ 𝑑𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

 Put in equation (1)

1 𝑄
𝜙𝐸 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀𝜊 𝑟 2
𝑸
𝝓𝑬 =
𝜺𝟎
 This is known as Gauss law.
Result :
 The total electric flux through the closed surface depends only on the charges enclosed by and
independent of charges outside the surface.
 The total electric flux is independent of the location of charges inside the closed surface and shape
on the closed surface.
 Gauss law is another form of Coulomb law and also applicable to charges in motion.
12. Explain dielectrics in detail and how an electric field is induced inside a dielectric.
Electric field induced inside a dielectric :

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 42 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

 When an external electric field is applied on a conductor, the charges are aligned in such a way that
an internal electric field is created which cancels the external electric field.
 But in dielectric, which has no free electrons, the external electric field only realigns the charges so
that an internal electric field is produced.
 The magnitude of the internal electric field is smaller than that of external electric field.
 Therefore the net electric field inside the dielectric field is not zero, but is parallel to an external
electric field with magnitude less than that of the external electric field.
 For example, let a rectangular dielectric slab is placed between two oppositely charged plates.
 The uniform electric field between the plates act as the external electric field (𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) which polarizes
the dielectric slab.
 Thus positive charges are induced on one side and negative charges are induced on the other side of
the slab.
 So the dielectric in the external field is equivalent to two oppositely charged sheets with the surface
charge densities. These charges are called bound charges.
 They are not free to move like free electrons in conductor.
13. Explain in detail the effect of dielectric placed in a parallel plate capacitor when the capacitor
is disconnected from the battery.
Effect of dielectrics when the capacitor is disconnected from the battery :
 Consider a parallel plate capacitor.
 Area of each plates =A
 Distance between the plates =d
 Voltage of battery = Vo
 Total charge on the capacitor = Qo
 So the capacitance of capacitor without dielectric,
𝑄𝑜
𝐶𝑜 =
𝑉𝑜
 The battery is then disconnected from the capacitor and the dielectric is inserted between the plates.
 This decreases the electric field.
 Electric field without dielectric = Eo
 Electric field with dielectric =E
 Relative permittivity or dielectric constant = εr
𝐸𝑜
𝐸=
𝜀𝑟
 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝐸 < 𝐸𝑜
 Hence electrostatic potential between the plates is reduced and at the same time the charge
𝑄𝑜 remains constant.
𝐸𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝑉= 𝐸𝑑= 𝑑=
𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑟
 Then the capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric,
𝑄𝑜 𝑄𝑜 𝑄𝑜
𝐶= = 𝑉 = 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝑟 𝐶𝑜
𝑉 𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝜀𝑟

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝐶 > 𝐶𝑜

 Thus insertion of dielectric slab increases the capacitance.
𝐴 𝜀𝑜
 We have, 𝐶𝑜 = 𝑑
𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝐴 𝜀𝐴
𝐶= =
𝑑 𝑑
 Where, 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜 = 𝜀 → permitivity of the dielectric medium
 The energy stored in the capacitor without dielectric,
1 𝑄𝑜2
𝑈𝑜 =
2 𝐶𝑜
 After the dielectric is inserted,
1 𝑄𝑜2 1 𝑄𝑜2 𝑈𝑜
𝑈= = =
2 𝐶 2 𝜀𝑟 𝐶𝑜 𝜀𝑟
 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝑈 < 𝑈𝑜
 There is a decrease in energy because, when th dielectric is inserted, the capacitor spend some
energy to pulling the dielectric slab inside.
14. Explain in detail the effect of dielectric placed in a parallel plate capacitor when the battery
remains connected to the capacitor.
Effect of dielectrics when the battery remains connected to the capacitor:
 Consider a parallel plate capacitor.
 Area of each plates =A
 Distance between the plates =d
 Voltage of battery = Vo
 Total charge on the capacitor = Qo
 So the capacitance of capacitor without dielectric,
𝑄𝑜
𝐶𝑜 =
𝑉𝑜
 Dielectric is inserted between the plates and the battery is remains in connected with the capacitor.
 So the charges stored in the capacitor is increased.
 Total charge without dielectric = Qo
 Total charge with dielectric =Q
 Relative permittivity (dielectric constant) = 𝜀𝑟
𝑄 = 𝜀𝑟 𝑄𝑜
 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝑄 < 𝑄𝑜
 Here the potential difference between the plates remains constant.
 But the charges increases and the new capacitance will be
𝑄 𝜀𝑟 𝑄𝑜 𝑄𝑜
𝐶= = = 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝑟 𝐶𝑜
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝐶 > 𝐶𝑜
 Hence capacitance increases with the insertion of dielectric slab.
𝐴𝜀
 We know that, 𝐶𝑜 = 𝑑 𝑜

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝐴 𝜀𝐴
𝐶= =
𝑑 𝑑
 Where, 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜 = 𝜀 → permittivity of the dielectric medium
 The energy stored in the capacitor without dielectric,
1
𝑈𝑜 = 𝐶𝑜 𝑉𝑜2
2
 After the dielectric is inserted,
1 1
𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉𝑜2 = 𝜀𝑟 𝐶𝑜 𝑉𝑜2 = 𝜀𝑟 𝑈𝑜
2 2
 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝑈 > 𝑈𝑜
 So the is increase in energy when the dielectric is inserted
15. Derive the expression for resultant capacitance, when capacitors are connected in series
Capacitors in series :

 Consider three capacitors of capacitance 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 connected in series with a battery of voltage V

 In series connection,
1. Each capacitor has same amount of charge (Q)
2. But potential difference across each capacitor will be different.
 Let 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 be the potential difference across 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 respectively, then
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉= + + [∵ 𝑉 = ]
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶
1 1 1
𝑉= 𝑄 + + − − − − − (1)
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
 Let 𝐶𝑆 be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor in series connection, then
𝑄
𝑉= − − − − − −(2)
𝐶𝑆
 From (1) and (2) , we have
𝑄 1 1 1
= 𝑄 + +
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
 Thus the inverse of the equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in series is equal to the sum
of the inverses of each capacitance.
 This equivalent capacitance 𝐶𝑆 is always less than the smallest individual capacitance in the series

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

16. Derive the expression for resultant capacitance, when capacitors are connected in parallel.
 Capacitors in parallel :

 Consider three capacitors of capacitance 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 connected in parallel with a battery of voltage V

 In parallel connection,

1. Each capacitor has same potential difference (V)

2. But charges on each capacitor will be different

 Let 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , 𝑄3 be the charge on 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 respectively, then

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3

𝑄 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 + 𝐶3 𝑉 [∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉]

𝑄 = 𝑉 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 − − − − − −(1)

 Let 𝐶𝑃 be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor in parallel connection, then

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑉 − − − − − −(2)

 From (1) and (2),

𝐶𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3

𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3

 Thus the equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the
individual capacitances.

 The equivalent capacitance 𝐶𝑃 is parallel connection is always greater than the largest individual
capacitance.

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
1. Electrostatics

17. Explain in detail the construction and working of Van de Graff generator.
Van de Gralff generator :
 It is designed by Robert Van de Graff. It produce large
electro static potential difference of about 107 V
Principle :
 Electro static induction
 Action of points
Construction :
 It consists of large hollow spherical conductor ‘A’ fixed on
the insulating stand.
 Pulley ‘B’ is mounted at the centre of the sphere and
another pulley ‘C’ is fixed at the bottom.
 A belt made up of insulating material like silk or rubber
runs over the pulleys.
 The pulley ‘C’ is driven continuously by the electric motor.
 Two comb shaped metallic conductor D and E are fixed near the pulleys.
 The comb ‘D’ is maintained at a positive potential of 104 V by a power supply.
 The upper comb ‘E’ is connected to the inner side of the hollow metal sphere.
Working :
 Due to the high electric field near comb ‘D’, air between the belt and comb ‘D’ gets ionized.
 The positive charges are pushed towards the belt and negative charges are attracted towards the
comb ‘D’
 The positive charges stick to the belt and move up.
 When the positive charges reach the comb ‘E’ a large amount of negative and positive charges are
induced on either side of comb ‘E’ due to electrostatic induction.
 As a result. the positive charges are pushed away from the comb ‘E’ and they reach the outer surface
of the sphere.
 These positive charges are distributed uniformly on outer surface of the hollow sphere.
 At the same time, the negative charges neutralize the positive charges in the belt due to corona
discharge before it passes over the pulley.
 When the belt descends, it has almost no net charge.
 This process continues until the outer surface produces the potential difference of the order of
 107 V which is the limiting value.
 Beyond this, the charges starts leaking to the surroundings due to ionization of air.
 It is prevented by enclosing the machine in a gas filled steel chamber at very high pressure.
Applications :
 The high voltage produced in this Van de Graff generator is used to accelerate positive ions (protons
and deuterons) for nuclear disintegrations and other applications.

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

2. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (BOOK BACK)
1. Current is a scalar quantity. Why?
 Current is defined as the scalar product of current density ( 𝐽 ) and area vector ( 𝐴 ) in which charges
crosses. (i.e.) ( 𝐼 = 𝐽 . 𝐴 = 𝐽 𝐴 cos 𝜃 )
 The current can be positive or negative depending on the choice of unit vector normal to the surface
area A
2. Differentiate drift velocity and mobility?
Drift Velocity Mobility
 The average velocity acquired by the free  The magnitude of drift velocity acquired by the
electrons inside the conductor when it is free electrons per unit electric field is called
subjected to an electric field is called drift mobility ( 𝝁 ).
velocity ( 𝒗𝒅 ).
 Its unit is m s -1  Its unit is m2 V-1s -1
3. Define current density.
𝐼
 Current density (J) is defined as the current per unit area of cross section of the conductor. 𝐽 = 𝐴
 Its unit is A m-2
4. Give the microscopic form of Ohm’s law.
 The current density is given by,
𝑒𝜏 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 = 𝑛𝑒 𝐸 = 𝐸
𝑚 𝑚
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
 Thus Current density is directly proportional to the applied electric field. This is known as
microscopic form of Ohm‟s law.
5. Give the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law.
 Let „V‟ be the potential difference, „I‟ be current and „R‟ be the resistance, then the macroscopic
form of Ohm‟s law is V = I R
6. What are called ohmic and non ohmic materials?
Ohmic Materials Non Ohmic Materials
 Materials for which the current against voltage  But materials for which the current against
graph is a straight line through the orgin are voltage graph is non - linear and they do not
said to obey Ohm‟s law and they are called have a constant resistance are called non -
ohmic materials. ohmic. They do not obey Ohm‟s law.

7. Define resistivity of the material.

 The electrical resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance offered to current flow by a
conductor of unit length having unit area of cross section.
1 𝑅𝐴
𝜌= =
𝜎 𝑙
 Its unit is ohm - metre (𝛀𝒎)
 It depends only the type of material and not the dimension of the material.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 48 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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2. Current Electricity

8. Define temperature coefficient of resistivity.

 It is defined as the ratio of increase in per degree rise in temperature to its resistivity at To . Its unit is
per ℃
9. Define Superconductivity.
 The resistance of certain material become zero below certain temperature called critical or transition
temperature (TC )
 For mercury, T C = 4.2 K
 The materials which exhibit this property are known as super conductors.
 The property of conducting current with zero resistance is called super conductivity.
 It is discovered by Kammerlingh Onnes.
10. Distinguish electric energy and electric power.
Electric Energy Electric Power
 Work has to be done to move the charge from  The rate at which the electrical potential
one end to other end of the conductor and this energy is delivered is called electric power.
work done is called electric energy. 𝒅𝑼
𝑷= = 𝑽𝑰
dW = dU = VdQ 𝒅𝒕
 Its S.I unit is joule ( J )  Its S.I unit is watt (W)
 Its practical unit is kilowatt hour (kWh)  Its practical unit is horse power (HP)
1kWh = 3.6 x 106 J 1 HP = 746 W
11. Prove that the expression for power in an electrical circuit is P = VI
 Electric energy is given by, dU = VdQ
 By definition, the rate at which electric potential energy is delivered is called power. (i.e)
𝑑𝑈 𝑉𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝑃= = =𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
 But 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼 → electric current ∴ 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
12. Write down the various equations for power.
 The electric power is given by, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
 By Ohm‟s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 and hence 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅
𝑉2
 Also, 𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅 and hence, 𝑃 = 𝑅

13. State Kirchoff’s first law (current rule or junction rule)

 It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any junction in a circuit is zero (∑𝑰 = 0).
 It is a statement of conservation of electric charge.
14. State Kirchoff’s second law (voltage rule or loop rule)
 It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the products of the current and resistance of each
part of the circuit is equal to the total emf included in the circuit ( ∑IR = ∑ 𝝃).
 It is a statement of conservation of energy for an isolated system.
15. State the principle of potentiometer.
 Let „I‟ be the current, ′? ′ be the resistance per unit length and ′? ′ be the balancing length, then emf is
𝝃 =Irl (or) 𝝃 ∝ 𝒍
 The emf is directly proportional to the balancing length. This is the principle of potentiometer.
16. Define the internal resistance of the cell.
 A real battery is made of electrodes and electrolyte.
 There is resistance to the flow of charges within the battery and this resistance is called internal
resistance (r)
 A freshly prepared cell has low internal resistance and it increased with ageing.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 49 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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2. Current Electricity

17. State Joule’s law of heating.

 It states that the heat develop in an electrical circuit due to the flow, current varies directly as
i) the square of the current
ii) the resistance of the circuit and
iii) the time of flow
𝑉2
𝐻 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
𝑅
18. Define Seebeck effect.
 In a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, when the junctions are maintained at different
temperature an emf is developed. This phenomenon is called Seebeck effect or thermoelectric effect.
 The current that flows due to the emf developed is called thermoelectric current.
 The two dissimilar metals connected to form two junctions is known as thermocouple.
19. Define Thomson’s effect.
 If two points in a conductor are at different temperatures, the density of electrons at these points will
differ and as a result the potential difference is created between these points.
 Thomson effect is reversible.
20. Define Peltier effect.
 When an electric current is passed through a circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one
junction and absorbed at the other junction. This is known as Peltier effect.
 Peltier effect is reversible.
21. What are the applications of Seebeck effect?
 Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric generators (Seebeck generators) which are used in power
plants to convert waste heat into electricity.
 This effect is utilized in automobiles as automotive thermoelectric generators for increasing fuel
efficiency
 Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and thermopiles to measure the temperature difference
between the two objects.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS ( CONCEPTUAL)

22. Define current electricity.
 The branch of physics deals with moving charges is called current electricity.
23. Define electric current.
 The electric current in a conductor is defined as the rate of flow of charges through a given cross -
sectional area.
𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝐼= 𝑜𝑟 𝐼 =
𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 The SI unit of current is ampere (A).
 It is a scalar quantity.
24. What is called conventional current?
 By convention, this flow in the circuit should b from the positive terminal of the battery to the
negative terminal. This is called the conventional current or simply current.
 It is in the direction in which a positive test charge would move.
25. What are called free electrons and positive ions?
 Any material is made up of neutral atoms with equal number of electrons and protons. If the
outermost electrons leave the atoms, they become free electrons and are responsible for electric
current.
 The atoms after losing their outer most electrons will have more positive charges and hence are
called positive ions. They will not move freely and hence the positive ions will not give rise to
current.

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2. Current Electricity

26. Define one ampere (1 A)

 One ampere of current is equivalent to 1 coulomb of charge passing through a perpendicular cross
section in 1 second. [1 𝐴 = 1 𝐶/𝑠]
27. Define resistance of the conductor.
 The ratio of potential difference (V) across the given conductor to the current (I) passing through the
conductor is called resistance (R).
𝐕
𝐑=
𝐈
 Its unit is ohm ( 𝛀 )
28. What are the factors that the resistance depend on?
 The resistance of the conductor is,
1) directly proportional to its length (l)
2) inversely proportional to its area of cross section (A)
𝑙 𝜌𝑙
𝑅= =
𝜎𝐴 𝐴
 where, 𝜎 → conductivity of the conductor, 𝜌 → resistivity of the conductor
29. Define conductivity of the material.
 The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity and it is given by,
𝑙
𝑅=
𝜎𝐴
1 𝑙
𝜎= =
𝜌 𝑅𝐴

 Its unit is mho metre -1 (𝛀−𝟏 𝒎−𝟏 )

 It depends only the type of material and not the dimension of the material.
30. Repairing the electrical connection with the wet skin is always dangerous. Why?
 The human body contains a large amount of water which has low resistance of around 200 Ω and the
dry skin has high resistance of 500 k Ω.
 But when the skin is wet, the resistance is reduced to 1000 Ω.
𝑉
 By Ohm‟s law [𝑅 = 𝐼 ] if resistance decreases, current increases.
 Hence repairing electric connection with wet skin is dangerous.
31. What is called electric cell (battery)?
 An electric cell is a device which converts chemical energy in to electrical energy to produce
electricity.
 It contains two electrodes (anode and cathode) immersed in an electrolyte.
32. Define electromotive force.
 The amount of work a battery or cell does to move a certain amount of charge around the circuit is
called as electromotive force (𝝃). Its unit is volt (V)
 The emf of a battery or a cell is the voltage provided by the battery when no current flows in the
external circuit.
33. Give the sign convention followed by the Kirchoff’s current rule.
 Current entering the junction is taken as positive and current leaving the junction is taken as
negative.
34. Give the sign convention followed by the Kirchoff’s votage rule.
 The product of current and resistance is taken a positive when the direction of the current is followed
and is taken as negative when the direction of current is opposite to the loop
 The emf is considered positive when proceeding from the negative to the positive terminal of cell
and negative when proceeding from the positive to the negative terminal of the cell.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 51 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

35. What is called Galvanometer?

 A galvanometer is an instrument used for detecting and measuring even very small electric currents.
 It is extensively useful to compare the potential difference between various parts of the circuit.
36. What is called Joule’s heating effect of current?
 When current flows through a resistor, some of the electrical energy delivered to the resistor is
converted into heat energy and it is dissipated. This heating effect of current is known as Joule‟s
heating effect.
37. What are the properties of the substance used as heating element?
 An alloy of nickel and chromium called Nicrome is used as heating element. It has
i) a high specific resistance
ii) high melting point
iii) heated to very high temperature without oxidation
38. Write a note on electric fuses.
 Fuses are conned in series in a circuit to protect the electric device from the heat developed by the
passage of excessive current.
 It melt and breaks the circuit if the current exceeds certain value.
 It is a short length of a wire made of a low melting point material.
39. Write a note on circuit breakers (trippers)
 Now a days in housed, circuit breakers are used instead of fuses.
 Whenever there is an excessive current produced due to faulty wire connection, the circuit breaker
switch opens.
 After repairing the faulty connection, we can close the circuit breaker switch.
40. Write a note on electric bulb or lamp.
 It consists of a tungsten filament kept inside a glass bulb and heated to incandescence by current.
 Melting point of tungsten is 3380 ℃
 In incandescent electric lamps, only 5% of electric energy is converted into light and the rest is
wasted as heat.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS ( 3 MARKS)
1. Obtain an expression for drift velocity. How it is related with the mobility?
Drift velocity (𝒗𝒅 ) :
 If there is no electric field, all the free electrons in a conductor are moves in random directions. As a
result no net flow of electrons in any direction and hence there will not be any current.
 If the conductor is subjected to an electric field (𝐸 ) free electrons experiences a force given by,
𝐹 = −𝑒 𝐸
 So all the free electrons are accelerated in a direction opposite to the field. By Newton‟s second law
𝐹 −𝑒 𝐸
𝑎= =
𝑚 𝑚

 But the positive ions scatter the electrons and change its direction of motion. So they move in zigzag
path.
 In addition to the zigzag motion due to collisions, the electrons move slowly along the conductor in a
direction opposite to that of 𝐸
 This average velocity acquired by the free electrons inside the conductors, when it is subjected to the
electric field is called drift velocity (𝑣𝑑 )
 The average time between successive collision is called the mean free time or relaxation time (𝜏).
 Hence the drift velocity is given by,
−𝑒 𝐸
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎 𝜏 = 𝜏 = −𝜇𝐸
𝑚
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 52 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
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2. Current Electricity
𝑒𝜏
 where , 𝑚 = 𝜇 → mobility of electrons
 The magnitude of the drift velocity acquired by the free electron per unit electric field is called
mobility.
𝑣𝑑
𝜇=
𝐸
2 -1 -1
 Its S.I. unit is m V s
2. Derive the relation between the drift velocity and the current.
Drift velocity and current - Relation :
 Area of cross section of the conductor =A
 Number of electrons per unit volume =n
 Applied electric field =𝐸
 Drift velocity of electrons = vd
 Charge of an electrons =e

 Let ‘dx’ be the distance travelled by the electron in time ‘dt’, then
𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 The number of electrons available in the volume of length ‘dx’ is
= gUk¡TW × 𝑛
= 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 × 𝑛
= 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 × 𝑛
 Then the total charge in this volume element is,
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
 By definition, the current is given by
𝑑𝑄 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
𝐼= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐼 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 𝑣𝑑
3. Write a note on carbon resistors.
Carbon resistors :

 Carbon resistors consists of a ceramic core on which a thin layer of crystalline carbon is deposited.

 They are expensive, stable and compact in size.

 Colour rings drawn over it are used to indicate the value of the resistance according to the rules in
the table.

 There is three coloured bands on its left and one metallic coloured bands on its right side.

 The first and second rings are the significant figures of the resistance and the third ring indicate the
decimal multiplier after them. The fourth metallic ring shows the tolerance of the resistor.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 53 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

Colour Number Multiplier

Black 0 1
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106 Example :
Violet 7 10 7
 For the given carbon resistor,
8 First ring (Green) =5
Grey 8 10
White 9 10 9 Second ring (Blue) =6
Third ring (Orange) =103
Colour Tolerance
Fourth metallic ring (Gold) = 5 %
Gold 5%  Value of the resistor
Silver 10 % 56 × 103 Ω = 56 𝑘 Ω
No ring (colourless) 20 %  Tolerance = 5 %
4. Define temperature coefficient of resistivity. Obtain an expression for it.
Temperature coefficient of resistivity :
 Resistivity of the substance depends on the temperature. Let
 Resistivity at To ℃ = 𝜌𝑜
 Resistivity at T ℃ = 𝜌𝑇
 Hence,
𝜌𝑇 = 𝜌𝑜 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 − − − − − −(1)
 Where, 𝛼 → Temperature coefficient of resistivity
 From equation (1)
𝜌𝑇 = 𝜌𝑜 + 𝜌𝑜 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
𝜌𝑇 − 𝜌𝑜 = 𝜌𝑜 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
𝜌𝑇 − 𝜌𝑜 ∆𝜌
𝛼= =
𝜌𝑜 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 𝜌𝑜 ∆𝑇
 Where, ∆𝜌 = 𝜌𝑇 − 𝜌𝑜 change in resistivity, ∆𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 → Change in temperature
 It defined as the ratio of increase in resistivity per degree rise in temperature to its resistivity at 𝑇𝑜 .
Its unit is /℃
 For conductors α is positive (i.e.). If the temperature of a conductor increases, the average kinetic
energy of electrons in the conductor increases. This results in more frequent collisions and hence the
resistivity increases.
 Thus resistance at T ℃
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑜 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
 For semiconductor, α negative. (i.e.) if the temperature increases, more electrons will be liberated
from their atoms. Hence the current increases and therefore the resistivity decreases
 A semiconductor with a negative temperature coefficient of resistance is called a thermistor.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 54 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

5. Write a note on electric cells in series.

Cells in series :
 Let „n‟ cells each of emf ξ and internal resistance „r‟ are
connected in series with an external resistance „R‟.
 emf of the battery =n ξ
 Total resistance of the circuit =n r + R
 By Ohm‟s law,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑛𝜉
𝐼= − − − − − −(1)
𝑛𝑟 + 𝑅
 If r ≪ R, equation (1) becomes,
𝑛𝜉 𝜉
𝐼= ≈ 𝑛 𝐼1 ∵ = 𝐼1
𝑅 𝑅
 (i.e.) if „r‟ is negligible compared to „R‟ the current by the battery is „n‟ times that supplied by the
single cell. This is advantageous.
 R ≪ r, equation (1) becomes,
𝑛𝜉 𝜉 𝜉
𝐼= = ≈ 𝐼1 ∵ = 𝐼1
𝑛𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
 (i.e.) if „r‟ is very greater than „R‟, current due to the whole battery is same as due to single cell.
There is no advantage.
6. Write a note on electric cells in parallel.
Cells in parallel :
 Let „n‟ cells each of emf ξ and internal resistance „r‟ are connected in
parallel with an external resistance „R‟.
 emf of the battery =ξ
𝑟
 Total resistance of the circuit = + 𝑅
𝑛
 By Ohm‟s law, the current I passes in the circuit

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜉 𝑛𝜉
𝐼= 𝑟 = − − − − − −(1)
+ 𝑅 𝑟 + 𝑛𝑅
𝑛
 If r >> R, equation (1) becomes,
𝑛𝜉 𝜉
𝐼= ≈ 𝑛 𝐼1 ∵ = 𝐼1
𝑟 𝑟
 (i.e.) if „r‟ is negligible compared to „R‟ the current by the battery is „n‟ times that supplied by the
single cell. This is advantageous.
 r << R, equation (1) becomes,
𝑛𝜉 𝜉 𝜉
𝐼= = ≈ 𝐼1 ∵ = 𝐼1
𝑛𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
 (i.e.) if „r‟ is very greater than „R‟, current due to the whole battery is same as due to single cell.
There is no advantage.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 55 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

7. Explain the principle of potentiometer.

Principle of potentiometer:
 A battery (Bt), key (K) and potentiometer wire (CD) are
connected in series forms the primary circuit.
 The positive terminal of primary cell of emf ′ ξ ′ to the point C
and negative terminal is connected to the point D through
galvanometer (G) and high resistance (HR). This forms the
secondary circuit.
 Let contact be made at „J‟ on the wire by jockey.
 If the potential difference across CJ is equal to the emf (ξ) of the cell, then the galvanometer shows
zero deflection. Here „CJ‟ is the balancing length ( l )
 If „r‟ is the resistance per unit length of the wire, then by Ohm‟s law, potential difference across
CJ = I r l
 Hence, at zero deflection
ξ=Irl
 Since I and r are constants, ξ ∝ l
8. Explain Seebeck effect. Give its applications.
Seebeck effect :
 Seebeck discover that in a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar
metals, when the junctions are maintained at different temperature an
emf (potential difference) is developed.
 This is called Seebeck effect or thermo electric effect.
 The current that flows due to the emf developed is called
thermoelectric current.
 The two dissimilar metals connected to form two junctions is known as thermocouple.
 If hot and cold junctions are interchanged, the direction of current also reversed. Hence Seebeck
effect is reversible.
 The magnitude of emf developed in thermocouple depends on,
(i) Nature of the metals forming thermocouple
(ii) Temperature difference between the junctions
Applications :
 Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric generators (Seebeck generators).
 This effect is utilized in automobiles as automotive thermoelectric generators.
 Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and thermopiles.
9. Explain Peltier effect.
Peltier effect :
 When an electric current is passed through a circuit of a thermocouple,
heat is evolved at one junction and absorbed at the other junction. This is
known as Peltier effect.
 In Cu - Fe thermocouple, the junctions A and B are maintained at the
same temperature.
 Let a current flow through the thermocouple.
 At junction „A‟, where the current flows from Cu to Fe, heat is absorbed
and it becomes cold.
 At junction „B‟, where the current flows from Fe to Cu, heat is liberated
and it becomes hot.
 When the direction current is reversed, junction „A‟ becomes hot and junction „B‟ becomes cold.
Hence Peltier effect is reversible.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 56 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

10. Distinguish between Peltier effect and Joule’s effect.

Peltier effect Joule’s effect
 Both heat liberated and absorbed occur  Heat liberated only occur
 Occurs at junctions  Occurs all along the conductor
 Reversible effect  Irreversible effect
11. Explain Thomson effect.
Thomson effect :
 Thomson showed that, if two points in a conductor
are at different temperatures, the density of electrons
at these points will differ an as a result the potential
difference is created between these points. This is
known as Thomson effect.
 Thomson effect is reversible.
Positive Thomson Effect
 If current passed through copper bar AB which is
heated at its midpoint C, the point C will be at higher
potential.
 This indicates that the heat is absorbed along AC and evolved along CB.
 Thus heat is transferred in the direction of the current. It is called positive Thomson effect.
 (e.g) Ag, Zn. Cd
Negative Thomson Effect
 When the copper bar is replaced by an iron bar, heat is evolved along CA and absorbed along BC.
 Thus heat is transferred in the direction opposite to the current.
 It is called negative Thomson effect.
 (e.g.) Pt, Ni, Co, Hg
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS ( 5 MARKS)
1. Describe the microscopic model of current and obtain general form of Ohm’s law.
Microscopic model of current and Ohm’ law :
 Area of cross section of the conductor =A
 Number of electrons per unit volume =n
 Applied electric field along leftwards =𝐸
 Drift velocity of the electrons = vd
 Charge of the electron =e
 If „dt ′ be distance travelled by the electron in time „dx‟, then
𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 The number of electrons available in the volume of length „dx‟ is
= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑛
= 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 × 𝑛
= 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 × 𝑛
 Then the total charge in this volume element is,
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
 By definition, the current is given by
𝑑𝑄 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
𝐼= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑰 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 57 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

Current density( 𝑱):

 Current density (J) is defined as the current per unit area of cross section of the conductor.
𝐼 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 𝑣𝑑
𝐽= =
𝐴 𝐴
𝐽 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝑣𝑑
 Its unit is A m-2
 In vector notation,
𝐽 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝑣𝑑
 Substitute drift velocity
–𝑒𝜏 𝐸 𝑛 𝑒2 𝜏
𝐽= 𝑛𝑒 =− 𝐸
𝑚 𝑚
𝑛 𝑒2 𝜏
 where, = 𝜎 → conductivity
𝑚
𝐽 = −𝜎𝐸
 But conventionally, we take the direction of current density as the direction of electric field (𝐸 ). So
the above equation becomes,
𝑱 = 𝝇𝑬
 This is called microscopic form of Ohm‟s law.
2. Obtain the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law from its microscopic form and discuss its
limitation.
Macroscopic form of Ohm’s law :
 Consider a segment of wire of length „l‟ and area of cross
section „A‟.
 When a potential difference „V‟ is applied across the wire,
a net electric field is created in the wire which constitutes
the current.
 If we assume the electric field is uniform in the entire
length, the potential difference is given by,
𝑉
𝑉=𝐸𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝐸 =
𝑙
 From the microscopic form of Ohm‟s law,
𝑉
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 = 𝜎
𝑙
 By definition, the current density is
𝐼
𝐽=
𝐴
 Hence,
𝐼 𝑉
= 𝜎
𝐴 𝑙
𝒍
𝑽=𝑰
𝝇𝑨
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝑙
 Where, = 𝑅 → Resistance of the conductor
𝜎𝐴
 This is called macroscopic form of Ohm‟s law.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 58 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

Limitations:
 From Ohm‟s law, the graph between
current versus voltage is straight line
with a slope equal to the inverse of
resistance (R) of the conductor.
 Materials for which the current against
voltage graph is a straight line through
the Origin are said to obey Ohm‟s law
and their behavior is said to be Ohmic.
 Materials that do not obey Ohm‟s law are said to be non - ohmic. These materials have more
complex (non- linear) relationships between voltage and current.
3. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series and parallel resistor network.
Resistor in series :

 When two or more resistors are connected end to end, they are said to be in series.
 Let 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 be the resistances of three resistors connected in series.
 Let „V‟ be the potential difference applied across this combination.
 In Series connection,
1. Current through each resistor will be same (I)
2. But potential difference across different resistor will be differ.
 Let 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 be the potential difference across 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 respectively, then from Ohm‟s law
𝑉1 = 𝐼 𝑅1 ; 𝑉2 = 𝐼 𝑅2 ; 𝑉3 = 𝐼 𝑅3
 Total potential difference,
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝐼 𝑅2 + 𝐼 𝑅3
𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 − − − − − −(1)
 Let 𝑅𝑆 be equivalent resistance in series connection, then
𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑆 − − − − − −(2)
 From equation(1) and (2), we have,
𝐼 𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑹𝑺 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹 𝟑

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 59 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

 When resistances are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual
resistances.
 The equivalent resistance in series connection will be greater than each individual resistance.
Resistors in parallel :

 When two or more resistors are connected across the same potential difference, they are said to be in
parallel.
 Let 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 be the resistances of three resistors connected in parallel.
 Let „V‟ be the potential difference applied across this combination.
 In parallel connection,
1. Potential difference across each resistance will be the same (V)
2. But current flows through different resistors will be different.
 Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 be the currents flow through 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 respectively, then from Ohm‟s law
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼1 = ; 𝐼2 = ; 𝐼3 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
 Hence the total current will be,
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1
𝐼=𝑉 + + − − − − − −(1)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
 Let 𝑅𝑃 be the equivalent resistance in parallel connection, then,
𝑉
𝐼= − − − − − −(2)
𝑅𝑃
 From equation (1) and (2),
𝑉 1 1 1
=𝑉 + +
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝑷 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹 𝟑
 When resistances are connected in parallel, reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of
the reciprocal of the values of resistance of the individual resistor.
 The equivalent resistance in parallel connection will be lesser than each individual resistance.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 60 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

4.Explain the determination of the internal resistance of a cell using voltmeter.

 Internal resistance of a cell :

 A real battery is made of electrodes and electrolyte.

 There is resistance to the flow of charges within the battery and this resistance is called internal
resistance (r)
 The emf of the cell is measured by connecting high resistance voltmeter across it without connecting
the external resistance R
 This circuit may be considered as open, the voltmeter reading gives the emf (ξ) of the cell.
 Then external resistance is included in the circuit and current „I‟ is established in the circuit.
 This circuit is then considered as close, the voltmeter reading gives the potential difference (V)
across „R‟
 By Ohm‟s law,
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 − − − − − −(𝟏)
 Due to internal resistance of the cell, the voltmeter reads the value “V” which is less than the emf „ξ’
 It is because, certain amount of voltage (Ir) has dropped across the internal resistance „r‟. Hence
𝑽 = 𝝃 − 𝑰𝒓 − − − − − −(𝟐)
𝑰𝒓 = 𝝃 − 𝑽
𝝃 −𝑽 𝝃 −𝑽
𝒓= = 𝑹
𝑰 𝑽
 Since ξ, V and R are known, internal resistance „r‟ and total current „I‟ can be determined.
 The power delivered to the circuit is,
𝑷=𝑰𝝃 =𝑰 𝑽+𝑰𝒓
𝑷 = 𝑰 𝑰𝑹+𝑰𝒓
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 + 𝑰𝟐 𝒓
 where, 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 → power deliverd to R
𝑰𝟐 𝒓 → power deliverd to r

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 61 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

5. Explain Kirchhoff’s law.

1) Kirchhoff first law (current law) :
 It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any junction in a circuit is zero (∑I = 0).
Explanation :
 It is a statement conservation of electric charge.
 Thus all charges that enter a given junction in a circuit must
leave that junction.
 Current entering the junction is taken as positive and current
leaving the junction is taken as negative.
 Applying this law at junction „A‟

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5

2) Kirchhoff second law (voltage law) :

 It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the products of the current and resistance of each
part of the circuit is equal to the total emf included in the circuit ( ∑IR = ∑ ξ )
Explanation :
 It is a statement of conservation of energy for an isolated system.
 The product „IR‟ is taken as positive when we proceed along the direction of current and taken as
negative when we proceed opposite to the direction of current.
 Similarly, the emf is considered as positive, when we proceed from negative to positive terminal of
the cell and as negative, when we proceed from positive to negative terminal of the cell.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 62 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

6.Obtain the condition for bridge balance in Wheatstone’s bridge.

Wheatstone’s bridge :
 An important application of Kirchhoff‟s laws is the Wheatstone‟s
bridge.
 It is used to compare resistances and also helps in determining
unknown resistance in the electrical network
 The bridge consists of four resistances P, Q, R, S connected as
shown.
 Galvanometer „G‟ is connected between B and D
 A battery „ξ ′ is connected between A and C
 Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 , 𝐼4 currents through various branches and 𝐼𝐺 be the
current through the galvanometer.
 Applying Kirchhoff‟s current law at B and D,
𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼3 = 0 − − − − − −(1)
𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼4 = 0 − − − − − −(2)
 Applying Kirchhoff‟s voltage law ABDA and ABCDA,
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 − − − − − −(3)
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼3 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼4 𝑆 = 0 − − − − − −(4)
 At balanced condition, the potential at B and D are same potential.
 So no current enters galvanometer.
 Hence the galvanometer shows zero deflection. So
𝑰𝑮 = 𝟎
 Put this in equation (1), (2) and (3)
𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐼1 = 𝐼3 − − − −(5)
𝐼2 − 𝐼4 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐼2 = 𝐼4 − − − −(6)
𝐼1 𝑃 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 − −(7)
 Put equation (5) and (6) in (4)
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼1 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼2 𝑆 = 0
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼1 𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝐼2 𝑆
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝑆 − − − − − −(8)
 Divide equation (8) by (7)
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝑄 𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝑆
=
𝐼1 𝑃 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑃+𝑄 𝑅+𝑆
=
𝑃 𝑅
𝑄 𝑆
1+ = 1+
𝑃 𝑅
𝑄 𝑆 𝑃 𝑅
= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃 𝑅 𝑄 𝑆
 This is the Wheatstone‟s bridge balance condition.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 63 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

7.Explain the determination of unknown resistance using meterbridge.

Meterbridge:

 Meterbridge is another form of Wheatstone‟s

bridge
 It consists of uniform manganin wire AB of 1m
length.
 This wire is stretched along a meter scale
between two copper strips C and D
 E is another copper strip mounted with two gaps
G1 and G2

 An unknown resistance P is connected in G1 and standard

resistance connected in G2
 A jockey J is connected from E through a galvanometer G and
high resistance HR.
 A Lechlanche cell ? and key K is connected across the bridge
wire.
 The position of jockey is adjusted so that the galvanometer
shows zero deflection. Let the point be „J‟
 The lengths AJ and JB now replace the resistance R and S of
the Wheatstone‟s bridge.
 Then at zero deflection

𝑃 𝑅 𝑅′ 𝐴𝐽 𝑅′ 𝑙1
= = ′ = ′
𝑄 𝑆 𝑅 𝐽𝐵 𝑅 𝑙2
 Where 𝑅′ → resistance per unit length
𝑃 𝐴𝐽 𝑙1
= =
𝑄 𝐽𝐵 𝑙2

𝒍𝟏
𝑷=𝑸
𝒍𝟐

 Due to imperfect contact of wire at its ends, some resistance might be introduced at the contact.
These are called end resistances.
 By interchange P and Q, This error can be eliminated, and the average value of P is found.
 Let l be the length and r be the radius of wire, its specific resistance (resistivity) is given by

𝑷𝑨 𝑷 𝝅 𝒓𝟐
𝝆= =
𝒍 𝒍

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 64 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

8.How the emf of two cells are compared using potentiometer?

 Comparison of emf of two cells :

 Potentiometer wire CD is connected to battery (Bt) and a key (K) in series.

 This is the primary circuit.
 The end C is connected to one terminal M of DPDT switch and another central terminal N is
connected to jockey through a galvanometer G and high resistance HR.
 This is the secondary circuit.
 The cell whose emf ξ1 and ξ2 to be compared are connected to M1N1 and M2N2 of DPDT switch.
 Initially the cell of emf ξ1 is included in the secondary circuit.
 The balancing length l1 is found by adjusting jockey for zero deflection.
 Simillarly the cell of emf ξ2 is included in the secondary circuit and the balancing length l2 is found.
 Let „r‟ be the resistance per unit length and „I‟ be the primary current.
 Then by the principle of potentiometer
𝝃𝟏 = 𝑰 𝒓 𝒍 𝟏 − − − − − −(𝟏)
𝝃𝟐 = 𝑰 𝒓 𝒍 𝟐 − − − − − −(𝟐)
 Divide equation (1) by (2),

𝝃𝟏 𝑰 𝒓 𝒍𝟏
=
𝝃𝟐 𝑰 𝒓 𝒍𝟐

𝝃𝟏 𝒍𝟏
=
𝝃𝟐 𝒍𝟐

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 65 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
2. Current Electricity

9. Explain the method of measurement of internal resistance of a cell using potentiometer.

Internal resistance by potentiometer:
 Potentiometer wire CD is connected to battery (Bt)
and a key (K1) in series. This is the primary circuit.
 The cell ‘ξ’ whose internal resistance ‘r’ to be
measured is connected to the secondary circuit.
 A resistance box R and a key K2 is connected
across the cell ‘ξ’
 With key K2 open, balancing point J is found out
and balancing length CJ = l1 is measured.
 By the principle,
𝝃 ∝ 𝒍𝟏 − − − − − − − (𝟏)
 A suitable resistance is included in R and key K2 is closed.
 „r‟ is internal resistance of the cell (ξ), then the current flows through R is,
𝝃
𝑰=
𝑹+𝒓
 Hence potential difference across R
𝝃
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 = 𝑹
𝑹+𝒓
 For this potential difference, again the balancing point J is found out and the balancing length CJ = l2
is measured.
 By the principle of potentiometer,
𝝃
𝑹 ∝ 𝒍𝟐 − − − − − − − (𝟐)
𝑹+𝒓
 Divide equation (1) by (2)
𝝃 𝒍𝟏
=
𝝃
𝑹 𝒍𝟐
𝑹+𝒓
𝑹+𝒓 𝒍𝟏
=
𝑹 𝒍𝟐
𝒓 𝒍𝟏
𝟏+ =
𝑹 𝒍𝟐
𝒓 𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐
= −𝟏 =
𝑹 𝒍𝟐 𝒍𝟐
𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐
𝒓=𝑹 − − − − − −(𝟑)
𝒍𝟐
 By substituting 𝑅, 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 in equation (3) the internal resistance ‘r’ of the cell can be measured.
 Here the internal resistance ‘r’ is not constant, and it increased with increase of external
resistance ‘R’.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 66 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

3. MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (BOOK BACK)
1. Define magnetic field.
 The magnetic field 𝐵 at a point is defined as a force experienced by the bar magnet of unit pole
strength.
𝐹
𝐵=
𝑞𝑚
 Its S.I unit is N A-1m -1

2. Define magnetic flux. Give its unit.

 The number of magnetic field lines crossing per unit area is called magnetic flux (𝛷𝐵 )
𝛷𝐵 = 𝐵 . 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃
 The S.I unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb) and C.G.S unit is maxwell (1 Wb = 108 maxwell)
 Its dimensional formula is [ML2T-2A-1]

3. Define magnetic dipole moment.

 Magnetic dipole moment (pm) is defined as the product of the pole strength (qm) and magnetic length
(2l). i.e. pm=qm 2l
 In vector notation ; 𝑝𝑚 = 𝑞𝑚 𝑑
∵ 𝑑 = 2𝑙
2
 Its S.I unit is Am . Its direction is from South Pole to North Pole.

4. State Coulomb’s inverse square law of magnetism.

 The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the
product of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
𝜇𝑜 𝑄𝑚𝐴 𝑄𝑚𝐵
𝐹= 𝑟
4𝜋 𝑟2
 Pole strength of the bar magnet A = QmA
 Pole strength of the bar magnet B = QmB
 Distance between two poles = r

5. Define magnetic susceptibility.

 Magnetic susceptibility (𝜒) is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetization (𝑀) induced in
the material due to the magnetizing field (𝐻 )
 It is a dimensionless quantity.

6. Define magnetic permeability.

 Magnetic permeability is defined as the measurability of the material to allow the passage of
magnetic lines through it or measure of the capacity of the substance to take magnetization or degree
of penetration of magnetic field through the substance.

7. State Ampere’s circuital law.

 It state that the line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop is 𝝁𝒐 times net current enclosed by
the loop.
𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 67 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

8. State Biot-Savart law.

Biot - Savart law :
 According to Biot - Savart law, the magnitude of magnetic field 𝑑𝐵 at a point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’
from the small elemental length ‘dl’ of the current ‘I’ carrying conductor varies,
1
1) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝐼 2) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑑𝑙 3) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ sin 𝜃 4) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑟 2
 Hence,
𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝜇 𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑑𝐵 =
𝑟2 4𝜋 𝑟2
 In vector notation,
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑋 𝑟
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2
9. What are called dia, para and ferro magnetic material?
Diamagnetic Materials
 Materials which exhibit weak magnetism in the reaction opposite to the applied field are known as
diamagnetic materials. They are repelled by the magnet.
 (e.g.) Bismuth, Copper, Water
Paramagnetic Materials
 Materials which exhibit weak magnetism in the direction of the applied field are known as
paramagnetic materials. They are feebly attracted by the magnets
 (e.g.) Aluminum, Platinum, Chromium
Ferromagnetic Materials
 Materials which exhibit strong magnetism in the direction of the applied field are known as
ferromagnetic materials. They are strongly attracted by the magnets
 (e.g.) Iron, Cobalt, Nickel
10. What is Hysteresis?
 Hysteresis means ‘lagging behind’
 The phenomenon of lagging of magnetic induction (B) behind the magnetizing field (H) is called
Hysteresis.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS ( CONCEPTUAL)

11. Define magnetism. Give its applications.
 The property of attracting iron is called magnetism.
 In olden days, magnets were used as magnetic compass for navigation, magnetic therapy for
treatment and magic shows.
 In modern days most of the things we use in daily life contains magnets. For example loud speaker,
motors, dynamo, cell phones, pen drive, CD, hard disc in laptop etc
12. Define Geomagnetism or Terrestrial magnetism.
 The branch of physics which deals with the Earth’s magnetic field is called Geomagnetism .
13. What are the elements of the Earth’s magnetic field?
 To specify the Earth’s magnetic field, three quantities must be required. They are
i) Declination (D)
ii) Magnetic dip or inclination (I)
iii) The horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field (BH )
14. Define geographic meridian and magnetic meridian.
 A vertical plane passing through the geographic axis is called geographic meridian and a great circle
perpendicular to Earth’s geographic axis is called geographic equator.
 A vertical plane passing through magnetic axis is called magnetic meridian and a great circle
perpendicular to Earth’s magnetic axis is called magnetic equator.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 68 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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15. Define magnetic declination.

 The angle between magnetic meridian at a point and geographical meridian is called the magnetic
declination (D).
 At higher latitudes, the declination is greater whereas near the equator, the declination is smaller.
16. For Chennai, the magnetic declination angle is −1° 8'. Why it is negative?
 The negative sign indicates that the magnetic meridian lies west to the geographic meridian.
17. Define magnetic inclination or dip.
 The angle subtended by the Earth’s total magnetic field 𝐵 with the horizontal direction in the
magnetic meridian is called dip or magnetic inclination (I)
 For Chennai, angle of dip is 14°16'
18. Define horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field.
 The component of Earth’s magnetic field along the horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian is
called horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field (BH)
19. Calculate the tangent of magnetic inclination or angle of dip.
 Let 𝑩𝑬 be the net Earth’s magnetic field at a point ‘P’ and ‘I’ be the angle of dip, then
 Horizontal component : 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵𝐸 cos 𝐼
 Vertical component : 𝐵𝑉 = 𝐵𝐸 sin 𝐼
𝐵𝐸 sin 𝐼 𝐵𝑉
=
𝐵𝐸 cos 𝐼 𝐵𝐻
𝐵𝑉
tan 𝐼 =
𝐵𝐻
 Also,
𝐵𝐸 = 𝐵𝐻2 + 𝐵𝑉2

20. Define pole strength of the magnet.

 The attracting property of the magnet concentrated at its poles only and this property is called pole
strength (qm).
 The S.I unit of pole strength is A m

21. What are the types of magnet?

 Magnets are classified in to natural magnets and artificial magnets.
 Iron, cobalt, nickel etc are natural magnets.
 Strength of natural magnets are very weak and the shape of the magnet are irregular.
 Artificial magnets are made our desired shape and strength. Bar magnets, cylindrical magnets, horse
shoe magnets are some examples for artificial magnets.

22. Define magnetic flux density.

 The magnetic flux density can be defined as the number of magnetic field lines crossing unit area
kept normal to the direction of line of force.
 Its S.I unit is tesla or Wb m-2

23. Distinguish between uniform and non-uniform magnetic field.

Uniform magnetic field Non-uniform magnetic field
 Magnetic field is said to be uniform If it has  Magnetic field is said to be non-uniform If the
the same magnitude and direction at all the magnitude or direction or both varies at all its
points in a given region. points.
 (e.g.) Locally Earth’ magnetic field is uniform  (e.g.) Magnetic field of a bar magnet

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 69 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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24. Discuss the types of force between two magnetic pole strength.
 When north pole (N) of magnet A and north pole (N) of
magnet B or south pole (S) of magnet A and south pole
(S) of magnet B are brought close together, they repels
each other.
 On the other hand, when north pole of magnet A and
south pole of magnet B or south pole of magnet A and
north pole of magnet B are brought close together they
attract each other.
 Thus like poles repels and unlike poles attracts.
25. What happens when a bar magnet is freely suspended in uniform and non-uniform magnetic field?
 Even though Earth has non- uniform magnetic field, it is locally (at particular place) taken as uniform.
 So bar magnet suspended freely in uniform magnetic field experience only torque (rotational motion)
 When a bar magnet is freely suspended in non-uniform magnetic field, it undergo translator motion due to net
force and rotational motion due to torque.
26. State tangent law.
 When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely suspended in two mutually perpendicular uniform
magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the direction of the resultant of the two fields.
27. Define magnetizing field.
 The magnetic field which is used to magnetize a sample or specimen is called the magnetizing field
( 𝑯 ). Its unit is A m-1
28. Define relative permeability.
 The relative permeability (𝜇𝑟 ) is defined as ratio between absolute permeability (𝜇) of the medium
to the permeability of free space (𝜇𝑜 ).
𝜇
𝜇𝑟 =
𝜇𝑜
 It has no unit and it is dimensionless quantity.
 In vacuum or free space, 𝜇𝑟 = 1

29. Define intensity of magnetization.

 The net magnetic moment per unit volume of the material or is known as intensity of magnetization
or magnetization vector or magnetization.
 For magnet the intensity of magnetization can be defined as the pole strength per unit area
𝑝𝑚 𝑞𝑚
𝑀= =
-1
𝑉 𝐴
 Its unit A m . It is a vector quantity
30. Define magnetic induction or total magnetic field.
 The magnetic induction ( 𝐵 ) inside the specimen is equal to the sum of the magnetic field ( 𝐵𝑜 )
produced in vacuum due to magnetizing field and the magnetic field ( 𝐵𝑚 ) due to the induce
magnetization of the substance, ( 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜 + 𝐵𝑚 )
31. What are the classifications of magnetic materials?
 Magnetic materials are generally classified in to three types. They are
(i) Diamagnetic material
(e.g.) bismuth, copper, water
(ii) Paramagnetic material
(e.g.) Aluminum, platinum, chromium
(iii) Ferro magnetic material
(e.g.) Iron, nickel, cobalt

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 70 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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32. Define Meissner effect.

 Super conductors are perfect diamagnetic materials.
 The exclusion of magnetic flux from a super conductor during its transition to the superconducting
state is known as Meisnner effect
33. Define Curie’s law.
 The susceptibility of the material is inversely proportional to its Kelvin temperature. (i.e.) the
magnetic susceptibility decreases with increase in temperature.
1 𝐶
𝜒𝑚 ∝ 𝑇 or 𝜒𝑚 = 𝑇
 Where C = curie constant. This is called Curie law

34. Define curie temperature.

 As temperature increases, the ferromagnetism decreases due to the increased thermal agitation of the
atomic dipoles.
 At a particular temperature, ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic. This temperature is
known as Curie temperature (TC).
35. State Curie - Weiss law.
 The susceptibility of the material above the Curie temperature is given by
𝐶
𝜒𝑚 =
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
 Where, C → Curie law ; T → Kelvin temperature
 This relation is called Curie - Weiss law.

36. Define hysteresis loss.

 During the magnetization of the specimen through a cycle, there is loss of energy in the form of heat.
 It is known as hysteresis loss.
 The energy lost per unit volume of the material when it is carried through one cycle of magnetization
is equal to the area of the hysteresis loop.
37. What are the types of ferromagnetic materials?
 Based on the shape and size of the hysteresis loop, ferromagnetic materials are classified as two
types.
 They are
i) Hard magnetic material – (e.g.) Steel
ii) Soft magnetic material - (e.g.) Soft iron
38. State right hand thumb rule.
 If we hold the current carrying conductor in our right hand such that the thumb points in the
direction of current flow, then the fingers encircling the wire points in the direction of the magnetic
field lines produced.
39. State Maxwell’s right hand cork screw rule.
 This rule is used to determine the direction of the magnetic field.
 If we advance a right handed screw along the direction of current, then the direction of rotation of
the screw gives the direction of the magnetic field.
40. Define magnetic dipole moment of current loop.
 The magnetic dipole moment of any current loop is equal to the product of the current and area of
the loop. ( 𝑝𝑚 = 𝐼 𝐴 )
41. State right hand thumb rule.
 This rule is used to determine the direction of magnetic moment.
 If we curl the fingers of right hand in the direction of current in the loop, then the stretched thumb
gives the direction of the magnetic moment associated with the loop.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 71 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
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42. Define gyro-magnetic ratio.

 The ratio of magnetic moment (𝝁𝒍 ) of the electron to its angular momentum (L) is called gyro-
magnetic ratio.
𝜇𝑙 𝑒
= = 8.78 × 1010 𝐶 𝑘𝑔−1
𝐿 2𝑚
43. Define Bohr magneton.
 It is the unit of atomic magnetic moment.
 The minimum value of atomic magnetic moment is called Bohr magneton.
𝑒𝑕
1 𝑏𝑜𝑕𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝜇𝐵 = = 9.27 × 10−24 𝐴 𝑚2
4𝜋𝑚
44. Define Lorentz force.
 If the charge is moving in the electric field (𝑬) and magnetic field (𝑩), the total force experienced by
the charge is given by 𝑭 = 𝒒[𝑬 + 𝒗 × 𝑩 ]
 It is known as Lorentz force.
45. Define one tesla.
 The strength of the magnetic field is one tesla if unit charge moving in it with unit velocity
experiences unit force.
46. What are the limitations of cyclotron?
 The speed of the ion is limited.
 Electron cannot be accelerated.
 Uncharged particles cannot be accelerated.
47. Write a note on fast-neutron cancer therapy.
 When a deuteron is bombarded with a beryllium target, a beam of high energy neutrons are
produced.
 These high energy neutrons are sent into patient’s cancerous region to break the bonds in the DNA
of the cancer cells.
 This is used in treatment of fast-neutron cancer therapy.
48. State Fleming’s left hand rule (FLHR).
 Stretch fore finger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left hand in mutually perpendicular
directions. If,
(i) fore finger points the direction of magnetic field,
(ii) the middle finger points the direction of the electric current, then
(iii) thumb will point the direction of the force experienced by the conductor.
49. Define one ampere.
 One ampere is defined as that current when it is passed through each of the two infinitely long
parallel straight conductors kept at a distance of one meter apart in vacuum caused each conductor to
experience a force of 2 x 10 −7 N per meter length of conductor.
50. Define figure of merit of a galvanometer.
 It is defined as the current which produces a deflection of one scale division in the galvanometer.
51. Define current sensitivity of a galvanometer.
 It is defined as the deflection produced per unit current flowing through it.
𝜃 𝑁𝐵𝐴 1
𝐼𝑆 = = =
𝐼 𝐾 𝐺
52. How the current sensitivity of galvanometer can be increased?
i) number of turns N
ii) magnetic induction B
iii) increasing the area of the coil A
iv) By decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension wire

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 72 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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53. Why Phosphor - bronze is used as suspension wire?

 Because, for phosphor - bronze wire, the couple per unit twist is very small.
54. Define voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer.
 It is defined as the deflection produced per unit voltage applied across it.
𝜃 𝜃 𝑁𝐵𝐴 𝐼𝑆
𝑉𝑆 = = = =
𝑉 𝐼𝑅𝐺 𝐾𝑅𝐺 𝑅𝐺
55. How galvanometer can be converted in to ammeter?
 A galvanometer is converted in to ammeter by connecting a low resistance (shunt) in parallel with
the galvanometer.
56. How galvanometer can be converted in to voltmeter?
 A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting high resistance in series with
galvanometer.
57. Why ammeter should always connected in series to the circuit?
 The ammeter must offer low resistance such that it will not change the current passing through it. So
ammeter is connected in series to measure the circuit current.
 An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
58. Why voltmeter should always connected in parallel to the circuit?
 The voltmeter must offer high resistance so that it will not draw appreciable current. So voltmeter is
connected in parallel to measure the potential difference.
 An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS ( 3 Marks)
1. What are the properties of bar magnet?
Properties of magnet:
 A freely suspended bar magnet will always point along the north - south direction.
 The attractive property of the magnet is maximum near its end or pole. This is called pole strength.
 Two poles of a magnet have pole strength equal to one another.
 When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece behaves like a magnet with pole at its ends.
 The length of the bar magnet is called geometrical length and length between two magnetic poles in
a bar magnet is called magnetic length. The magnetic length is always slightly smaller than
geometrical length. (i.e.) magnetic length : geometrical length = 5 ∶ 6 = 0.833 ∶ 1
2. Write a note on pole strength.
Pole strength :
 The attracting property of the magnet concentrated at its poles only and this property is called pole
strength (qm).
 It is a scalar quantity with dimension [LA]. Its
 S.I unit is A m (or) N T-1
 North pole of the magnet experiences a force in the direction of the magnetic field and south pole
experiences force opposite to the magnetic field.
 Pole strength depends on the nature of materials the magnet, area of cross-section and the state of
magnetization.
 If a magnet is cut in to two equal halves along the length, then pole strength is reduced to half.
 If the magnet is cut into two equal halves perpendicular to the length, then pole strength remains
same.
 If we cut the magnet in to two pieces, we will not separate north and south poles. Instead we get two
magnets. (i.e.) isolated mono pole does not exist in nature

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 73 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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3. Give the properties of magnetic field lines.

Properties of magnetic field lines:
 They are continuous closed curved lines.
 Their direction is from North Pole to South Pole outside the magnet and South Pole to North Pole
inside the magnet.
 The tangent drawn at any point on the magnetic field lines gives the direction of magnetic field at
that point.
 They never intersect each other. Otherwise, the magnetic compass needle would point towards two
directions, which is not possible.
 The degree of closeness of the field lines determines the relative strength of the magnetic field. The
magnetic field is strong where magnetic field lines crowd and weak where magnetic field lines thin
out.
4. Explain Coulomb’s inverse square law in magnetism.
Coulomb’ inverse square law in magnetism:
 Consider two bar magnets A and B as shown.
 Like magnetic poles repulse each other and unlike magnetic poles attracts each other.
 Pole strength of A = 𝑄𝑚 𝐴
 Pole strength of B = 𝑄𝑚 𝐵
 Distance between A and B =r

 Then by Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly
proportional to the product of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
 Hence
𝑄𝑚𝐴 𝑄𝑚𝐵
𝐹∝ 𝑟
𝑟2
𝑄𝑚𝐴 𝑄𝑚𝐵
𝐹=𝑘 𝑟
𝑟2
 In magnitude,
𝑄𝑚𝐴 𝑄𝑚𝐵
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
 where, k → proportionality constant.
 In S. I unit, the value of k in vacuum is
𝜇𝑜
𝑘= ≅ 10−7 𝐻 𝑚−1
4𝜋
 Then the force,
𝜇𝑜 𝑄𝑚𝐴 𝑄𝑚𝐵
𝐹= 𝑟
4𝜋 𝑟2
 where, 𝜇𝑜 → permiability of free space or vacuum
[ 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻 𝑚−1 ]

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 74 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
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5. Calculate the torque acting on a bar magnet in uniform magnetic field.

Torque acting on a bar magnet:
 Consider a magnet of length ‘2l’ of pole strength ‘qm’
kept in uniform magnetic field 𝑩.
 Force experienced by the North pole along the direction
of the field; 𝐹𝑁 = 𝑞𝑚 𝐵
 Force experienced by the South pole opposite to the
direction of the field; 𝐹𝑆 = −𝑞𝑚 𝐵
 Hence total force; 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑁 + 𝐹𝑆 = 0
 So that there is no translator motion.
 But these two forces constitute a couple, which tends to rotate the magnet along the direction of the
field 𝐵.
 Hence moment of force or torque about ‘O’ is
𝜏 = 𝑂𝑁 × 𝐹𝑁 + 𝑂𝑆 × 𝐹𝑆
𝜏 = 𝑂𝑁 × 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 + 𝑂𝑆 × (−𝑞𝑚 𝐵)
 Here, 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑂𝑆 = 𝑙 and 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 = −𝑞𝑚 𝐵
 Hence the magnitude of the torque about ‘O’ is
𝜏 = 𝑙 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 + 𝑙 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 2𝑙 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 [2𝑙 𝑞𝑚 = 𝑝𝑚 ]
 In vector notation,
𝜏 = 𝑝𝑚 × 𝐵
6. Obtain an expression for potential energy of a bar magnet placed in an uniform magnetic field.
Potential energy of a bar magnet:
 Let a bar magnet of dipole moment 𝑝𝑚 is placed in a uniform
magnetic field 𝐵 at an angle 𝜃
 The magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole is
𝜏 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃

 So work done by the external torque (𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) for a small angular displacement against the torque (𝜏) is
𝑑𝑊 = 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜏 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑊 = 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
 Hence the total work done to rotate the bar magnet from 𝜃 ′ to 𝜃 is ,
𝜃 𝜃
𝑊= 𝜃′
𝑑𝑊 = 𝜃′
𝑝𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑊 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐵[− cos 𝜃]𝜃𝜃 ′

𝑊 = −𝑝𝑚 𝐵[cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 ′ ]

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 This work done is stored as potential energy of the bar magnet. Hence
𝑈 = −𝑝𝑚 𝐵[cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 ′ ]
 If initial angle be 𝜃 ′ = 90° then∶ 𝑈 = −𝑝𝑚 𝐵 cos 𝜃
 The potential energy stored in a bar magnet placed in a uniform magnetic field is,
𝑼 = 𝒑𝒎 . 𝑩
1. if 𝜃 = 90° then, ∶ 𝑈 = −𝑝𝑚 𝐵 = minimum
2. if 𝜃 = 180° then, ∶ 𝑈 = −𝑝𝑚 𝐵 = maximum
 Thus the potential energy of a bar magnet is minimum when it is align along the external field and
maximum when it align anti parallel with the external field.
7. What are the precausions taken while using tangent galvanometer (TG)
The precausions taken while using Tangent Galvanometer (TG):
 All the nearby magnets and magnetic materials are kept away from the instrument.
 Using sprit level, the leveling screws at the base are adjusted so that the small magnetic needle
horizontal and also the circular coil is exactly vertical.
 The plane of the coil is kept along the magnetic meridian.
 The pointer in the compass box should read 0° − 0°
8. Using the relation 𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑯 + 𝑴) show that 𝝌𝒎 = 𝝁𝒓 − 𝟏
Proof :
 The total magnetic induction,
𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑯 + 𝑴 − − − − − −(𝟏)
 By definition,
𝑴
𝝌𝒎 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑴 = 𝝌𝒎 𝑯 & 𝑩 = 𝝁𝑯
𝑯
 Put this in equation (1),
𝝁𝑯 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑯 + 𝝌𝒎 𝑯 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑯 𝟏 + 𝝌𝒎
𝝁 = 𝝁 𝒐 𝟏 + 𝝌𝒎
𝝁
= 𝝁 𝒓 = 𝟏 + 𝝌𝒎
𝝁𝒐
𝝌𝒎 = 𝝁 𝒓 − 𝟏
9. Explain Dia magnetism.
Diamagnetic material :
 The orbital motion of electron produce a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the orbit.
 Thus each electron orbit has finite orbital magnetic dipole moment. But the resultant magnetic
moment for each atom is zero.
 In the presence of an external magnetic moment, some electrons are speeded up and some are
slowed down.
 According to Lenz’s law, the electrons whose moment were anti-parallel are speeded up which
produces induced magnetic moment in a direction opposite to the field.
 The induced moment disappears as soon as the external field is removed.
 When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, it has tendency to move the material from stronger to
weaker part of the field.
 This action is called diamagnetic action and such materials are known as diamagnetic materials.
 (e.g.) Bismuth, Copper, Water

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 76 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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10. Explain Para magnetism.

Paramagnetic material :
 In some magnetic material, each atom or molecule has net dipole magnetic moment which is vector
sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of electrons.
 But due to random orientation of these moments, the net magnetic moment of the material is zero.
 In the presence of external magnetic field, the torque acting on the atomic dipoles will align them in
the field direction.
 Thus a net magnetic dipole moment induced in the direction of the applied field.
 The induced dipole moment is present as long as the external field exists.
 When placed in a non-magnetic field, these materials will have a tendency to move from weaker to
stronger part of the field.
 Materials which exhibit weak magnetism in the direction of the applied field are known as
paramagnetic materials.
 (e.g.) Aluminium, Platinum, Chromium
11. Explain Ferro magnetism.
Ferro magnetic material:
 Ferro magnetic material also possesses net magnetic dipole
moment as paramagnetic material.
 A ferromagnetic material is made up of smaller regions called
ferromagnetic domain.
 Within each domain, the magnetic moments are aligned in
same direction due to strong interaction arising from electron
spin. So each domain has net magnetization in a direction.
 But the direction of magnetization is different for different
domains. Hence the net magnetization of the specimen is zero.
 In the presence of external magnetic field, domain having magnetic moments parallel to the field
grow in size and the other domains are aligned with the field.
 It results, a strong net magnetization of the material in the direction of the applied field is produced.
 Materials which exhibit strong magnetism in the direction of the applied field is called ferromagnetic
materials. (e.g.) Iron, Nickel, Cobalt
12. List the properties of Diamagnetic materials.
Properties of Diamagnetic materials :
 Magnetic susceptibility is negative. (𝝌𝒎 = −𝒗𝒆)
 Relative permeability is slightly less than one. (𝝁𝒓 < 1)
 The magnetic field lines are excluded by diamagnetic materials when placed in magnetic fields.
 Susceptibility (𝝌𝒎 ) is nearly temperature independent.
13. List the properties of Paramagnetic materials.
Properties of Paramagnetic materials :
 Magnetic susceptibility is small positive value. (𝝌𝒎 = +𝒗𝒆[𝒍𝒐𝒘])
 Relative permeability is greater than one. (𝝁𝒓 > 1)
 The magnetic field lines are attracted in to paramagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic field.
 Susceptibility (𝝌𝒎 ) is inversely proportional to temperature.
14. List the properties of Ferromagnetic materials.
Properties of Ferromagnetic materials :
 Magnetic susceptibility is positive and large. (𝝌𝒎 = +𝒗𝒆[𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉])
 Relative permeability is very greater than one. (𝝁𝒓 >> 1)
 The magnetic field lines are strongly attracted the ferromagnetic materials when placed in a
magnetic field.
 Susceptibility (𝝌𝒎 ) is inversely proportional to temperature.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 77 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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15. Explain the applications of hysteresis loop.

Applications of hysteresis loop :
 The main significance of hysteresis loop is that it provides the following information.
1. Retentivity
2. Coercivity
3. Permeability
4. Susceptibility
5. Energy loss during on cycle of magnetization
 This information will help us in selecting proper and suitable material for a given purpose.
 For example, the materials (Steel and Alnico) with high retentivity, high coercivity and high
permeability are suitable for making permanent magnets.
 The materials (Soft iron and Mumetal) with high initial permeability, low retentivity, low coercivity
and thin hysteresis loop with smaller area are preferred to make electro magnet.
 The materials (Soft iron) with high initial permeability, large magnetic induction and thin hysteresis
loop with smaller area are needed to design transformer cores.
16. Explain the magnetic field around a straight current carrying conductor.
Current carrying straight conductor :
 When a magnetic compass is kept near a current carrying straight
conductor, the magnetic needle deflects which indicates there
exists a magnetic field.
 If we trace the direction shown by the magnetic needle, we can
draw the magnetic field lines which are concentric circles having
their centre at the axis of the conductor.
 It may be either clockwise or anticlockwise depending on the
direction of current in the conductor.
 If strength of the current is increased, then the density of the
magnetic field will also increases.
 The strength of the magnetic field decreases at the distance from the conductor increases.
17. What are the differences between soft and hard ferromagnetic materials?
Soft ferromagnetic materials Hard ferromagnetic materials
 When external field is removes, its  When external field is removes, its
magnetization will disappear. magnetization will persists.
 Area of the loop is small  Area of the loop is large
 Low retentivity  High retentivity
 Low coercivity  High coercivity
 High susceptibility and magnetic permeability  Low susceptibility and magnetic permeability
 Less hysteresis loss  More hysteresis loss
 Used as solenoid core, transformer core and  Used as permanent magnets
electromagnets
 (e.g.) Soft iron, Mumetal, Stalloy  (e.g.) Steel, Alnico, Lodestone

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 78 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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18. Explain the magnetic field around the current carrying circular loop.
Circular coil carrying current:
 If we keep a magnetic compass near a current carrying
circular conductor, then the magnetic needle deflects
which indicates the existence of magnetic field.
 Tracing the direction of the deflection, it shows the
magnetic lines are circular near A and B and nearly
parallel to each other near the centre of the loop.
 Thus the field present near the centre of the coil is
almost uniform.
 The strength of the magnetic field is increased if either
the current in the coil or the number of turns or both
are increased.
 The polarity (north pole or south pole) depends on the direction of current in the loop.
19. State and explain Biot-Savart law.
Biot - Savart law :
 According to Biot - Savart law, the magnitude of magnetic field 𝒅𝑩 at a point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’
from the small elemental length ‘dl’ of the current ‘I’ carrying conductor varies,
1) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝐼
2) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑑𝑙
3) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ sin 𝜃
1
4) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑟 2
 Hence,
𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 ∝
𝑟2
𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑘
𝑟2
 where, k → constant
 In S. I. units, the value of k in vacuum
𝜇𝑜
𝑘 = [ 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻 𝑚−1 ]
4𝜋
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
∴ 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
 In vector notation,
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2
 Here 𝑑𝐵 is perpendicular to both 𝐼𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟
 From superposition principle the total magnetic field due to entire conductor is,

𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟
𝐵= 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 79 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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20. Explain the current loop acts as a magnetic dipole and calculate its dipole moment.
Current loop as a magnetic dipole:
 The magnetic field from the centre of a current loop of radius ‘R’ along the axis
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑅2
𝐵= 3 𝑘
2 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 2
 At larger distance, z ≫ R and hence 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 ≈ 𝑧 2
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑅2 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝜋𝑅2
𝐵= 𝑘= 𝑘
2 𝑧3 2 𝜋𝑧 3
 Here, 𝜋𝑅2 → area of the loop
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝐴 𝜇𝑜 2𝐼𝐴
𝐵= 3
𝑘= 𝑘 − − − − − −(1)
2𝜋 𝑧 4𝜋 𝑧 3
 We know that, magnetic field at a distance ‘z’ along the axial line is
𝜇𝑜 2𝑝𝑚
𝐵= − − − − − −(2)
4𝜋 𝑧 3
 Compare equation (1) and (2)
𝑝𝑚 = 𝐼𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑚 = 𝐼𝐴
 This implies that a current carrying circular loop behaves as a magnetic dipole of dipole moment 𝑝𝑚
 So the magnetic dipole moment of any current loop is equal to the product of the current and area of
the loop.
21. Give the difference between Coulomb’s law and Biot-Savart’s law.
Coulomb’s law Biot-Savart’s law
 Electric field is calculated  Magnetic field is calculated
 Produced by a scalar source (i.e.) charge ‘q’  Produced be vector source (i.e.) current
element 𝐼𝑑𝑙
 It is directed along the position vector joining  3) It is directed perpendicular to position
the source and the point at which the field is vector and the current element
calculated.
 4) Does not depends on angle  Depends on the angle between 𝐼𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟
22. Explain current carrying solenoid behaves like a bar magnet.
Current carrying solenoid behaves like a bar magnet:
 A solenoid is a long coil of wire closely wound
in the form of helix.
 When current flows through the solenoid,
magnetic field is produced.
 It is due to the superposition of magnetic fields
of each turn of the solenoid.
 Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field is nearly
uniform and parallel to its axis.
 But outside the solenoid, the field is negligibly small.
 Depending on the direction of current, one end of the solenoid behaves like North pole and the other
end behaves like South pole.
 The direction of magnetic field is given by right hand palm rule. (i.e.) if the current carrying solenoid
is held in right hand such that the fingers curl in the direction of current, then extended thumb gives
the direction of magnetic field.

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3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 Hence magnetic field of a solenoid looks like the magnetic field of a bar magnet.
Uses :
 Solenoid can be used as electromagnets which produces strong magnetic field that can be turned ON
or OFF.
 The strength of the magnetic field can be increased by keeping iron bar inside the solenoid.
 They are useful in designing variety of electrical appliances.

23. Write a note in MRI.

MRI:
 MRI is Magnetic Resonance Imaging which helps the physicians to diagonise or monitor treatment
for a variety of abnormal conditions happening within the head, chest, abdomen and pelvis.
 It is a non invasive medical test.
 The patient is placed in a circular opening and large current is sent through the super conduction
wire to produce a strong magnetic field.
 This magnetic field produces radio frequency pulses which are fed to a computer which produce
pictures of organs which helps the physicians to examine various parts of the body
24. Define Lorentz force. Give the properties of Lorentz magnetic force.
Lorentz force:
 When an electric charge ‘q’ moves in the magnetic field 𝑩, it experience a force called Lorentz
magnetic force.
𝑭𝒎 = 𝑩 𝒒 𝒗 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
 In vector notation,
𝑭𝒎 = 𝒒 (𝒗 × 𝑩)
Properties of Lorentz magnetic force :
 𝑭𝒎 is directly proportional to the magnetic field (𝑩)
 𝑭𝒎 is directlty proportional to the velocity (𝒗)
 𝑭𝒎 is directly proportional to sine of the angle between the velocity and magnetic field.
 𝑭𝒎 is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge
 The direction of 𝑭𝒎 is always perpendicular to 𝑩 and 𝒗
 The direction of 𝑭𝒎 on negative charge is opposite to the direction of 𝑭𝒎 on positive charge
 If the of the charge is along the magnetic field, then 𝑭𝒎 is zero.
25. Write a note on velocity selector.
Velocity selector:
 Let an electric charge ‘q’ of mass ‘m’ enters in to a
region of uniform magnetic field 𝑩 with velocity 𝒗
 Due to Lorentz force, the charged particle moves in
helical path.
 By applying proper electric field (𝑬), the Lorentz
force can be balanced by Coulomb force

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 Here Coulomb force acts along the direction of electric field, whereas the Lorentz force is
perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field.
 Therefore in order to balance these forces, both electric and magnetic fields must be perpendicular to
each other.
 Such an arrangement of perpendicular electric and magnetic fields are known as cross fields.
 The force on electric charge due to these fields is,
𝑭 = 𝒒[𝑬 + 𝒗 × 𝑩 ]
 For a positive charge, the electric force on charge acts in downward direction whereas the Lorentz
force acts upwards.
 When these two forces balance one another, the net force 𝑭 = 𝟎
 Hence
𝒒𝑬 = 𝑩𝒒𝒗𝒐
𝑩
𝒗𝒐 =
𝑬
 This means for a given magnitude of electric field 𝑬 and magnetic field 𝑩, the forces act only for the
particle moving with particular speed 𝒗.
 This speed is independent of mass and charge,
(i) If 𝒗 > 𝒗𝒐 , then charged particle deflects in the direction of Lorentz force.
(ii) If 𝒗 < 𝒗𝒐 , then charged particle deflects in the direction of Coulomb force.
(iii) If 𝒗 = 𝒗𝒐 , then no deflection and the charged particle moves in straight line.
 Thus by proper choice of electric and magnetic fields, the particle with particular speed can be
selected. Such an arrangement of fields is called a velocity selector.
 This principle is used in Bainbridge mass spectrograph to separate the isotopes.
26. How Galvanometer can be converted in to Ammeter.
Galvanometer to an Ammeter :
 Ammeter is an instrument used to measure current.
 A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by
connecting a low resistance called shunt in parallel
with the galvanometer.
 The scale is calibrated in amperes.
o Galvanometer resistance = RG
o Shunt resistance =S
o Current flows through galvanometer = IG
o Current flows through shunt resistance =IS
o Current to be measured = RI
 The potential difference across galvanometer is same as the potential difference shunt resistance.
𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑠𝑕𝑢𝑛𝑡

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𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑆
𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝐺 𝑆 − − − − − (1)
𝐼𝐺
𝑆= 𝑅
𝐼 − 𝐼𝐺 𝐺
 From equation (1),
𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 = 𝐼𝑆 − 𝐼𝐺 𝑆
𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 + 𝐼𝐺 𝑆 = 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐺 (𝑅𝐺 + 𝑆)
𝑆
𝐼𝐺 = 𝐼
(𝑅𝐺 + 𝑆)
 Let 𝑅𝑎 be the resistance of ammeter, then
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝐺 𝑆
𝑅𝐺 𝑆
𝑅𝑎 =
𝑅𝐺 + 𝑆
 Here, 𝑅𝐺 > 𝑆 > 𝑅𝑎
 Thus an ammeter is a low resistance instrument, and it always connected in series to the circuit.
 An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
27. How Galvanometer can be converted in to voltmeter?
Galvanometer to a voltmeter:
 A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure potential
difference across any two points.
 A galvanometer is converted in to voltmeter by
connecting high resistance in series with the
galvanometer.
 The scale is calibrated in volts.
o Galvanometer resistance = RG
o High resistance = Rh
o Current flows through galvanometer = IG
o Voltage to be measured =V
o Total resistance of this circuit = RG + Rh
 Here the current in the electrical circuit is same as the current passing through the galvanometer. i.e.
𝐼𝐺 = 𝐼
𝑉
𝐼𝐺 =
𝑅𝐺 + 𝑅𝐻
𝑉
𝑅𝐺 + 𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼𝐺

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𝑉
𝑅𝐻 = − 𝑅𝐺
𝐼𝐺
 Let 𝑅𝑣 be the resistance of voltmeter, then
𝑅𝑣 = 𝑅𝐺 + 𝑅𝐻
 Here, 𝑅𝐺 < 𝑅𝐻 < 𝑅𝑣
 Thus a voltmeter is a high resistance instrument, and it always connected in parallel to the circuit
element.
 An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.
28. Differentiate Scalar, Vector and Tensor.
Scalar :
 It has only one component.
 It has no direction (i.e.) no unit vector.
 Since it has no direction, its rank is zero.
Vector :
 It is resolved into components.
 It has only one direction. (i.e.) has one unit vector
 Since each component has one direction, its rank is one
Tensor :
 It is resolved into components.
 It has more than one direction (i.e.) has more than one unit vector.
 If each component associated with two directions, then its rank is two
 If each component associated with three directions, then its rank is three.
 In general, if each component associated with ‘n’ direction, then it is called tensor of rank ‘n’

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LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS ( 5 Marks)

1. Discuss Earth’s magnetic field in detail.
Earth’s magnetic field :
 A freely suspended magnet comes to rest
approximately along the geographical north –
south direction.
 To explain this, William Gilbert proposed that,
Earth itself like a gigantic powerful magnet,
but this theory was not accepted.
 Gover suggested that the Earth’s magnetic field
is due to hot rays coming out from the Sun.
 So many theories have been proposed, but
none of the theory completely explains the
cause for the Earth’s magnetism.
 The north pole of magnetic compass needle is attracted towards the magnetic south pole of the Earth
which is near the geographic north pole.
 Simillarly the south pole of magnetic compass needle is attracted towards the magnetic north pole of
the Earth which is near the geographic south pole.
 The branch of physics which deals with the Earth’s magnetic field is called Geomagnetism (or)
Terrestrial magnetism.
 The Earth spins about an axis called geographic axis and vertical line passing through the geographic
axis is called geographic meridian, and a great circle perpendicular to Earth’s geographic axis is
called geographic equator.
 The straight line which connects magnetic poles of Earth is known as magnetic axis and the vertical
plane passing through magnetic axis is called magnetic meridian and a great circle perpendicular to
Earth’s magnetic axis is called magnetic equator.
 There are three quantities required to specify the magnetic field of the Earth on its surface,
which are often called as the elements of the Earth’s magnetic field. They are
o magnetic declination (D)
o magnetic dip or inclination (I)
o the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field (BH)
 The angle between magnetic meridian at a point and geographical meridian is called the magnetic
declination (D).
 The angle subtended by the Earth’s total field with the horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian
is called dip or magnetic inclination (I) at that point.
 The component of Earth’s magnetic field along the horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian is
called horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field (BH )
 Let BH be the net Earth’s magnetic field at a point on the surface of the Earth, then
Horizontal component : BH =BE cos I -------(1)
Vertical component : BV =BE sin I -------(2)
(2) 𝐵𝑉
= 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝐼 =
(1) 𝐵𝐻

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3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

At magnetic equator :
 At magnetic equator, I = 0°, then
𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵𝐸
𝐵𝑉 = 0
 This implies that the horizontal component is maximum at equator and vertical component is zero at
equator.
At magnetic poles :
 At magnetic poles, I = 90°, then
𝐵𝐻 = 0
𝐵𝑉 = 𝐵𝐸
 This implies that the vertical component is maximum at poles and horizontal component is
zero at poles.
2. Calculate the magnetic induction at a point on the axial line of a bar magnet.
Magnetic field at axial line (𝑩𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 ):

 Let N be the North Pole and S be the south pole of the bar magnet, each of pole strength qm and
separated by a distance of 2l.
 Let moment of this magnet is pm
 Let C be the point on its axis at a distance ‘r’ from centre ‘O’ to calculate magnetic field (𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 )
 Let unit north pole (𝒒𝒎𝑪 = 𝟏 𝑨 𝒎) is placed at ‘C’
 The repulsive force experienced by unit north pole (i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to north pole
𝐹𝑁 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚
𝐵𝑁 = = 𝑖
𝑞𝑚 𝐶 4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙)2
 The attractive force experienced by unit north pole (i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to south pole
𝐹𝑆 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚
𝐵𝑆 = =− 𝑖
𝑞𝑚 𝐶 4𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2
 Then total magnetic field at ‘C’ is
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝐵𝑁 + 𝐵𝑆
𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖 + − 𝑖
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙)2 4𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2
𝜇𝑜 1 1
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑞𝑚 − 𝑖
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙)2 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2

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𝜇𝑜 𝑟+𝑙 2− 𝑟−𝑙 2
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑞 𝑖
4𝜋 𝑚 𝑟−𝑙 2 𝑟+𝑙 2
𝜇𝑜 𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 + 2𝑟𝑙 − (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 − 2𝑟𝑙)
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑞 𝑖
4𝜋 𝑚 (𝑟 − 𝑙)(𝑟 + 𝑙) 2
𝜇𝑜 𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 + 2𝑟𝑙 − 𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 + 2𝑟𝑙
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑞𝑚 𝑖
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙)(𝑟 + 𝑙) 2
𝜇𝑜 4𝑟𝑙
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑞𝑚 𝑖
4𝜋 𝑟 − 𝑙2 2
2

𝜇𝑜 2𝑟 (2𝑙 𝑞𝑚 )
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖
4𝜋 𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 2
𝜇𝑜 2𝑟 𝑝𝑚
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖
4𝜋 𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 2
 where 𝑝𝑚 = 2𝑙 𝑞𝑚 → magnetic dipole moment
 If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙, then 𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 2 ≈ 𝑟 4 . So
𝜇𝑜 2𝑟 𝑝𝑚
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖
4𝜋 𝑟 4
𝜇𝑜 2 𝑝𝑚
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖 [𝑝𝑚 𝑖 = 𝑝𝑚 ]
4𝜋 𝑟 3
𝝁𝒐 𝟐 𝒑𝒎
𝑩𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑
3. Obtain the magnetic induction at a point on the equatorial line of a bar magnet.
Magnetic field at equatorial line (𝑩𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 ):

 Let N be the North Pole and S be the south pole of the bar magnet, each of pole strength qm and
separated by a distance of 2l.
 Let moment of this magnet is pm
 Let C be the point on its axis at a distance ‘r’ from centre ‘O’ to calculate magnetic field (𝑩𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 )
 Let unit north pole (𝒒𝒎𝑪 = 𝟏 𝑨 𝒎) is placed at ‘C’

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3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 The repulsive force experienced by unit north pole (i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to north pole
𝐹𝑁 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚
𝐵𝑁 = = (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑁𝐶)
𝑞𝑚 𝐶 4𝜋 𝑟 ′ 2
 The attractive force experienced by unit north pole (i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to south pole
𝐹𝑆 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚
𝐵𝑆 = = (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑆)
𝑞𝑚 𝐶 4𝜋 𝑟 ′ 2
 Here, 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐵𝑆
 Resolve these two magnetic fields into their components. Hence
𝐵𝑁 = −𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑁 sin 𝜃 𝑗
𝐵𝑆 = −𝐵𝑆 cos 𝜃 𝑖 − 𝐵𝑆 sin 𝜃 𝑗
 Then the total magnetic field at ‘C’ is
𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐵𝑁 + 𝐵𝑆
𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = −𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑁 sin 𝜃 𝑗 − 𝐵𝑆 cos 𝜃 𝑖 − 𝐵𝑆 sin 𝜃 𝑗
𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = −𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖 − 𝐵𝑆 cos 𝜃 𝑖 [∵ 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐵𝑆 ]
𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = −2𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖
𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚
𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = −2 cos 𝜃 𝑖
4𝜋 𝑟 ′ 2
𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚
𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = −2 cos 𝜃 𝑖
4𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑙 2 )
2

 But in ∆ NOC,
𝑂𝑁 𝑙 𝑙
cos 𝜃 = = ′= 1
𝐶𝑁 𝑟 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )2
 Then
𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚 𝑙
𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = −2 𝑖
4𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑙 ) (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )12
2 2

𝜇𝑜 2𝑙 𝑞𝑚
𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝑖
4𝜋 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )32
𝜇𝑜 𝑝𝑚
𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝑖
4𝜋 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )32

 where 𝑝𝑚 = 2𝑙 𝑞𝑚 → magnetic dipole moment

3
 If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙, then 𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 2 ≈ 𝑟3
𝜇𝑜 𝑝𝑚
𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝑖 [𝑝𝑚 𝑖 = 𝑝𝑚 ]
4𝜋 𝑟 3
𝝁 𝒐 𝒑𝒎
𝑩𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 = −
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑

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3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

4. What is tangent law? Discuss in detail. Explain the principle, construction and working of
tangent galvanometer.
Tangent Galvanometer:
 It is a device used to measure very small currents.
 It is a moving magnet type galvanometer.
 Its working is based on tangent law.
Tangent law:
 When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely suspended in two mutually perpendicular uniform
magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the direction of the resultant of the two fields.
 Let B be the magnetic field produced by passing current through the coil of tangent galvanometer
and B H be the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field.
 Under the action of two magnetic fields, the needle comes to rest at an angle θ with BH, such that
𝑩 = 𝑩𝑯 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
Construction:
 It consists of copper coil wound on a non-magnetic circular frame.
 It is fixed vertically on a horizontal turn table providing with three leveling screws.
 At centre, a compass box is placed which consist of a small magnetic needle which is pivoted at its
centre.
 A thin aluminium pointer is attached to the magnetic needle normally and moves over circular scale.
 The circular scale is divided in to four quadrants and graduated in degrees.
 In order to avoid parallax error in measurement, a mirror is placed below the aluminium pointer.
 Here the centre of magnetic needle will exactly coincide with the centre of the circular coil.
 The coil has three sections of 2, 5 and 50 turns which are different thickness and are used to
measuring currents of different strengths.
Theory:
 When no current is passed through the coil, the small magnetic needle lies along horizontal
component of Earth’s magnetic field
 When current pass through the coil, it produces magnetic field in direction perpendicular to the plane
of the coil.
 Now there are two fields, which are acting mutually perpendicular to each other.
 They are
o The magnetic field ‘B’ due to current in the coil
o Horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field ‘BH ’
 Thus the magnetic needle deflects through an angle ‘θ’. By tangent law,
𝑩 = 𝑩𝑯 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 − − − − − −(𝟏)
 When current ‘I’ passing through a circular coil radius ‘R’ having ‘N’ turns, the magnitude of
magnetic field at the centre is,
𝝁𝒐 𝑵 𝑰
𝑩= − − − − − −(𝟐)
𝟐𝑹

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3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 equation (1) = (2)

𝝁𝒐 𝑵 𝑰
= 𝑩𝑯 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
𝟐𝑹
𝝁𝒐 𝑵 𝑰
𝑩𝑯 = − − − − − −(𝟑)
𝟐 𝑹 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
 Also the current is ,
𝟐 𝑹 𝑩𝑯
𝑰= 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝑲 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
𝝁𝒐 𝑵
𝑰 = 𝑲 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 − − − − − −(𝟒)
 where,
𝟐 𝑹 𝑩𝑯
𝑲= → T.G - Reduction factor of TG
𝝁𝒐 𝑵
 The tangent Galvanometer is most sensitive at a deflection of 45o.
 Generally the deflection is taken between 30o and 60o
5. Define Hysteresis. Explain it with help of diagram.
Hysteresis:
 Hysteresis means ‘lagging behind’
 The phenomenon of lagging of magnetic induction (𝑩), behind the magnetizing field (𝑯) is called
hysteresis.
Hysteresis loop:
 Let a ferro magnetic material (iron) is magnetized
slowly by a magnetizing field 𝑯
 The magnetic induction 𝑩 is increase from point A and
attains saturated level at C. This is shown by the path
AC
 The maximum point up to which the material can be
magnetized by applying the magnetizing field is called
Saturation magnetization.
 If magnetizing field is now reduced, the magnetic
induction also decreases but in different path CA.

 When magnetizing field is zero, the magnetic induction

is not zero and it has positive value. (i.e.) some
magnetism is left in the material even when H=0.
 The ability of the material to retain the magnetism in
them even magnetizing field vanishes is called
remanence or retentivity.
 To remove the remanence, the magnetizing field is
gradually increased in the reverse direction, so that the
magnetic induction decreases along DE and becomes
zero at ‘E’
 The magnitude of the reverse magnetizing field for
which the residual magnetism of the material vanishes
is called its coercivity.

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3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 Further increase of 𝑯 in the reverse direction, the magnetic induction increases along EF until it
reaches saturation at F in the reverse direction.
 If magnetizing field is decreased and then increased with direction reversed, the magnetic induction
traces the path FGKC.
 This closed curve ACDEFGKC is called hysteresis loop and it represents a cycle of magnetization.
 In the entire cycle, the magnetic induction ‘B’ lags behind the magnetizing field ‘H’.
 This phenomenon is called hysteresis
Hysteresis Loss:
 Due to hysteresis there is a loss of energy in the form of heat.
 It is found that the energy lost per unit volume of the material when it is carried through one cycle of
magnetization is equal to the area of the hysteresis loop.
 Thus the loss of energy (∆E) for a complete cycle is, ∆𝑬 = 𝑯 . 𝒅𝑩
6. Deduce the relation for magnetic induction at a point due to an infinitely long straight
conductor carrying current.
Magnetic field due to long straight current carrying conductor:
 Consider a long straight wire NM carrying a current I
 Let P be a point at a distance ‘a’ from ‘O’
 Consider an element of length ‘dl’ of the wire at a distance ‘r’ from point ‘O’
 Let 𝑟 be the vector joining the element ‘𝑑𝑙’ with the point ‘P’ and ‘𝜃’ be the angle between 𝑟 and 𝑑𝑙
 Then the magnetic field at ‘P’ due to the element is,
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑛 − − − − − −(1)
4𝜋 𝑟2
 where, 𝑛 → unit vector normal to both 𝐼𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟
 In ∆PAO,
𝑎
tan(𝜋 − 𝜃) =
𝑙
𝑎
− tan 𝜃 =
𝑙
𝑎
𝑙= − = −𝑎 cot 𝜃
tan 𝜃
 Differentiate,
𝑑𝑙 = −𝑎 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
 Also from ∆PAO,
𝑎
sin (𝜋 − 𝜃) =
𝑟
𝑎
sin 𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑎
𝑟= = 𝑎 cosec 𝜃
sin 𝜃
 put r and dl in equation (1)

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3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑛
4𝜋 (𝑎 cosec 𝜃)2
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝑑𝐵 = sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑛
4𝜋 𝑎
 Here 𝑑𝐵 is expressed in terms of angular coordinate ‘𝜃’.
 Hence the net magnetic field at ‘P’
𝜑2
𝜑2
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵= 𝑑𝐵 = sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑛
𝜑1 4𝜋 𝑎
𝜑1
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝜑
𝐵= [− cos 𝜃]𝜑 21 𝑛
4𝜋 𝑎
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵= cos 𝜑1 − cos 𝜑2 𝑛 − − − − − −(2)
4𝜋 𝑎
 For an infinitely long straight wire, 𝜑1 = 0 and 𝜑2 = 𝜋 (180°).
 Then the magnetic field is
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵= 1 − (−1) 𝑛 = 2𝑛
4𝜋 𝑎 4𝜋 𝑎
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵= 𝑛
2𝜋 𝑎
7. Obtain a relation for the magnetic induction at a point along the axis of a circular coil carrying
current.
Magnetic field due to current carrying circular coil:
 Consider a circular coil of radius ‘R’ carrying a current ‘I’
in anticlockwise direction.
 Let ‘P’ be the point on the axis at a distance ‘z’ from centre
‘O’
 Consider two diametrically opposite line elements of the
coil of each of length 𝑑𝑙 at C and D.
 Let 𝑟 be the vector joining the current element (𝑰 𝑑𝑙) at C
to the point ‘P’
 From Pythagoras theorem,
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑟 = 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 and ∠ OCP = ∠ODP = θ
 According to Biot - Savart law, the magnetic field at ‘P’ due to the current element (𝑰 𝑑𝑙) is,
𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑛 [∵ 𝜃 = 90°]
4𝜋 𝑟 2
 where, 𝑛 → unit vector normal to both 𝑰 𝑑𝑙 & 𝑟
 Here, 𝑑𝐵 can be resolved in to two components.
o 𝑑𝐵 sin 𝜃 − horizontal component (Y - axis)
o 𝑑𝐵 cos 𝜃 − vertical component (Z - axis)
 Here horizontal components of each element cancel each other.
 But vertical components alone contribute to total magnetic field at the point ‘P’

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3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 Net magnetic field at point ‘P’ due to current carrying circular coil:

𝐵= 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝑘

𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝐵= cos 𝜃 𝑘 − − − − − (1)
4𝜋 𝑟2
 Also from ∆POD,
𝑅 𝑅
cos 𝜃 = = 1
𝑟 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 2

 But from equation (1)

𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑅
𝐵= 1 𝑘
4𝜋 𝑅2 + 𝑧2 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 2

𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑅
𝐵= 3 𝑑𝑙 𝑘
4𝜋 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 2

 Where, 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑅 → total length of the coil.

𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑅
𝐵= 3 (2𝜋𝑅) 𝑘
4𝜋 𝑅2 + 𝑧2 2
𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝑹𝟐
𝑩= 𝟑 𝒌
𝟐 𝑹𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 𝟐

 Here 𝑩 points along the direction from ‘O’ to ‘P’

 If the current flows in clockwise direction, then 𝑩 points along the direction from ‘P’ to ‘O’
8. Compute the magnetic dipole moment of revolving electron. Define bohr magneton.
Magnetic dipole moment of revolving electron:
 Let an electron moves in circular motion
around the nucleus.
 The circulating electron in a loop is like current
in a circular loop.
 The magnetic dipole moment due to current
carrying circular loop is, 𝜇𝐿 = 𝐼 𝐴
 In magnitude,

𝜇𝐿 = 𝐼 𝐴 − − − − − −(𝟏)
 If T is the time period of an electron, the current due to revolving electron is,
𝑒
𝐼= −
𝑇
 Where, e → charge of an electron.
 If ‘R’ be the radius and ‘v’ be the velocity of electron in the circular orbit, then
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑅
𝑇= =
𝜔 𝑣

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3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 Then equation (1) becomes,

𝑒 𝑒
𝜇𝐿 = − 𝐴 = − 2𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝑅2
𝑇
𝑣

 where, 𝑨 = 𝝅𝑹𝟐 → area of the circular orbit

𝑒𝑣𝑅
𝜇𝐿 = − − − − − − −(2)
2
 By definition, angular momentum of the electron about ‘O’ is 𝑳 = 𝑹 × 𝒑
 In magnitude, angular momentum is given by,
𝐿 = 𝑅𝑝= 𝑚𝑣𝑅 − − − − − −(3)
 Dividing equation (2) by (3),
𝜇𝐿 𝑒𝑣𝑅 𝑒
=− = −
𝐿 2𝑚𝑣𝑅 2𝑚
 In vector notation,
𝑒
𝜇𝐿 = − 𝐿
2𝑚
 Here negative sign indicates that the magnetic dipole moment and angular momentum are in
opposite direction.
 In magnitude,
𝜇𝐿 𝑒 1.6 × 10−19
= =
𝐿 2𝑚 2 × 9.11 × 10−31
𝜇𝐿
= 8.78 × 1010 𝐶 𝑘𝑔−1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐿
 This constant is called gyro-magnetic ratio.
 According to Bohr quantization rule, angular momentum of an electron is,
𝑕
𝐿 =𝑛ℏ=𝑛
2𝜋
 where, 𝑕 → Plank’s constant (𝑕 = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽 𝑠)
n → Positive integer (n = 1,2,3,…...)
𝑒 𝑒 𝑕
𝜇𝐿 =
𝐿= 𝑛
2𝑚 2𝑚 2 𝜋
𝑒𝑕
𝜇𝐿 = 𝑛
4𝜋𝑚
1.6 × 10−19 × 6.63 × 10−34
𝜇𝐿 = 𝑛
4 × 3.14 × 9.11 × 10−31
 The minimum magnetic moment can be obtained by substituting n = 1
𝑒𝑕
𝜇𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 9.27 × 10−24 𝐴 𝑚2
= 𝜇𝐵 =
4𝜋𝑚
 The minimum value of magnetic moment of revolving electron is called Bohr magneton (𝝁𝑩 )

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3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

9. Using Ampere’s law, obtain an expression for magnetic field due to the current carrying wire
of infinite length.
Magnetic field due to current carrying straight wire using Ampere’s law :
 Consider a straight conductor of infinite length carrying current ‘I’
 Imagine an Amperian circular loop at a distance ‘r’ from the centre of the conductor.
 From Ampere’s circuital law,

𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼

 Here 𝑑𝑙 is the line element along the tangent to the Amperian loop. So the angle between 𝐵 and 𝑑𝑙 is
zero (𝜃 = 0°). Thus,
𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
 Due to symmetry, the magnitude of the magnetic field is uniform
over the Amperian loop and hence,

𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼

 For circular loop, 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟

𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝝁𝒐 𝑰
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅𝒓
 In vector notation,
𝒐 𝝁 𝑰
𝑩 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝒏

10. Obtain an expression for magnetic field due to long current carrying solenoid.
Magnetic field due to current carrying solenoid:
 Consider a solenoid of length ‘L’ having ‘N’ turns.
 We use Ampere circuital law to calculate the magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid.
 Let as consider an Amperian loop ‘abcd’
 From Ampere circuital law,
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜 − − − − − −(1)
 The LHS of equation (1) can be written as
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎

𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 + 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 + 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 + 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
 Here,
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 0° = 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑕
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑐 𝑐

𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 90° = 0
𝑏 𝑏

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 95 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current
𝑑

𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 0 [∵ 𝐵 = 0]
𝑐
𝑎 𝑎

𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 90° = 0
𝑑 𝑑
 Here ab = h. If we take large loop such that it is equal to length of the solenoid, we have

𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵𝐿 − − − − − −(2)

 Let ‘I’ be the current passing through the solenoid of ‘N’ turns, then
𝐼𝑜 = 𝑁𝐼 − − − − − −(3)
 Put equation (2) and (3) in (1)
𝐵 𝐿 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵= − − − − − −(4)
𝐿
𝑵
 Let ‘n’ be the number of turns per unit length, then 𝒏 = 𝑳 . Hence
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵= = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼 − − − − − −(5)
𝐿
 Since ‘n’ and 𝝁𝒐 are constants, for fixed current ‘I’ the magnetic field ‘B’ inside the solenoid is also
constant.
11. Obtain the magnetic fields at various points on the toroid.
Toroid:
 A solenoid is bent in such a
way its ends are joined
together to form a closed ring
shape is called toroid.
1. Open space interior to the
toroid (P):
 To calculate the magnetic field
BP at ‘P’, consider an
Amperian loop (1) of radius r1

 Then Amperian circuital law for loop 1 is

𝐵𝑃 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜
 Since the loop 1 encloses no current, Io = 0 then
𝐵𝑃 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0 & ∴ 𝐵𝑃 = 0
2. Open space exterior to the toroid (Q):
 To calculate magnetic field BQ at ‘Q’ construct Amperian loop (3) of radius r3
 Then Amperian circuital law for loop 3 is
𝐵𝑄 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 96 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 Since in each turn of the toroid loop, current coming out of the plane of paper is cancelled by the
current going into plane of the paper. Thus Io = 0
𝐵𝑄 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0 & ∴ 𝐵𝑄 = 0
3. Inside the toroid (S):
 To calculate magnetic field BS at ‘S’ construct Amperian loop (2) of radius r2
 Then Amperian circuital law for loop 2 is
𝐵𝑆 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜 − − − − − −(1)

𝐵𝑆 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵𝑆 𝑑𝑙 cos 0° = 𝐵𝑆 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵𝑆 (2𝜋𝑟2 )
𝐼𝑜 = 𝑁 𝐼
 Hence
𝐵𝑆 2𝜋𝑟2 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁 𝐼
𝜇𝑜 𝑁 𝐼
𝐵𝑆 =
2𝜋𝑟2
𝑁
 Let ‘n’ be the number of turns per unit length, then 𝑛 = . Hence
2𝜋 𝑟2
𝐵𝑆 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛 𝐼
12. Obtain the expression for force on a moving charge in a magnetic field.
Force on moving charge in a magnetic field:
 Consider a charged particle of charge ‘q’ having mass ‘m’
enters perpendicular to uniform magnetic field ‘𝐵’ with
velocity 𝑣
 So this charged particle experience Lorentz force which
acts perpendicular to both 𝐵 and 𝑣 and it is
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵)
 Due to this Lorentz force charged particle moving in
circular path.
 Since Lorentz force alone acts on the particle, the
magnitude of this force is

𝐹=𝐵𝑞𝑣 [ 𝜃 = 90°]
 Hence charged particle moves in a circular orbit and the necessary centripetal force is provided by
Lorentz force. (i.e.)
𝑚 𝑣2
𝐵𝑞𝑣=
𝑟
 The radius of the circular path is,
𝑚𝑣 𝑝
𝑟= = − − − − − −(1)
𝐵𝑞 𝐵𝑞
 where, mv = p → linear momentum
 Let ‘T’ be the time period, then
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑚𝑣
𝑇= =
𝑣 𝑣𝐵𝑞
2𝜋𝑚
𝑇= − − − − − −(2)
𝐵𝑞
 It is called cyclotron time period.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 97 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 Let ‘f’ be the frequency, then

1 𝐵𝑞
𝑓= = − − − − − −(3)
𝑇 2𝜋𝑚
 In terms of angular frequency,
𝐵𝑞
𝜔=2𝜋𝑓 = − − − − − −(4)
𝑚
 It is called cyclotron frequency or gyro-frequency.
 From equation (2), (3) and (4), we infer that time period (T), frequency (f) and angular frequency (ω)
depends only on specific charge, but not velocity or the radius of the circular path.
Special cases:
 If a charged particle moves in uniform magnetic field, such that its velocity is not perpendicular the
magnetic field, then its velocity is resolved into two components.
 One component is parallel to the field and the other component is perpendicular to the field.
 Here parallel component remains unchanged and the perpendicular component keeps on changing
due to Lorentz force.
 Hence the path of the particle is not circle; it is helix around the field.
13. Describe the principle, construction and working of Cyclotron.
Cyclotron:
 It is a device used to accelerate the charged particle to
gain large kinetic energy. It is also called as high
energy accelerator.
 It is invented by Lawrence and Livingston.
Principle:
 When a charged particle moves normal to the magnetic
field, it experience magnetic Lorentz force.
Construction:
 It consists two semi circular metal containers called
Dees.
 The Dees are enclosed in an evacuated chamber and it
is kept in a region of uniform magnetic field acts
normal to the plane of the Dees.
 The two Dees are kept separated with a gap and the
source ‘S’ of charged particles to be accelerated is
placed at the centre in the gap between the Dees.
 Dees are connected to high frequency alternating potential difference.
Working :
 Let the positive ions are ejected from source ‘S’
 It is accelerated towards a Dee-1 which has negative potential at that instant.
 Since the magnetic field is normal to the plane of the Dees, the ion undergoes circular path.
 After one semi-circular path in Dee-1, the ion reaches the gap between Dees.
 At this time the polarities of the Dees are reversed, so that the ion is now accelerated towards Dee-2
with a greater velocity.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 98 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 For this circular motion, the centripetal force of the charged particle is provided by Lorentz force,
then
𝑚 𝑣2
𝐵𝑞𝑣=
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝐵𝑞
∴𝑟∝ 𝑣
 Thus the increase in velocity increases the radius of the circular path. Hence the particle undergoes
spiral path of increasing radius.
 Once it reaches near the edge, it is taken out with help of deflector plate and allowed to hit the target T
 The important condition in cyclotron is resonance condition. (i.e.) the frequency ‘f’ of the charged
particle must be equal to the frequency of the electrical oscillator ‘fosc’ . Hence
𝐵𝑞
𝑓𝑜𝑠𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑚
 The time period of oscillation is,
2𝜋𝑚
𝑇=
𝐵𝑞
 The kinetic energy of the charged particle is,
1 𝐵2 𝑞 2 𝑟 2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑣2 =
2 2𝑚
Limitations of Cyclotron:
i) the speed of the ion is limited
ii) electron cannot be accelerated
iii) uncharged particles cannot be accelerated.
14. Obtain an expression for the force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.
Force on current carrying conductor in magnetic field:
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, the force experienced by the wire is equal to the sum
of Lorentz forces on the individual charge carriers in the
wire.
 Let a current ‘I’ flows through a conductor of length ‘L’ and
area of cross-section ‘A’
 Consider a small segment of wire of length ‘dl’
 The free electrons drift opposite to the direction of current
with drift velocity 𝑣𝑑
 The relation between current and drift velocity is,
𝐼 = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑒 𝑣𝑑
 If the wire is kept in a magnetic field, then average force experienced by the electron in the wire is
𝐹 = −𝑒 ( 𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵 )

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 99 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 Let ‘n’ be the number of free electrons per unit volume, the total number of electrons in the small
element of volume (V = A dl ) is N = n A dl
 Hence Lorentz force on the small element,
𝑑𝐹 = −𝑒 𝑛 𝐴 𝑑𝑙 𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵 − − − − − − − (1)
 Here length dl is along the length of the wire and hence the current element is
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 = −𝑒 𝑛 𝐴 𝑑𝑙 𝑣𝑑
 Put this in equation (1),
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵
 Therefore, the force in a straight current carrying conductor of length ‘l’ placed in a uniform
magnetic field
𝐹= 𝐼𝑙 × 𝐵
 In magnitude,
𝐹 = 𝐵 𝐼 𝑙 sin 𝜃
Special cases :
(i) If the current carrying conductor placed along the direction of magnetic field, then 𝜃 = 0°
F=0
(ii) If the current carrying conductor is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field, then 𝜃 = 90°
F = B I l = Maximum
15. Obtain a force between two long parallel current carrying conductors. Hence define ampere.
Force between two parallel conductors carrying current:

 Consider two straight parallel current carrying conductors ‘A’ and ‘B’ separated by a distance ‘r’
kept in air.
 Let I1 and I2 be the currents passing through the A and B in same direction (z-direction).
 The net magnetic field due to I1 at a distance ‘r’,
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1
𝐵1 = −𝑖 = − 𝑖
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
 According to right hand thumb rule 𝐵1 acts perpendicular to plane of paper and inwards.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 100 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 Then Lorentz force acts on the length element ‘dl’ in conductor ‘B’ carrying current I2 due to this
magnetic field 𝐵1
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵1
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1
𝑑𝐹 = −𝐼2 𝑑𝑙 𝑘 × 𝑖
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐹 = − 𝑘× 𝑖
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐹 = − 𝑗
2𝜋𝑟
 By Fleming’s left hand rule, this force acts left wards. The force per unit length of the conductor B

𝐹 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2
= − 𝑗 − − − − − − − (1)
𝑙 2𝜋𝑟
 Simillarly, net magnetic field due to I2 at a distance ‘r’ is
𝜇𝑜 𝐼2
𝐵2 = 𝑖
2𝜋𝑟
 According to right hand thumb rule 𝐵2 acts perpendicular to plane of paper and inwards.
 Then Lorentz force acts on the length element ‘dl’ in conductor ‘A’ carrying current I1 due to this
magnetic field 𝐵2
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵2
𝜇𝑜 𝐼2
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙 𝑘 × 𝑖
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑘× 𝑖
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑗
2𝜋𝑟
 By Fleming’s left hand rule, this force acts right wards. The force per unit length of the conductor A

𝐹 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2
= 𝑗 − − − − − − − (2)
𝑙 2𝜋𝑟
 Thus the force experienced by two parallel current carrying conductors is attractive if they carry
current in same direction.
 On the other hand, the force experienced by two parallel current carrying conductors is repulsive if
they carry current in opposite direction.
Definition of ampere:
 One ampere is defined as that current when it is passed through each of two infinitely long parallel
conductors kept a distance of one meter apart in vacuum causes each conductor experience a force of
2 x 10−7 newton per meter length of conductor.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 101 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

16. Deduce expressions for torque on a current loop placed in magnetic field when unit vector 𝒏
is perpendicular to 𝑩
Torque on a current loop:
 Consider a rectangular current loop PQRS kept
in uniform magnetic field 𝐵 with its plane
parallel to the field
 Let PQ = RS = a →Length of the loop and QR
= SP = b → Breadth of the loop
 Let 𝑛 be the unit vector normal to the plane of
the current loop.
Unit vector 𝒏 is perpendicular to 𝑩
 Let the loop is divided in to four sections PQ,
QR, RS and SP. The Lorentz force on each
loop can be calculated as follows.
 Lorent Force on section - PQ  Lorent Force on section - RS
𝐹𝑃𝑄 = 𝐼 𝑃𝑄 × 𝐵 𝐹𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑆 × 𝐵
𝐹𝑃𝑄 = 𝐼 𝑃𝑄 −𝐽 × 𝐵 𝑖 𝐹𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑆 𝐽 × 𝐵 𝑖
𝐹𝑃𝑄 = − 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 𝐽 × 𝑖 𝐹𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 𝐽 × 𝑖
𝐹𝑃𝑄 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘 𝐹𝑅𝑆 = − 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘
 Lorent Force on section - QR  Lorent Force on section - SP
𝐹𝑄𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑄𝑅 × 𝐵 𝐹𝑆𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑆𝑃 × 𝐵
𝐹𝑄𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑄𝑅 𝑖 × 𝐵 𝑖 𝐹𝑆𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑆𝑃 −𝑖 × 𝐵 𝑖
𝐹𝑄𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑏 𝐵 𝑖 × 𝑖 𝐹𝑆𝑃 = − 𝐼 𝑏𝐵 𝑖 × 𝑖
𝐹𝑆𝑃 = 0
𝐹𝑄𝑅 = 0
 The net force on the rectangular loop is,
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐹𝑃𝑄 + 𝐹𝑄𝑅 + 𝐹𝑅𝑆 + 𝐹𝑆𝑃
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘 + 0 − 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘 + 0
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 0
 Hence the net force on the rectangular loop in this configuration is zero.
 On the other hand forces on sections PQ and RS ar equal and opposite but in different lines and
hence these two forces constitute a couple.
 But the net torque due to these forces about an axis passing through the centre,
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑟1 × 𝐹𝑃𝑄 + 𝑟2 × 𝐹𝑄𝑅 + 𝑟3 × 𝐹𝑅𝑆 + 𝑟4 × 𝐹𝑆𝑃
𝑏 𝑏
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = −𝑖 × 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘 + 0 + 𝑖 × 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 −𝑘 + 0
2 2
𝑏 𝑏
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 −𝑖 × 𝑘 + 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 −𝑖 × 𝑘
2 2
𝑏 𝑏
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 𝑗 + 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 𝑗
2 2
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑎𝑏 𝐼 𝐵 𝑗 = 𝐴 𝐼 𝐵 𝑗
 where, 𝑎𝑏 = 𝐴 → area of the rectangular loop

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 102 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

17. Deduce expressions for torque on a current loop placed in magnetic field when unit vector 𝒏 is
at an angle 𝜽 with 𝑩
Torque on a current loop:
 Consider a rectangular current loop PQRS kept
in uniform magnetic field 𝐵 with its plane
parallel to the field
 Let PQ = RS = a →Length of the loop and
QR = SP = b → Breadth of the loop
 Let 𝑛 be the unit vector normal to the plane of
the current loop.
𝒏 is at an angle 𝜽 with 𝑩:
 Let ‘θ’ be the angle between normal vector 𝒏
and magnetic field 𝑩
 Force on section PQ,  Force on section RS,
𝐹𝑃𝑄 = 𝐼 𝑃𝑄 × 𝐵 𝐹𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑆 × 𝐵
𝐹𝑃𝑄 = 𝐼 𝑃𝑄 −𝐽 × 𝐵 𝑖 𝐹𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑆 𝐽 × 𝐵 𝑖
𝐹𝑃𝑄 = − 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 𝐽 × 𝑖 𝐹𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 𝐽 × 𝑖
𝐹𝑃𝑄 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘 𝐹𝑅𝑆 = − 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘
 Force on section QR, here,  Force on section SP, here,
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑏 cos(90° − 𝜃)𝑖 + 𝑏 sin 90° − 𝜃 (−𝑘) 𝑆𝑃 = 𝑏 cos 90° + 𝜃 (−𝑖) + 𝑏 sin 90° + 𝜃 𝑘
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝑖 − 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑘 𝑆𝑃 = −𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝑖 + 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑘
𝐹𝑄𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑄𝑅 × 𝐵 𝑖 𝐹𝑆𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑆𝑃 × 𝐵 𝑖
𝐹𝑄𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝑖 − 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑘 × 𝐵 𝑖 𝐹𝑆𝑃 = 𝐼 −𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝑖 + 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑘 × 𝐵 𝑖
𝐹𝑄𝑅 = − 𝐼 𝐵 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑘 × 𝑖 𝐹𝑆𝑃 = 𝐼 𝐵 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑘 × 𝑖
𝐹𝑄𝑅 = − 𝐼 𝐵 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑗 𝐹𝑆𝑃 = 𝐼 𝐵 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑗
 The net force on the rectangular loop is,
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐹𝑃𝑄 + 𝐹𝑄𝑅 + 𝐹𝑅𝑆 + 𝐹𝑆𝑃
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘 − 𝐼 𝐵 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑗 − 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘 + 𝐼 𝐵 𝑏 cos 𝜃 𝑗
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 0
 Since the forces on sections QR and SP are
equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and
in same line, no torque produce by these two
sections.

 On the other hand forces on sections PQ and

RS are equal and opposite but in different lines
and hence these two forces constitute a couple.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 103 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

 Hence the net torque produced by these two forces about the axis of the rectangular loop is
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑂𝐴 × 𝐹𝑃𝑄 + 𝑂𝐵 × 𝐹𝑅𝑆
𝑏
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = cos 90° − 𝜃 −𝑖 + sin 90° − 𝜃 𝑘 × 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘
2
𝑏
+ cos 90° − 𝜃 𝑖 + sin 90° − 𝜃 (−𝑘) × (−𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘 )
2
𝑏 𝑏
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = − sin 𝜃 𝑖 + cos 𝜃 𝑘 × 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘 − sin 𝜃 𝑖 − cos 𝜃 𝑘 × 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵𝑘
2 2
𝑏 𝑏
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = − 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑖 × 𝑘 + 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝑘 × 𝑘 −
2 2
𝑏 𝑏
𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑖 × 𝑘 + 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝑘 × 𝑘
2 2
𝑏 𝑏
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = − 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑖 × 𝑘 + 0 − 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑖 × 𝑘 + 0
2 2
𝑏 𝑏
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = − 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 sin 𝜃 −𝑗 − 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 sin 𝜃 −𝑗
2 2
𝑏 𝑏
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑗 + 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑗
2 2
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑎 𝑏 𝐼 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑗
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐴 𝐼 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑗
 But magnetic dipole moment of the current loop; pm = I A then
𝝉𝒓𝒆𝒔 = 𝒑𝒎 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒋 = 𝒑𝒎 × 𝑩
Special Cases:
 𝜃 = 90° then, 𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐴 𝐼 𝐵 𝑗 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐵 𝑗 = maximum
 𝜃 = 0° then, 𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 0
 𝜃 = 180° then, 𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 0
18. Describe the principle, construction and working of moving coil galvanometer.
Moving coil galvanometer:
 It is a device which is used to indicate the flow of current.
Principle:
 When a current carrying loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field it experiences a torque.
Construction:
 It consists of a rectangular coil PQRS of insulated thin copper wire.
 A cylindrical soft-iron core is placed symmetrically inside the coil.
 This rectangular coil is suspended free between two pole pieces of a horse-shoe magnet by means of
phosphor - bronze wire.
 Lower end of the coil is connected to a hair spring which is also made up of phosphor bronze.
 A small plane mirror is attached on the suspension wire to measure the deflection of the coil with
help of lamp and scale arrangement.
 In order to pass electric current through galvanometer, the suspension strip W and the spring S are
connected to terminals.
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 104 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
3. Magnetism And Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current

Working:
 Consider a single turn of rectangular coil PQRS of
length l and breadth b, such that
PQ = RS = l ; QR = SP = b
 Let ‘I’ be the electric current flowing through the
rectangular coil

 The horse-shoe type magnet has hemi-spherical magnetic poles which produces a radial magnetic
field.
 Due to this radial field, the sides QR and SP are always parallel to the magnetic field ‘B’ and
experience no force.
 But the sides PQ and RS are always perpendicular to the magnetic field ‘B’ and experience force and
due to this torque is produced.
 For single turn, the deflecting couple is,
𝜏𝑑𝑒𝑓 = 𝐹𝑏 = 𝐵 𝐼 𝑙 𝑏 = 𝐵 𝐼 𝐴
 For coil with N turns, we get
𝜏𝑑𝑒𝑓 = 𝑁 𝐵 𝐼 𝐴
 Due to this deflecting torque, the coil gets twisted and
restoring torque is developed.

 The magnitude of restoring torque is proportional to amount of twist and it is given by

𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 ∝ 𝜃
𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐾 𝜃
 where, K → restoring couple per unit twist (or) torsional constant
 At equilibrium, 𝜏𝑑𝑒𝑓 = 𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠

𝑁𝐵𝐼𝐴 = 𝐾𝜃
𝑲
𝑰 = 𝜽=𝑮𝜽
𝑵𝑩𝑨
𝐾
 where, 𝐺 = → galvanometer constant (or) current reduction factor
𝑁𝐵𝐴

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 105 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

4. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATE CURRENT

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (BOOK BACK)
1. Define electromagnetic induction.
 Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed coil changes, an emf is induced and hence an
electric current flows in the circuit.
 This emf is called induced emf and the current is called induced current. This phenomenon is called
electromagnetic induction.

2. State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.

 (i) Whenever magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in the circuit.
 (ii) The magnitude of induced emf in a closed circuit is equal to e time rate of change of magnetic
flux linked with the circuit.

3. State Lenz’s law.

 Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced current is such that is always opposes the cause
responsible for its production.

4. State Fleming’s right hand rule.

 The thumb, index finger and middle finger of right hand are stretched out in mutually perpendicular
directions. If index finger points the direction of magnetic field and the thumb points the direction of
motion of the conductor, then the middle finger will indicate the direction of the induced current.
 Fleming’s right hand rule is also known as generator rule.

5. What are called eddy currents? How are they produced?

 When magnetic flux linked with a conductor in the form of a sheet or a plate changes, an emf is
induced. As a result, the induced current flow in concentric circular paths which resembles eddies of
water. Hence these are known as Eddy currents or Foucault currents.

6. What the methods of producing induced emf?

 By changing the magnetic field ‘B’
 By changing the area ‘A’ of the coil
 By changing the relative orientation ‘θ’ of the coil with magnetic field.
7. What is called inductor?
 Inductor is a device used to store energy in a magnetic field when an electric current flows through
it. (e.g.) solenoids and toroids
8. What is called self induction?
 The phenomenon of inducing an emf in a coil, when the magnetic flux linked with the coil itself
changes is called self induction.
 The emf induced is called self-induced emf.
9. What is called mutual induction?
 When an electric current passing through a coil changes with time, an emf is induced in the
neighboring coil. This phenomenon is known as mutual induction and the emf is called mutually
induced emf.
10. State the principle of AC generator (alternator)
 It work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. (i.e.) The relative motion between a conductor
and a magnetic field changes the magnetic flux linked with the conductor which in turn induces an
emf.
 The magnitude of the induced emf is given by Faraday’s law and its direction by Fleming’s right
hand rule.
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 106 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

11. What are the advantages of stationary armature - rotating field alternator?
Advantages of stationary armature - rotating field alternator :
 The current is drawn directly from fixed terminals on the stator without the use of brush contacts.
 The insulation of stationary armature winding is easier.
 The number of slip rings is reduced. Moreover the sliding contacts are used for low-voltage DC
source.
 Armature windings can be constructed more rigidly to prevent deformation due to any mechanical
stress.
12. Distinguish between step up and step down transformer.
Step up transformer Step down transformer
 If the transformer converts an alternating  If the transformer converts an alternating
current with low voltage in to an alternating current with high voltage in to an alternating
current with high voltage is called step up current with low voltage is called step down
transformer. transformer.
13. Define mean value or average value of AC.
 The mean or average value of alternating is defined as the average of all values of current over a
positive half cycle or negative half cycle.
2 𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 0.6371 𝐼𝑚
𝜋
14. Define RMS value of AC.
 The root mean square value of an alternating current is defined as the square root of the mean of the
square of all currents over one cycle.
𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = 0.707 𝐼𝑚
2
15. Define phasor and phasor diagram.
 A sinusoidal alternating voltage or current can be represented by a vector which rotates about the
origin in anti-clockwise direction at a constant angular velocity ‘ω’. Such a rotating vector is called a
phasor.
 The diagram which shows various phasors and phase relations is called phasor diagram.
16. Define resonance.
 When the frequency of the applied source is equal to the natural frequency of the RLC circuit, the
current in the circuit reaches it maximum value. Then the circuit is said to be in electrical resonance.
17. Define resonance frequency.
 The frequency at which resonance takes place is called resonant frequency.
 Hence the condition for resonance is : XL = XC
18. Define Q - factor or quality factor.
 Q - factor is defined as the ratio of voltage across L or C to the applied voltage at resonance.
19. Define wattless current.
 If the power consumed by an AC circuit is zero, then the current in that circuit is said to be wattless
current. This wattless current happens in a purely inductive or capacitive circuit.
20. Define power factor.
 Power factor (cos ∅) of a circuit is defined as the cosine of the angle of lead or lag
 Power factor is also defined as the ratio of true power to the apparent power.
21. What are called LC oscillations?
 Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a pure inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of
capacitance C, the energy oscillates back and forth between the magnetic field of the inductor and
the electric field of the capacitor.
 Thus the electrical oscillations of definite frequency are generated. These oscillations are called LC
oscillations.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 107 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS ( CONCEPTUAL)

22. Define magnetic flux.
 The magnetic flux through an area ‘A’ in a field is defined as the number of magnetic field lines
passing through that area normally.
 The S.I unit of magnetic flux is T m2 (or) weber
23. What is the importance of electromagnetic induction?
 There is an ever growing demand for electric power for the operation of almost all the devices used
in present day life.
 All these are met with the help of electric generators and transformer which function on
electromagnetic induction.
24. A spherical stone and a spherical metallic ball of same size and mass are dropped from the
same height. Which one will reach earth’s surface first? Justify your answer.
 The stone will reach the earth’s surface earlier than the metal ball.
 Because when the metal ball falls through the magnetic field of earth, the eddy currents are produced
in it which opposed its motion.
 But in the case of stone, no eddy currents are produced and it falls freely.
25. Define self inductance or coefficient of self induction.
 Self inductance of a coil is defined as the flux linkage of the coil, when 1 A current flows through it.
 Its S.I unit is H (or) WbA-1 (or) V s A-1
 Its dimension is [ML2T-2A-2]
26. Define the unit of self inductance (one henry)
 The inductance of the coil is one henry, if a current changing at the rate of 1 A s-1 induces an
opposing emf of 1 V in it.
27. Define mutual inductance or coefficient of mutual induction.
 Mutual inductance is also defined as the opposing emf induced in the one coil, when the rate of
change of current through the other coil is 1 A s-1
 Its S.I unit is H (or) WbA-1 (or) V s A-1
 Its dimension is [ML2T-2A-2]
28. How an emf is induced by changing the magnetic field?
 Change in magnetic flux of the field is brought about by,
 (i) The relative motion between the circuit and the magnet
 (ii) Variation in current flowing through the nearby coil
29. What is called AC generator or alternator?
 AC generator is a device which converts mechanical energy used to rotate the coil or field magnet in
to electrical energy.
30. State single phase AC generator.
 In a single phase AC generator, the armature conductors are connected in series so as to form a
single circuit which generates a single – phase alternating emf and hence it is called single-phase
alternator.
31. State three phase AC generators.
 If there are three separate coils, which would give three separate emf’s then they are called three
phase AC generators.
32. What are the advantages of three phase AC generators?
 For a given dimension of the generator, three - phase machine produces higher power output than a
single -phase machine.
 For the same capacity, three phase alternator is smaller in size when compared to single phase
generators.
 Three phase transmission system is cheaper. A relatively thinner wire is sufficient for transmission
of three phase power.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 108 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

33. What is called transformer?

 It is a stationary device used to transform electrical power from one circuit to another without
changing its frequency.
 The applied alternating voltage is either increased or decreased with corresponding decrease or
increase in current in the circuit.
34. State the principle of transformer.
 The principle of transformer is the mutual induction between two coils. (i.e.) when an electric
current passing through a coil changes with time, and emf is induced in the neighboring coil.
35. Define the efficiency of the transformer.
 The efficiency (𝜂) of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the useful output power to the input
power.
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂= × 100%
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
36. Define Sinusoidal alternating voltage.
 If the waveform of alternating voltage is a sine wave, then it is known as sinusoidal alternating
voltage and it is given by,
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
37. Define effective value of alternating current.
 RMS value of AC is also called effective value of AC
 The effective value of AC (Ieff) is defined as the value of steady current which when flowing rough a
given circuit for a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating
current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
38. The common house hold appliances, the voltage rating is specified as 230 V, 50 Hz. What is the
meaning of it?
 The voltage rating specified in the common house hold appliances indicates the RMS value or
effective value of AC. (i.e.) 𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 230 𝑉
 Its peak value will be, 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 2 = 230 × 1.414 = 325 𝑉
 Also 50 Hz indicates, the frequency of domestic AC supply.
39. Define Phasor diagram
 The diagram which shows various phasors and their phase relations is called phasor diagram.
40. Draw the phasor diagram for an alternating voltage 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕

41. Define inductive reactance.

 The resistance offered by the inductor in an ac circuit is called inductive reactance and it is given by
𝑿𝑳 = 𝝎𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳.
 Its unit is ohm (𝛀)
42. An inductor blocks AC but it allows DC. Why?
 The DC current flows through an inductor produces uniform magnetic field and the magnetic flux
linked remains constant. Hence there is no self induction and self induced emf (opposing emf). So
DC flows through an inductor.
 But AC flows through an inductor produces time varying magnetic field which in turn induces self
induced emf and this opposes any change in the current. Since AC varies both in magnitude and
direction, it flow is opposed by the back emf induced in the inductor and hence inductor blocks AC

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 109 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

43. Define capacitive reactance.

 The resistance offered by the capacitor is an ac circuit is called capacitive reactance and it is given
𝟏 𝟏
by; 𝑿𝑪 = 𝝎𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
 Its unit is ohm (𝛀)
44. A capacitor blocks DC but it allows AC. Why?
 When DC flows through capacitor, electrons flows from negative terminal and accumulated at on
plate making negative and hence another plate becomes positive. This process is known as charging
and once capacitor is fully charged, the current will stop and we say capacitor blocks DC.
 But AC flows through capacitor, the electron flow in one direction while charging the capacitor and
its direction is reversed while discharging. Though electrons flow in the circuit, no electrons crosses
the gap between the plates. In this way, AC flows through a capacitor.
45. What are the applications of series RLC resonant circuit?
 RLC circuits have many applications like filter circuits, oscillators, voltage multipliers etc.,
 An important use of series RLC resonant circuits is in the tuning circuits of radio and TV systems.
To receive the signal of a particular station among various broadcasting stations at different
frequencies, tuning is done.
46. Resonance will occur only in LC circuits. Why?
 When the circuits contains both L and C, then voltage across L and C cancel one another when VL
and VC are 180O out of phase and the circuit becomes purely resistive.
 This implies that resonance will not occur in a RL and RC circuits.
47. Define power in an AC circuits.
 Power of a circuit is defined as the rate of consumption of electric energy in that circuit.
 It is the product of the voltage and current.
48. Define Flux linkage.
 The product of magnetic flux (ΦB) linked with each turn of the coil and the total number of turns (N)
in the coil is called flux linkage (NΦB)
49. Define impedance of RLC circuit.
 The effective opposition by resistor, inductor and capacitor to the circuit current in the series RLC
circuit is called impedance 𝒁 = 𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 Marks)
1. Establish the fact that the relative motion between the coil and the magnet induces an emf in
the coil of a closed circuit.
Faraday’s experiment - 1:

 Consider a closed circuit consisting of a coil ‘C’ and a galvanometer ‘G’. Initially the galvanometer
shows no deflection.
 When a bar magnet move towards the stationary coil with its north pole (N) facing the coil, there is a
momentary deflection in the galvanometer. This indicates that an electric current is set up in the coil
 If the magnet is kept stationary inside the coil, the galvanometer does not indicate deflection.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 110 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 The bar magnet is now withdrawn from the coil, the galvanometer again gives a momentary
deflection but is opposite.
 This indicates current flows in opposite direction.
 Now if the magnet is moved faster, it gives a larger deflection due to a greater current in the circuit.
 The bar magnet is reversed (i.e.) the south pole now faces the coil and the experiment is repeated,
same results are obtained but the directions of deflection get reversed.
 Simillarly if the magnet is kept stationary and the coil moved towards or away from the coil, similar
results are obtained.
 Thus the above experiments concluded that, whenever there is a relative motion between coil and the
magnet, there is a deflection in the galvanometer, indicating the electric current set up in the coil.
2. Prove that experimentally if the current in a one closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in
another circuit.

Faraday’s experiment - 2:
 Consider a closed circuit called
primary consisting of coil ‘P’, a
battery ‘B’ and a key ‘K’
 Consider an another closed circuit
called secondary consisting of
coil ‘S and a galvanometer ‘G’

 Here the two coils ‘P’ and ‘S’ are kept at rest in close proximity with respect to one another.
 When the primary circuit is closed, current starts flowing in this circuit.
 At this time, the galvanometer gives a momentary deflection.
 After that, when current reaches a steady value, no deflection is observed in the galvanometer.
 Similarly, if the primary circuit is broken, current starts decreasing and there is again a momentary
deflection but in the opposite direction.
 When current becomes zero, the galvanometer shows no deflection.
 From the above observations, it is concluded that whenever the electric current in the primary
changes, the galvanometer in secondary shows a deflection.
3. How we understood the conclusions obtained from Faraday’s experiment.
Faraday’s experiment - Explanation:
Experiment - 1:
 In the first experiment, when a bar magnet is placed close to a coil, then there is some magnetic flux
linked with the coil.
 When the bar magnet and coil approach each other, the magnetic flux linked with the coil increases
and this increase in magnetic flux induces an emf and hence a transient current flows in one
direction.
 At the same time, when they recede away from one another, the magnetic flux linked with the coil
decreases.
 The decrease in magnetic flux again induces an emf in opposite direction and hence an electric
current flows in opposite direction.
So there is deflection in the galvanometer, when there is a relative motion between the coil and the
magnet.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 111 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

Experiment - 2:
 In the second experiment, when the primary coil ‘P’ carries an electric current, a magnetic field
established around it.
 The magnetic lines of this field pass through itself and the neighbouring secondary coil ‘S’
 When the primary circuit is open, no current flows in it and hence the magnetic flux linked with
secondary coil is zero
 When the primary circuit is closed, the increasing current increases the magnetic flux linked with
primary as well as secondary coil.
 This increasing flux induces a current in the secondary coil.
 When the current in the primary coil reaches a steady value, the magnetic flux linked with the
secondary coil does not change and the current in it will disappear.
 Similarly, when the primary circuit is broken, the decreasing current induces an electric current in
the secondary coil, but in opposite direction.
 So there is a deflection in the galvanometer, whenever there is a change in the primary current.
4. State and explain Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
Faraday’s first law:
 Whenever magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in the circuit.
 The induced emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
Faraday’s second law:
 The magnitude of induced emf in a closed circuit is equal to e time rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with the circuit.
 If magnetic flux linked with the coil changes by dΦB in time dt , then the induced emf is given by,
𝑑∅𝐵
𝜖= −
𝑑𝑡
 The negative sign in the above equation gives the direction of the induced current
 If a coil consisting of ‘N’ turns, then
𝑑∅𝐵 𝑑(𝑁∅𝐵 )
𝜖 = −𝑁 = −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Here N ΦB is called flux linkage.
5. Give an illustration of determining direction of induced current by using Lenz’s law.
 Explanation of Lenz’s law:

 Let a bar magnet move towards the solenoid with its north pole pointing the solenoid.
 This motion increases the magnetic flux linked with the solenoid and hence an electric current is
induced.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 112 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 Due to the flow of induced current, the coils become a magnetic dipole whose two magnetic poles
are on either end of the coil.
 Here the cause producing the induced current is the movement of the magnet.
 According to Lenz’s law, the induced current should flow in such a way that it opposed the
movement of the north pole towards coil.
 It is possible if the end nearer to the magnet becomes north pole. Then it repels the north pole of the
bar magnet and opposed the movement of the magnet.
 Once pole end are known, the direction of the induced current could be found by using right hand
thumb rule.
 When the bar magnet is withdrawn, the nearer end becomes south pole which attracts north pole of
the bar magnet, opposing the receding of the magnet.
Thus the direction of the induced current can be found from Lenz’s law.
6. Show that Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
Conservation of energy - Lenz’s law:
 According to Lenz’s law, when a magnet is move either towards or away from a coil, the induced
current produced opposes its motion.
 As a result, there will always be a resisting force on the moving magnet. So work has to be done by
some external agency to move the magnet against this resistive force.
 Here the mechanical energy of the moving magnet is converted into the electrical energy which in
turn gets converted in to Joule heat in the coil. (i.e.) Energy is conserved from one form to another
on the contrary to Lenz’s law, let us assume that the induced current helps the cause responsible for
its production.
 If we push the magnet little bit towards the coil, the induced current helps the movement of the
magnet towards the coil.
 Then the magnet starts moving towards the coil without any expense of energy, which is impossible
in practice.
 Therefore the assumption that the induced current helps the cause is wrong.
7. Obtain an expression for motional emf from Faraday’s law.
Motional emf from Faraday’s law:
 Consider a rectangular loop of width ‘l’ in a uniform
magnetic field 𝑩 which is directed perpendicularly in
to plane of the paper.
 A part of the loop is in the magnetic field, while the
remaining part is outside the field.
 If the loop is pulled with a constant velocity 𝒗
towards right side, then the magnetic flux linked with
the loop will decrease.
 According to Faraday’s law, current is induced in
loop which flows in a direction so as to oppose the
pull of the loop.
 Let ‘x ’ be the length of the loop which is still within the magnetic field, then its area = l x
 Then the magnetic flux linked with the loop is,

∅𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑑𝐴 cos 0° = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵𝑙𝑥

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 113 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 As this magnetic flux decreases, the magnitude of the induced emf is given by,
𝑑∅𝐵 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝜖= = 𝐵𝑙𝑥 = 𝐵𝑙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜖 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
 This emf is known as motional emf, since it is produced due to the movement of the loop in the
magnetic field.
 From Lenz’s law, it is found that the induced current flows in clockwise direction.

8. Obtain an expression for motional emf from Lorentz force.

Motional emf from Lorentz force:
 Consider a straight conductor rod AB of length ‘l’ in a
uniform magnetic field 𝑩 which is directed perpendicularly
in to plane of the paper.
 Let the rod move with a constant velocity 𝒗 towards right
side.
 When the rod moves, the free electrons present in it also
move with same velocity 𝒗 in 𝑩
 As a result, the Lorentz force acts on free electron in the
direction from B to A and it is given by,
𝐹𝐵 = −𝑒 (𝑣 × 𝐵)
 Due to this force, all the free electrons are accumulate at the end A which produces the potential
difference across the rod which in turn establishes an electric field 𝑬 directed along BA
 Due to the electric field, the Coulomb force starts acting on the free electron along AB and it is given
by,
𝐹𝐸 = −𝑒 𝐸
 At equilibrium,
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐸
−𝑒 𝑣 × 𝐵 = −𝑒 𝐸
𝐵𝑒𝑣 sin 90° = 𝑒𝐸
𝐵𝑣 = 𝐸
 The potential difference between two ends of the rod is ,
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑙 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙
 Thus the Lorentz force on the free electrons is responsible to maintain this potential difference and
hence produces an emf
𝜖 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
 Since this emf is produced due to the movement of the rod, it is often called as motional emf.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 114 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

9. Explain energy conservation.

Energy conservation:
 Let a loop placed in a magnetic field 𝑩 is pulled with a
constant velocity 𝒗 towards right side.
 Due to this movement, the loop experiences magnetic
forces.
 Let 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 forces acting on the three segments of
the loop
 Here 𝐹2 and 𝐹3 are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction and cancel each other.
 Therefore the force 𝐹1 alone acts on the left segment towards left side which is given by,
𝐹1 = 𝑖𝑙 × 𝐵
𝐹1 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 sin 90° = 𝑖𝑙𝐵
 In order to move the loop a constant force 𝑭 is applied which is equal to the magnetic force. So
𝐹 = −𝐹1
 In magnitude,
𝜖 𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝐹 = 𝐹1 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 = 𝑙𝐵 = 𝑙𝐵
𝑅 𝑅
𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣
𝐹=
𝑅
 Where, R → resistance of the loop ∈ → emf
 The rate at which the mechanical work is done to pull the loop (i.e.) the power is
𝑃 = 𝐹 . 𝑣 = 𝐹𝑣 cos 0° = 𝐹𝑣
𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣
𝑃 == 𝑣
𝑅
𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣 2
𝑃=
𝑅
 When the induced current flows in the loop, Joule heating takes place. The rate at which thermal
energy (i.e.) power dissipated in the loop is,
2
2
𝜖 2 𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝑃=𝑖 𝑅= 𝑅= 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅

𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣 2
𝑃=
𝑅
 Thus equation (3) and (4) are same. (i.e.) the mechanical work done in moving the loop appears as
thermal energy in the loop.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 115 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

10. Define eddy currents. Demonstrate the production of eddy currents.

Eddy currents:
 When magnetic flux linked with a conductor in the
form of a sheet or a plate changes, an emf is induced.
 As a result, the induced current flow in concentric
circular paths which resembles eddies of water.
 Hence these are known as Eddy currents or Foucault
currents.
Demonstration:
 Let a pendulum that can be freely suspended between the poles of a powerful electromagnet.
 Keeping the magnetic field switched off, if the pendulum is made to oscillate, it executes a large
number of oscillations before stops. Here air friction is only damping force.
 When the electro magnet is switched on, and the pendulum is made to oscillate, it comes to rest
within a few oscillations. Because eddy currents are produced in it and it will oppose the oscillations
(Lenz’s law)
 However some slots are cut in the disc, the eddy currents are reduced and now the pendulum
executes several oscillations before coming to rest.
 This clearly demonstrates the production of eddy current in the disc of the pendulum.
11. What are the drawbacks of Eddy currents? How it is minimized?
Drawbacks of Eddy currents:
 When eddy currents flow in the conductor, a large amount of energy is dissipated in the form of heat.
 The energy loss due to flow of eddy current is inevitable but it can be reduced.
 To reduce eddy current losses, the core of the transformer is made up of thin laminas insulated from
one another. In case of electric motor the winding is made up of a group of wire insulated from one
another.
 The insulation used does not allow huge eddy currents to flow and hence losses are minimized.
12. Explain self induction and define coefficient of self induction on the basis of (1) magnetic flux
and (2) induced emf

Self induction:
 When an electric current flowing through a coil
changes, an emf is induced in the same coil. This
phenomenon is known as self induction. The emf
induced is called self-induced emf.
 Let ΦB be the magnetic flux linked with each turn of
the coil of turn ‘N’, then total flux linkage (N ΦB ) is
directly proportional to the current ‘i’
𝑁∅𝐵 ∝ 𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑁∅𝐵 = 𝐿𝑖

 Where, L → constant called coefficient of self induction (or) self inductance

 When the current (i) changes with time, an emf is induced in the coil and it is given by,

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 116 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

𝑑(𝑁∅𝐵 ) 𝑑 𝑑𝑖
𝜖= − =− 𝐿𝑖 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜖
𝐿 = − 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡

Coefficient of self induction - Definition:

 Self inductance of a coil is defined as the flux linkage of the coil, when 1 A current flows through it.
 Self inductance of a coil is also defined as the opposing emf induced in the coil, when the rate of
change of current through the coil is 1 A s -1
13. How will you define the unit of inductance?
Unit of inductance:
 Inductance is a scalar and its unit is Wb A-1 (or) V s A-1 (or) henry (H)
 It dimension is [ML2T-2A-2 ]
Definition - 1:
 The self inductance is given by,
𝑵∅𝑩
𝑳=
𝒊
 Here i = 1A and 𝑵∅𝑩 = 𝟏 𝑾𝒃-Turns, then L= 1H
 The inductance of the coil is one henry if a current of 1 A produces unit flux linkage in the coil.
Definition - 2:
 The self inductance is given by,
𝜖
𝐿 = − 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
 Here 𝜖 = 1𝑉 and 𝑑𝑡 = 1 𝐴 𝑠 −1 then L= 1H
 The inductance of the coil is one henry if a current changing at the rate of 1 𝐴 𝑠 −1 induces an
opposing emf of 1 V in it.
14. Discuss the physical significance of inductance.
Physical inductance of inductance:
 Generally inertia means opposition to change the state of the body.
 In translational motion, mass is a measure of inertia, whereas in
rotational motion, moment of inertia is a measure of rotational inertia.
 Simillarly inductance plays the same role in a circuit as the mass and
moment of inertia play in mechanical motion.
 When a circuit is switched on, the increasing current induces an emf
which opposes the growth of current in a circuit.
 Simillarly, when a circuit is broken, the decreasing current induces an
emf in the reverse direction which opposed the decay of the current.
 Thus inductance on the coil opposes any change in current and tries to
maintain the original state.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 117 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

15. Assuming that the length of the solenoid is large when compared to its diameter, find the
equation for its inductance.
Self inductance of a long solenoid (L):
 Consider a long solenoid of length ‘l’, area of cross
section ‘A’ having ‘N’ number of turns
 Let ‘n’ be number of turns per unit length (i.e.) turn
density
 When an electric current ‘i’ is passed through coil,
a magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid is,
𝑩 = 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝒊
 Due to this field, the magnetic flux linked with the
solenoid is,

∅𝑩 = 𝑩. 𝒅𝑨 = 𝑩 𝒅𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎° = 𝑩𝑨

∅𝑩 = [ 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝒊 ]𝑨
 Hence the total magnetic flux linked in N turns (i.e.) flux linkage
𝑵∅𝑩 = 𝑵 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝒊𝑨 = (𝒏𝒍)𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝒊𝑨
𝑵∅𝑩 = 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟐 𝒊𝑨𝒍
 Let ‘L’ be the self inductance of the solenoid, then
𝑵∅𝑩 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟐 𝒊𝑨𝒍
𝑳= =
𝒊 𝒊
𝟐
𝑳 = 𝝁𝑶 𝒏 𝑨𝒍
 If the solenoid is filled with a dielectric medium of relative permeability ‘𝝁𝒓 ’, then
𝑳 = 𝝁𝑶 𝝁𝒓 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝒍 = 𝝁𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝒍
 Thus, the inductance depends on
o Geometry of the solenoid
o Number of turns
o Medium present inside the solenoid
16. An inductor of inductance ‘L’ carries an electric current ‘ i ’. How much energy is stored while
establishing the current in it?
Energy stored in an solenoid:
 Whenever a current is established in the circuit, the inductance opposes the growth of the current.
 To establish the current, work has to done against this opposition. This work done is stored as
magnetic potential energy.
 Consider an inductor of negligible resistance, the induced emf ‘∈’ at any instant ‘t’ is
𝒅𝒊
𝝐 = −𝑳
𝒅𝒕
 Let ‘dW’ be the workdone in moving a charge ‘dq’ in a time ‘dt’ against the opposition, then
𝒅𝑾 = −𝝐 𝒅𝒒 = −𝝐 𝒊 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒊
𝒅𝑾 = − −𝑳 𝒊 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑳 𝒊 𝒅𝒊
𝒅𝒕

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 118 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 Total work done in establishing the current ‘i’ is

𝒊
𝒊𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝑾= 𝒅𝑾 = 𝑳 𝒊 𝒅𝒊 = 𝑳 = 𝑳𝒊
𝟐 𝟎
𝟐
 This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy. (i.e.)
𝟏 𝟐
𝑼𝑩 =
𝑳𝒊
𝟐
 The volume of the solenoid is A l. The energy stored per unit volume of the space is called energy
density (𝒖𝑩 ) and it is given by,
𝟐𝟏
𝑼𝑩 𝟐 𝑳𝒊 𝟏 (𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝒍)𝒊𝟐
𝒖𝑩 = = =
𝑨𝒍 𝑨𝒍 𝟐 𝑨𝒍
𝟐 𝟐
𝝁𝑶 𝒏 𝒊
𝒖𝑩 =
𝟐
 And also 𝑩 = 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝒊 then
𝑩
𝒖𝑩 =
𝟐𝝁𝑶
17. Explain mutual induction. Define coefficient of mutual induction on the basis of (1) magnetic
flux and (2) induced emf
 Mutual induction:

 When an electric current passing through a coil changes with time, an emf is induced in the
neighbouring coil. This phenomenon is known as mutual induction and the emf is called mutually
induced emf.
 Consider two coils 1 and 2 which are placed close to each other.
 If an electric current ‘i1’ is sent through coil -1, the magnetic field produced by it also linked with the
coil -2
 Let ‘Φ21’ be the magnetic flux linked with each turn of the coil-2 of N2 turns due to coil -1, then total
flux linked with coil -2 is proportional to the current ‘I1’ in the coil -1 (i.e.)
𝑁2 ∅21 ∝ 𝑖1 𝑜𝑟 𝑁2 ∅21 = 𝑀21 𝑖1
𝑁2 ∅21
𝑀21 =
𝑖1

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4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 Here M21 → constant called coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance coil -2 with
respect to coil -1
 When the current ‘i1’ changes with time, an emf ‘∈2’ is induced in coil -2 and it is given by,
𝑑(𝑁2 ∅21 ) 𝑑 𝑑𝑖1
𝜖2 = − =− 𝑀21 𝑖1 = −𝑀21
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜖2
𝑀21 = − 𝑑 𝑖
1
𝑑𝑡
 Simillarly,
𝑁1 ∅12
𝑀12 =
𝑖2
𝜖1
𝑀12 = − 𝑑𝑖
2
𝑑𝑡

 Here M21 → constant called coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance coil-2 with respect
to coil-1
Coefficient of mutual induction - Definition:
 The mutual inductance is defined as the flux linkage of the one coil, when 1 A current flow through
other coil.
 Mutual inductance is also the opposing emf induced in one coil, when the rate of change of current
through other coil is 1 A s−1
18. Show that the mutual inductance between a pair of coils is same (M12=M21)
Mutual inductance between a pair of coils:
 Consider two long co-axial solenoids of same length ‘l’
 Let A1 and A2 be the area of cross section of the solenoids.
Here A1 > A2
 Let the turn density of these solenoids are n1 and n2
respectively.
 Let ‘i1’ be the current flowing through solenoid -1, then
the magnetic field produced inside it is,
𝑩𝟏 = 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟏 𝒊𝟏
 Hence the magnetic flux linked with each turn of solenoid -2 due to solenoid -1 is
∅𝟐𝟏 = 𝑩𝟏 . 𝒅𝑨𝟐 = 𝑩𝟏 𝒅𝑨𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎° = 𝑩𝟏 𝑨𝟐

∅𝟐𝟏 = (𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟏 𝒊𝟏 )𝑨𝟐

 Then total flux linkage of solenoid -2 of N2 turns is
𝑵𝟐 ∅𝟐𝟏 = (𝒏𝟐 𝒍)(𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟏 𝒊𝟏 )𝑨𝟐
𝑵𝟐 ∅𝟐𝟏 = 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍𝒊𝟏
 So the mutual inductance of solenoid -2 with respect to solenoid -1 is given by,
𝑁2 ∅21 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍𝒊𝟏
𝑀21 = =
𝑖1 𝑖1
𝑀21 = 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍 − − − − − −(𝟏)

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4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 Simillarly, Let ‘i2’ be the current flowing through solenoid -2, then the magnetic field produced
inside it is,
𝑩𝟐 = 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟐 𝒊𝟐
 Hence the magnetic flux linked with each turn of solenoid -1 due to solenoid -2 is
∅𝟏𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐 . 𝒅𝑨𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐 𝒅𝑨𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎° = 𝑩𝟐 𝑨𝟐

 Then total flux linkage of solenoid -1 of N1 turns is

𝑵𝟏 ∅𝟏𝟐 = (𝒏𝟏 𝒍)(𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟐 𝒊𝟐 )𝑨𝟐
𝑵𝟏 ∅𝟏𝟐 = 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍𝒊𝟐
 So the mutual inductance of solenoid -1 with respect to solenoid -2 is given by,
𝑁1 ∅12 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍𝒊𝟐
𝑀12 = =
𝑖2 𝑖2
𝑀12 = 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍 − − − − − −(𝟐)
 From equation (2) and (4), M12=M21
 In general, the mutual inductance between two long co-axial solenoids is given by
𝑀 = 𝝁𝑶 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍
 If the solenoid is filled with a dielectric medium of relative permeability ‘𝝁𝒓 ’, then
𝑀 = 𝝁𝑶 𝝁𝒓 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍 = 𝝁𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍
 Thus, the inductance depends on
o Geometry of the solenoid
o Number of turns
o Medium present inside the solenoid
o Proximity of the two solenoids
19. How will you induce an emf by changing the area enclosed by the coil.
EMF induced by changing area enclosed by the coil
 Consider a conducting rod of length ‘l’ moving with a velocity ‘v’
towards left on a rectangular metallic frame work.
 The whole arrangement is placed in a uniform magnetic field ‘𝑩’ acting
perpendicular to the plane of the coil inwards.
 As the rod moves from AB to DC in a time ‘dt’, the area enclosed by
the loop and hence the magnetic flux through the loop decreases.
 The change in magnetic flux in time ’dt’ is
𝑑∅𝐵 = 𝐵 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵 (𝑙 × 𝑣𝑑𝑡)
𝑑∅𝐵
=𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝑑𝑡
 This change in magnetic flux results and induced emf and it is given by,
𝑑∅𝐵
𝜖=
=𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝑑𝑡
 This emf is called motional emf. The direction of induced current is found to be clock wise from
Fleming’s right hand rule.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 121 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

20. Explain various energy losses in a transformer.

Energy losses in a transformer:
1. Core loss or Iron loss:
 Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss are known as core loss or Iron loss.
 When transformer core is magnetized or demagnetized repeatedly by the alternating voltage applied
across primary coil, hysteresis takes place and some energy lost in the form of heat. It is minimized
by using silicone steel in making transformer core.
 Alternating magnetic flux in the core induces eddy currents in it. Therefore there is energy loss due
to the flow of eddy current called eddy current loss. It is minimized by using very thin laminations of
transformer core.
2. Copper loss:
 The primary and secondary coils in transformer have electrical resistance.
 When an electric current flows through them, some amount of energy is dissipated due to Joule’s
heating and it is known as copper loss.
 It is minimized by using wires of larger diameter (thick wire)
3. Flux leakage:
 The magnetic flux linked with primary coil is not completely linked with secondary.
 Energy loss due to this flux leakage is minimize by winding coils one over the other.
21. Discuss the advantages of AC in long distance power transmission.
Long distance power transmission:
 The electric power is generated in power stations using AC generators are transmitted over long
distances through transmission lines to reach towns or cities. This process is called power
transmission.
 But during power transmission, due to Joule’s heating (I2R) in the transmission lines, sizable fraction
of electric power is lost.
 This power loss can be reduced either by reducing current (I) or by reducing resistance (R)
 Here the resistance ‘R’ can be reduced with thick wires of copper or aluminium. But this increases
the cost of production of transmission lines and hence this method is not economically viable.
 Thus by using transformer, the current is reduced by stepped up the alternating voltage and thereby
reducing power losses to a greater extent.
Illustration:
 Let an electric power of 2 MW is transmitted through the transmission lines of resistance 40 Ω at 10
kV and 100 kV
1) P = 2 MW, R =40 Ω, V = 10 kV then,
𝑃 2 × 106
𝐼= = = 200 𝐴
𝑉 10 × 103
Power loss = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 = (𝟐𝟎𝟎)𝟐 × 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑾
𝟏.𝟔 ×𝟏𝟎𝟔
% of Power loss = = 𝟎. 𝟖 = 𝟖𝟎 %
𝟐 ×𝟏𝟎𝟔
2) P = 2 MW, R =40 Ω, V = 100 kV then,
𝑃 2 × 106
𝐼= = = 20 𝐴
𝑉 100 × 103
Power loss = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 = (𝟐𝟎)𝟐 × 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑾
𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟔 ×𝟏𝟎𝟔
% of Power loss = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟖 %
𝟐 ×𝟏𝟎𝟔

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 122 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 Thus it is clear that, when an electric power transmitted at high voltage, the power loss is reduced to
a large extent.
 So at transmitting point the voltage is increased and the corresponding current is decreased by using
step-up transformer. At receiving point, the voltage is decreased and the current is increased by
using step-down transformer
22. Obtain the expression for average value of alternating current.
Average or Mean value of AC:
 The average value of AC is defined as the average of all values of current over a positive half-cycle
or negative half-cycle.
Expression:
 The average or mean value of AC over one complete cycle is zero. Thus the average or mean value
is measured over one half of a cycle.
 The alternating current at any instant is
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃
 The sum of all currents over a half-cycle is given by area of positive half-cycle (or) negative half-
cycle.
 Consider an elementary strip of thickness ‘dθ’ in positive half-cycle,
 Area of the elementary strip = i dθ
 Then area of positive half-cycle,
𝜋 𝜋

= 𝑖 𝑑𝜃 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝐼𝑚 [− cos 𝜃]𝜋0

0 0

= −𝐼𝑚 [cos 𝜋 − cos 0] = −𝐼𝑚 [−1 − 1] = 2𝐼𝑚

 Then Average value of AC,
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝐼𝑎𝑣 =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
2𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 0.637 𝐼𝑚
𝜋
 For negative half-cycle; 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = − 0.637 𝐼𝑚
23. Obtain an expression for RMS value of alternating current.
RMS value of AC (IRMS):
 The root mean square value of an alternating current is defined as the square root of the mean of the
squares of all currents over one cycle.
Expression:
 The alternating current at any instant is
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃
 The sum of the squares of all currents over one cycle is given by the area of one cycle of squared
wave.
 Consider an elementary area of thickness ‘dθ’ in the first half-cycle of the squared current wave. The
element = 𝒊𝟐 𝒅𝜽

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 123 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 Area of one cycle of squared wave,

2𝜋 2𝜋

= 𝒊𝟐 𝒅𝜽 = 𝐼𝑚 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 𝒅𝜽
0 0
2𝜋
𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽
= 𝐼𝑚 𝟐 𝒅𝜽 [∵ cos 2𝜃 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃]
𝟐
0
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝑚 𝟐
= 𝒅𝜽 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 𝒅𝜽
𝟐
0 0
𝟐 2𝜋
𝐼𝑚 sin 2𝜃
= 𝜃−
𝟐 2 0
𝟐
𝐼𝑚 sin 4𝜋 sin 0
= 2𝜋 − −0+
𝟐 2 2
𝐼𝑚 𝟐
= 2𝜋 = 𝐼𝑚 𝟐 𝜋
𝟐
 Hence,

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒

𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

𝐼𝑚 𝟐 𝜋 𝐼𝑚 𝟐
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = =
2𝜋 2
𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = 0.707 𝐼𝑚
2
 Simillarly for alternating voltage, it can be shown that,
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = 0.707 𝑉𝑚
2
 RMS value of AC is also called effective value (Ieff)

24. Draw the phasor diagram and wave diagram for that current ‘i’ leads the voltage ‘V’ by phase
angle of ‘Φ’
Phasor and wave diagram of ‘i’ leads ‘V’ by ‘Φ’

 Let the alternating current and voltage at any instant is,

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 124 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

25. Find out the phase relationship between voltage and current in a pure resistive circuit.
 AC circuit containing pure resistor:

 Let a pure resistor of resistance ‘R’ connected across an alternating voltage source ‘v’
 The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage is given by,
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
 Let ‘i’ be the alternating current flowing in the circuit due to this voltage, then the potential drop
across ‘R’ is
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖 𝑅
 From Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
𝑣 − 𝑉𝑅 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑅
𝑉𝑚
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − −(2)
𝑉𝑚
 Here = 𝐼𝑚 → Peak value of AC
𝑅

 From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that, the applied voltage and the current are in phase with each
other. This is indicated in the phasor and wave diagram.

26. Find out the phase relationship between voltage and current in a pure inductive circuit.
 AC circuit containing pure inductor:

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 125 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 Let a pure inductor of inductance ‘L’ connected across an alternating voltage source ‘v’
 The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage is given by,
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − −(1)
 Let ‘i’ be the alternating current flowing in the circuit due to this voltage, which induces a self
induced emf (back emf) across ‘L’ and it is given by
𝑑𝑖
𝜖 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
 From Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
𝑣 − −𝜖 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = −𝜖
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = − −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝑑𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
 Integrate on both sides,
𝑉𝑚
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝑉𝑚 – cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑖= = − sin − 𝜔𝑡
𝐿 𝜔 𝜔𝐿 2
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝜔𝐿 2
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − − −(2)
2
𝑉𝑚
 Where, 𝜔𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚 → peak value of AC
𝜋
 From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that current lags behind the applied voltage by .
2
 This is indicated in the phasor and wave diagram.
Inductive reactance (XL):
 In pure inductive circuit, ‘ωL’ is the resistance offered by the inductor and it is called inductive
reactance (XL). Its unit is ohm (Ω)
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
 Here, f → Frequency of the alternate current
 Its unit is ohm (Ω)
27. Find out the phase relationship between voltage and current in a pure capacitive circuit.
AC circuit containing pure capacitor:

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 126 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 Let a pure capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ connected across an alternating voltage source ‘v’
 The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage is given by,
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − −(1)
 Let ‘q’ be the instantaneous charge on the capacitor. The emf across the capacitor at that instant is,
𝑞
𝜖=
𝐶
 From Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
𝑣 − 𝜖 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝜖
𝑞
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 =
𝐶
𝑞 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
 By the definition of current,
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝑖= = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 (sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝜔 sin + 𝜔𝑡
2
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡 +
1 2
𝐶𝜔
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + − − − − − −(2)
2
𝑉𝑚
 where, 1 = 𝐼𝑚 → Peak value of AC
𝐶𝜔
𝜋
 From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that current leads the applied voltage by .
2
 This is indicated in the phasor and wave diagram.
Capacitive reactance (XC):
 In pure capacitive circuit, ‘1 𝐶𝜔’ is the resistance offered by the capacitor and it is called capacitive
reactance (XL).
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = =
𝐶𝜔 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
 Here, f → Frequency of the alternate current
 Its unit is ohm (Ω)
28. Explain resonance in series RLC circuit.
Resonance on series in RLC circuit :
 When the frequency of applied alternating source is increases, the
inductive reactance (XL) increases, where as capacitive reactance
(XC) decreases.
 At particular frequency (ωR), XL = XC
 At this stage, the frequency of applied source (ωR) is equal to the
natural frequency of the RLC circuit, the current in the circuit
reaches its maximum value.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 127 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 Then the circuit is said to be in electrical resonance. The frequency at which resonance takes place is
called resonant frequency.
 Thus at resonance,
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
1
𝜔𝑅 𝐿 =
𝜔𝑅 𝐶
1
𝜔𝑅 2 =
𝐿𝐶
 Hence the resonant angular frequency,
1
𝜔𝑅 =
𝐿𝐶
 And resonant frequency,
1
𝑓𝑅 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
Effects of series resonance :
 When series resonance occurs, the impedance of the circuit is minimum and is equal to resistance of
the circuit.
 So the current in the circuit becomes maximum. (i.e.) At resonance,
𝑉𝑚
𝑍=𝑅 & 𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅
 The maximum current at resonance depends on the value of resistance (R)
 For smaller resistance, larger the current with sharper curve is obtained. But for larger resistance,
smaller the current with flat curve is obtained.
29. Define quality factor. Obtain an expression for it.
Quality Factor (or) Q – factor:
 Q - factor is defined as the ratio of voltage across L (or) C to the applied voltage at resonance.
Expression:
 The current in the series RLC circuit becomes maximum at resonance.
 Due to the increase in current, the voltage across L and C are also increased,
 This magnification of voltages at series resonance is termed as Q - factor.
 By definition,
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐶
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐼𝑚 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝑅 𝐿
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = =
𝐼𝑚 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
1 𝐿
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐿𝐶 𝑅

1 𝐿
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅 𝐶
 The physical meaning is that Q - factor indicates the number of times the voltage across L (or) C is
greater than the applied voltage at resonance.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 128 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

30. Obtain an expression for average power of AC over a cycle. Discuss its special cases.
Average power of AC:
 Power of a circuit is defined as the rate of consumption.
 It is given by the product of the voltage and current.
 The alternating voltage and alternating current in the series RLC circuit at an instance are given by,
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
 Then the instantaneous power is given by,
𝑃 = 𝑣 𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 ( sin 𝜔𝑡 cos ∅ − cos 𝜔𝑡 sin ∅)
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 ( sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos ∅ − sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin ∅)
1
 Here the average of sin2 𝜔𝑡 over a cycle is 2 and that of sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 is zero.
 Thus average power over a cycle is,
1 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos ∅ = cos ∅
2 2 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 cos ∅
 Here, 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 → Apparent power, cos ∅ → Power factor
Special cases :
(i) For purely resistive circuit, ∅= 0 and cos ∅ = 1 then 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝜋
(ii) For purely inductive or capacitive circuit, ∅ = ± 2 and cos ∅ = 0 then 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0
𝑋 𝐿 −𝑋 𝐶
(iii)For series RLC circuit, ∅ = tan−1 𝑅
and 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 cos ∅
(iv) For series RLC circuit at resonance, ∅ = 0 and cos ∅ = 1 then 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
31. Write a note on wattfull current and wattles current.
Wattfull current and Wattless current:
 Consider an AC circuit in which the voltage (𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 ) leads the current (𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 ) by phase angle ‘∅’
 Here current leads voltage by phase angle ‘∅’
 Resolve the current in to two perpendicular components in X - axis,
1. 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 cos ∅ − 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 - Component along 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆
2. 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 sin ∅ − 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 - Component perpendicular to 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆
 Here the component of current 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 cos ∅) which is inphase with the voltage is called active
component. The power consumed by this component = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 cos ∅ . It is known as wattfull
current
 The other component of current which has a phase angle of with the voltage is called reactive
component. The power consumed by this current is zero. It is known as wattles current.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 129 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

32. Define power factor in various ways. Give some examples for power factor.
 Power factor - Definitions:
 The cosine of the angle lead or lag is
called power factor (power factor =
cos ∅)
𝑅 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
 Power factor = 𝑍 = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝛷 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
 Power factor = = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝐼 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

Examples :
 For purely resistive circuit, ∅= 0 and cos ∅ = 1
𝜋
 For purely inductive or capacitive circuit, ∅ = ± 2 and cos ∅ = 0
 For RLC circuit, power factor lies between 0 and 1
33. What are the advantages and disadvantages of AC over DC?
Advantages of AC over DC:
 The generation of AC is cheaper than that of DC
 When AC is supplied at higher voltages, the losses are small compared to DC transmission.
 AC can easily be converted into DC with the help of rectifier.
Disadvantages of AC over DC:
 Alternating voltages cannot be used for certain application. (e.g) charging of batteries, electroplating,
electric traction etc.,
 At high voltages, it is more dangerous to work with AC than DC.
34. Show that the total energy is conserved during LC oscillations.
Conservation of energy LC oscillations:
 During LC oscillations, the energy of the system oscillates between the electric field of the capacitor
and the magnetic field of the inductor.
 Although these two energies vary with time, the total energy remains constant. (i.e)
𝑞2 1
𝑈 = 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑈𝐵 = + 𝐿 𝑖2
2𝐶 2
Case (i) :
 When the charge of in the capacitor ; q=Qm and the current through the inductor ; i=0
2 2
𝑄𝑚 𝑄𝑚
𝑈= + 0= − − − − − −(1)
2𝐶 2𝐶
 The total energy is wholly electrical.
Case (ii) :
 When charge q = 0 ; Current i = Im , the total energy,
1 2 1
𝑈 = 0+ 𝐿 𝐼𝑚 = 𝐿 𝐼𝑚2
2 2

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 130 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

𝑑𝑞 𝑑
[∵ 𝑖 = − =− 𝑄 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑄𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑄𝑚
 Hence, 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑄𝑚 𝜔 = 𝐿𝐶
2 2
1 𝑄𝑚 𝑄𝑚
∴𝑈= 𝐿 = − − − −(2)
2 𝐿𝐶 2𝐶
 Here the total energy is wholly magnetic
Case (iii) :
 When charge = q , Current = i, then the total energy,
𝑞2 1
𝑈= + 𝐿 𝑖2
2𝐶 2
 Here, 𝑞 = 𝑄𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 & 𝑖 = 𝑄𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡. So
2
𝑄𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 1
𝑈= + 𝐿 (𝑄𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡)2
2𝐶 2

2
𝑄𝑚 cos 2 𝜔𝑡 1 2 2
𝑈= + 𝐿 𝑄𝑚 𝜔 sin2 𝜔𝑡
2𝐶 2
1
 Since, 𝜔2 =
𝐿𝐶
2
𝑄𝑚 cos 2 𝜔𝑡 𝐿 𝑄𝑚 2
sin2 𝜔𝑡
𝑈= +
2𝐶 2𝐿𝐶
2 2
𝑄𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑄𝑚 sin2 𝜔𝑡
2
𝑈= +
2𝐶 2𝐶
2
𝑄𝑚
𝑈= cos 2 𝜔𝑡 + sin2 𝜔𝑡
2𝐶
2
𝑄𝑚
𝑈= − − − − − −(3)
2𝐶
 From equation (1), (2) and (3) it is clear that the total energy of the system remains constant

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 131 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 Marks)

1. Explain the applications of eddy currents (or) Foucault currents.

Induction stove:
 It is used to cook food quickly and safely with less consumption. Below the cooking zone, there is a
tightly wound coil of insulated wire.
 A suitable cooking pan is placing over the cooking zone.
 When the stove is switched on, an AC flowing in the coil produces high frequency alternating
magnetic field which induces very strong eddy currents in the cooking pan.
 The eddy currents in the pan produce so much of heat due to Joule heating which is used to cook the
food.
Eddy current brake:
 This type of brakes is generally used in high speed trains and roller coasters.
 Strong electromagnets are fixed just above the rails.
 To stop the train, electromagnets are switched on.
 The magnetic field of these magnets induces eddy currents in the rails which oppose the movement
of the train. This is eddy current linear brake.
 In some cases, the circular disc connected in train is made to rotate in between the pole of an
electromagnet. When there is a relative motion between the disc and the magnet, eddy current are
induced in the disc which stop the train. This is eddy current circular brake.
 Eddy current testing:
 It is one of the non - destructive testing methods to find defects like surface cracks, air bubbles
present in a specimen.
 A coil of insulated wire is given an electric current, so that it produces an alternating magnetic field.
 When this coil is brought near the test surface, eddy current is induced in it, and the presence of
defects caused the change in phase and amplitude of the eddy current.
 Thus the defects present in the specimen are identified.
Electro magnetic damping:
 The armature of the galvanometer coil is wound on a soft iron cylinder.
 Once the armature is deflected, the relative motion between the soft iron cylinder and the radial
magnetic field induces eddy current in the cylinder.
 The damping force due to the flow of eddy current brings the armature to rest immediately and the
galvanometer shows a steady deflection.
 This is called electromagnetic damping.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 132 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

2. Show mathematically that the rotation of a coil in a magnetic field over one rotation induces an
alternating emf of one cycle.
Induction of emf by changing relative orientation of the coil with the magnetic field:
 Consider a rectangular coil of ‘N’
turns kept in a uniform magnetic field
‘B’
 The coil rotates in anti-clockwise
direction with an angular velocity ‘ω’
about an axis.
 Initially let the plane of the coil be
perpendicular to the field (θ = 0) and
the flux linked with the coil has its
maximum value. (i.e.)
𝜱𝒎 = 𝑩 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟎° = 𝑩 𝑨
 In time ‘t’, let the coil be rotated
through an angle θ (= ω t ), then the
total flux linked is

𝑵𝜱𝑩 = 𝑵 𝑩 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 = 𝑵 𝜱𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕

 According to Faraday’s law, the emf induced at that instant is,

𝑑 𝑑
𝜖= − 𝑁𝜱𝑩 = − 𝑵 𝜱𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜖 = −𝑵 𝜱𝒎 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 𝝎

𝜖 = 𝑵 𝜱𝒎 𝝎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕

 When θ= 90°, then the induced emf becomes maximum and it is given by,

𝜖𝑚 = 𝑵 𝜱𝒎 𝝎 = 𝑵 𝑩 𝑨 𝝎

 Therefore the value of induced emf at that instant is then given by,

𝜖 = 𝜖𝑚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕

 Thus the induced emf varies as sine function of the time angle and this is called sinusoidal emf or
alternating emf.

 If this alternating voltage is given to a closed circuit, a sinusoidally varying current flow it.

 This current is called alternating current is given by,

𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕

 where, Im → peak value of induced current

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 133 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

3. Elaborate the standard construction details of AC generator.

AC generator - construction:
 AC generator (alternator) is an energy conversion device. It converts mechanical energy used to
rotate the coil or field magnet in to electrical energy.
 It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 It consists of two major parts stator and rotor.
 In commercial alternators, the armature winding is mounted on stator and the field magnet on rotor
Stator :
 It has three components
1. Stator frame :
o It is used for holding stator core and armature windings in proper position.
o It provides best ventilation with the help of holes provided in the frame itself.
2. Stator core (Armature) :
o It is made up of iron or steel alloy.
o It is a hollow cylinder and is laminated to minimize eddy current loss.
o The slots are cut on inner surface of the core to accommodate armature windings.
3. Armature windings :
o It is the coil wound on slots provided in the armature core.
o One or more than one coil may be employed, depending on the type of alternator.
o Two types of windings are commonly use and they are single-layer winding and double-layer
winding.
Rotor:
 It consist magnetic field windings magnetic poles are magnetized by DC source
 The ends of field windings are connected to a pair of slip rings, attached to a common shaft about
which rotor rotates. Slip rings rotate along with rotor.
 To maintain connection between the DC source and field windings, two brushed are used which
continuously slide over the slip rings
 There are two types, namely
1. Salient pole rotor:
o The word salient means projecting.
o This rotor has a number of projecting poles having their bases riveted to the rotor.
o It is mainly used in low-speed alternators
2. Cylindrical pole rotor :
o This rotor consists of a smooth solid cylinder. The slots are cut on the outer surface of the
cylinder along its length.
o It is suitable for very high speed alternators.
o The frequency of alternating emf induced is directly proportional to the rotor speed.
o In order to maintain the frequency constant, the rotor runs at a constant speed.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 134 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

4. Explain the working of a single - phase AC generator with necessary diagram.

Single phase AC generator:
 In a single phase AC generator, the armature conductors are connected in series so as to form a
single circuit which generates a single phase alternating emf and hence it is called single-phase
alternator.
Principle:
 Electro magnetic induction
Construction :
 Consider a stator core consisting of 2 slots in which 2 armature
conductor PQ and RS are mounted to form single - turn
rectangular loop PQRS
 Rotor has 2 salient poles with field windings which can be
magnetized by means of DC source.
Working :
 The loop PQRS is stationary and is
perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
 Assume the initial position of the field
magnet is horizontal. At that instant, the
direction of magnetic field is perpendicular
to the plane of the loop PQRS. The induced
emf is zero. It is represented by origin ‘O’
in the graph
 Let the magnetic field rotate in clock-wise
direction.
 When the field magnet rotates through 90°, t magnetic field becomes parallel to PQRS.
 The induced emf’s across PQ and RS would become maximum. According to Fleming’s right hand
rule, the direction of induced emf for PQ is downwards and for RS is upwards.
 Therefore the current flows along PQRS. The point A in the graph represents this maximum emf.
 When field magnet rotates 180°, the field is again perpendicular to PQRS and the induced emf
becomes zero. This is represented by point B. When field magnet rotates 270°, the field is again
parallel to PQRS, the induced emf is maximum but the direction is reversed. Thus the current flows
along SRQP. This is represented by point C.
 On completion of 360°, the induced emf becomes zero and it is represented by the point D.
 From the graph, it is clear that, when field magnet completes one rotation, the emf induced in PQRS
is alternating in nature.
5. How are the three different emf’s generated in a three-phase AC generator? Show the
graphical representation of these three emfs.
Three phase AC generator:
 If the AC generator consists three separate coils, which would give three separate emfs, then it is
called three-phase generators.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 135 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

Construction:
 It has 6 slots, cut in its inner rim. Each slot is 60° away from
one another. Six armature conductors are mounted in these
slots.
 The conductors 1 - 4, 2 - 5 and 3 - 6 are joined in series to form
coils 1, 2 and 3
 So these coils are rectangular in shape and are 120° apart from
one another.
Working:

 The initial position of the field magnet is horizontal and field

direction is perpendicular to the plane of the coil - 1.

 When it rotated from that position in clock-wise direction,

alternating emf ‘∈1 ’ in coil - 1 begins a cycle from origin ‘O’

 When it rotated through 120°, alternating emf ‘∈2 ’ in coil - 2

starts at point ‘A’

 When it rotated through 240°, alternating emf ‘∈3 ’ in coil - 3

starts at point ‘B’

 Thus these emfs produced in the three phase AC generator

have 120° phase difference between one another.
6. Explain the principle, construction and working of transformer.
Transformer:
 It is a stationary device used to transform electrical power from one circuit to another without
changing its frequency.
 It is done with either increasing or decreasing the applied alternating voltage with corresponding
decrease or increase of current in the circuit.
 If the transformer converts an alternating current with low voltage in to an alternating current with
high voltage, it is called step-up transformer.
 If the transformer converts an alternating current with high voltage in to an alternating current with
low voltage, it is called step-down transformer.
Principle :
 Mutual induction between two coils.
Construction :
 It consists of two coils of high mutual
inductance wound over the same transformer
core made up of silicone steel.
 To avoid eddy current loss, the core is
generally laminated
 The alternating voltage applied across prim
(P), and the output is taken across secondary
coil (S)
 The assembled core and coils are kept in a
container which is filled with suitable
medium for better insulation and cooling
purpose.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 136 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

Working:
 The alternating voltage given to the primary coil, set up an alternating magnetic flux in the laminated
core.
 As the result of flux change, emf is induced in both primary and secondary coils.
 The emf induced in the primary coil ‘∈P’ is almost equal and opposite to the applied voltage ‘VP’
and is given by,
𝒅∅𝑩
𝑽𝑷 = ∈𝑷 = −𝑵𝑷 − − − − − −(𝟏)
𝒅𝒕
 The frequency of alternating magnetic flux is same as the frequency of applied voltage.
 Therefore induced in secondary will also have same frequency as that of applied voltage,
 The emf induced in the secondary coil ‘∈S’ is,
𝒅∅𝑩
𝑽𝑺 = ∈𝑺 = −𝑵𝑺 − − − − − −(𝟐)
𝒅𝒕
 Dividing equation (1) by (2),
𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺
= = 𝑲 − − − − − −(𝟑)
𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷
 Where, K → transformation ratio
 For an ideal transformer, input power = output power
𝑽𝑷 𝒊𝑷 = 𝑽𝑺 𝒊𝑺
𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺 𝒊𝑷
= = = 𝑲 − − − − − −(𝟒)
𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷 𝒊𝑺
 From equation (3) and (4), we have
1. If K > 1 (or) NS > NP, then VS > VP and iS < iP. This is step up transformer in which voltage
increased and the corresponding current is decreased.
2. If K < 1 (or) NS < NP, then VS < VP and iS > iP. This is step down transformer in which voltage
decreased and the corresponding current is increased.
The efficiency of a transformer (η):
 The efficiency (η) of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the useful output power to the input
power.
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂= × 100 %
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
7. Derive an expression for phase angle between the applied voltage and current in a series RLC
circuit.
Series RLC circuit:
 Consider a circuit containing a resistor of resistance ‘R’, a
inductor of inductance ‘L’ and a capacitor of capacitance ‘C’
connected across an alternating voltage source.
 The applied alternating voltage is given by,
𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 137 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 Let ‘i’ be the current in the circuit at that instant.

 Hence the voltage developed across R, L and C
o VR = i R ( VR is in phase with i )
𝜋
o VL = i XL ( VL leads i by )
2
𝜋
o VC = i XC ( VC lags i by 2 )

 The phasor diagram is drawn by representing current along 𝑂𝐼, VR

along 𝑂𝐴, VL along 𝑂𝐵 and VC along 𝑂𝐶
 If VL > VC, then the net voltage drop across LC combination is (VL – VC) which is represented by 𝐴𝐷
 By parallelogram law, the diagonal 𝑂𝐸 gives the resultant voltage ‘v’

𝒗= 𝑽𝟐𝑹 + (𝑽𝑳 − 𝑽𝑪 )𝟐

𝒗= 𝒊𝟐 𝑹𝟐 + 𝒊𝑿𝑳 − 𝒊𝑿𝑪 𝟐

𝒗 = 𝒊 𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐
𝒗
𝒊=
𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐
𝒗
𝒊=
𝒛
 Where, 𝒛 = 𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐 is called impedance of the circuit, which refers to effective
opposition to the circuit current by the series RLC circuit.

 Voltage triangle and impedance traingle shown in

the figure.
 From the phasor diagram, the phase angle between
‘v’ and ‘i’ is found out by

𝑽𝑳 − 𝑽𝑪 𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅ = =
𝑽𝑹 𝑹
Special cases :
1. When XL > XC, the phase angle Φ is positive. It means that v leads i by Φ. This circuit is
inductive.
𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 & 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − ∅)
2. When XL < XC, the phase angle Φ is negative. It means that v lags behind i by Φ. This circuit is
capacitive
𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 & 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + ∅)
3. When XL = XC, the phase angle Φ is zero. It means that v inphase with i. This circuit is resistive
𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 & 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 138 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

8. What are called LC oscillations? Explain the generation of LC oscillations..

LC oscillations:
 Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a pure inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of
capacitance C, the energy oscillates back and forth between the magnetic field of the inductor and
the electric field of the capacitor.
 Thus the electrical oscillations of definite frequency are generated. These oscillations are called LC
oscillations.
Generation of LC - oscillations:
Stage -1:
 Consider the capacitor is fully charged with maximum charge Qm. So that the energy stored in the
capacitor is maximum (i.e.)
𝑸𝟐𝒎
𝑼𝑬 =
𝟐𝑪
 As there is no current in the inductor,
𝑼𝑩 = 𝟎
 Therefore the total energy is wholly electrical.
Stage - 2:
 The capacitor now begins to discharge through the inductor that establishes current ‘i’ clockwise
direction.
 This current produces a magnetic field around the inductor and energy stored in the inductor which
is given by
𝑳 𝒊𝟐
𝑼𝑩 =
𝟐
 As the charge in the capacitor decreases, the energy stored in it also decreases and is given by
𝒒𝟐
𝑼𝑬 =
𝟐𝑪
 Thus the total energy is the sum of electrical and magnetic energies.
Stage - 3:
 When the charge in the capacitor becomes zero, its energy becomes zero (i.e.)
𝑼𝑬 = 𝟎
 In this stage maximum current (Im) flows through inductor.
 So, its energy becomes maximum. (i.e.)
𝑳 𝑰𝟐𝒎
𝑼𝑩 =
𝟐
 Thus the total energy is wholly magnetic.
Stage - 4:
 Even though the charge in the capacitor is zero, the current will continue to flow in the same
direction.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 139 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

 Since the current flow is in decreasing magnitude, the capacitor begins to charge in the opposite
direction.
 Thus a part of the energy is transferred from the inductor back to the capacitor. The total energy is
the sum of the electrical and magnetic energies.
Stage - 5:
 When the current in the circuit reduces to zero, the capacitor becomes fully charged in the opposite
direction.
 Thus the energy stored in the capacitor become maximum and the energy stored in the inductor is
zero.
 So the total energy is wholly electrical.
Stage - 6 :
 This state of the circuit is similar to the initial state but the difference is that the capacitor is charged
in opposite direction.
 So it will start discharge through inductor in anti-clockwise direction.
 The total energy is the sum of the electrical and magnetic energies.
Stage - 7:
 The processes are repeated in opposite direction and finally the circuit returns to the initial state.
 Thus when the circuit goes through these stages, an alternating current flows in the circuit.
 As this process is repeated again and again, the electrical oscillations of definite frequency are
generated. These are known as LC oscillations.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 140 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
4. Electromagnetic Induction And Alternate Current

9. Compare the electromagnetic oscillations of LC circuit with the mechanical oscillations of

block-spring system to find the expression for angular frequency of LC oscillators
mathematically.
Analogies between LC oscillations and simple harmonic oscillations :
Electromagnetic oscillations Mechanical oscillations
 This circuit consist inductor and capacitor  This circuit consists spring and block
 Charge ‘q’  Displacement ‘x’
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑥
 Current 𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡  Velocity 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
 Inductance ‘L’  Mass ‘m’
1
 Reciprocal of capacitance 𝐶  Force constant k
1 1 1
 Electrical energy = 2 𝑞2  Potential energy = 2 𝑘𝑥 2
𝐶
1 2 1
 Magnetic energy = 2 𝐿𝑖  Kinetic energy = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
1 1 1 1 1
 Electro magnetic energy = 2 𝑞2 + 𝐿𝑖 2  Mechanical energy = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑣 2
𝐶 2 2
Angular frequency of LC oscillations:
 The electro magnetic energy is
1 1 2 1 2
𝑈= 𝑞 + 𝐿𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2 𝐶 2
 Differentiate,
𝑑𝑈 1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝑑𝑖
= 2𝑞 + 𝐿 2𝑖 =0
𝑑𝑡 2𝐶 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑈 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑖
= + 𝐿𝑖 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
 Here, 𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑈 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝑑𝑞
= + 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑞
𝐿 + = 0 − − − − − −(1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐶

 Its solution is, 𝑞 = 𝑄𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

 Differentiate with respect to ‘t’
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝑖(𝑡) = = 𝑄 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚

𝑖 𝑡 = −𝑄𝑚 𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
 Again differentiate with respect to ‘t’,
𝑑2 𝑞
= −𝑄𝑚 𝜔2 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅) = −𝐼𝑚 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑑𝑡 2
 Put this in equation (1), the angular frequency of LC oscillations is,
𝟏
𝝎=
𝑳𝑪

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 141 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
5. Electromagnetic Waves

5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (BOOK BACK)
1. Define displacement current.
 The displacement current can be defined as the current which comes into play in the region in which
the electric field and the electric flux are changing with time
 That is when ever the change in electric field takes place, displacement current is produced.
2. Define electro magnetic waves.
 Electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical waves which move with speed equals to the speed of
light (in vacuum)
3. Give the modified form of Ampere’s circuital law.
 If IC and ID are the conduction and displacement current, then the modified Ampere’s circuital law is
given by,
𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐷 )
𝑑
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝐶 + 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
 This is also known as Ampere - Maxwell’s law.
4. Define intensity of electromagnetic wave.
 The energy crossing per unit area per unit time and perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
electromagnetic wave is called the intensity
5. Define Fraunhofer lines.
 When the spectrum obtained from the Sun i examined, it consists of large number of dark lines (line
absorption spectrum).
 These dark lines in the solar spectrum are known as Fraunhofer lines.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS ( CONCEPTUAL)
6. Define radiation pressure.
 The force exerted by an electromagnetic wave on unit area of a surface is called radiation pressure.
7. What is called pointing vector? Give its unit.
 The rate of flow of energy crossing a unit area is known as vector for electromagnetic waves. The
pointing vector at any point gives the direction of energy transport from that point.
 The unit for pointing vector is W m-2
8. Define electromagnetic spectrum.
 The orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves in terms of wavelength or frequency is called
electromagnetic spectrum.
9. Define dispersion.
 When white light is made to pass through the prism, it is split into its seven constituent colors. This
phenomenon is known as dispersion of light.
 The pattern of colors obtained on the screen after dispersion is called spectrum.
10. Define emission spectra.
 The spectrum obtained from a self luminous source of light is called emission spectrum.
 Each source has its own characteristic emission spectrum.
11. Define absorption spectra.
 When light is allowed to pass through an absorbing substance, then the spectrum obtained is known
as absorption spectrum.
 It is the characteristic of absorbing substance.
12. What are the uses of Fraunhofer lines?
 The absorption spectra for various materials are compared with the Fraunhofer lines in the solar
spectrum, which helps to identifying elements present in the Sun’s atmosphere.
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 142 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
5. Electromagnetic Waves

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 Marks)

1. Discuss briefly the experiment conducted by Hertz to produce and detect electromagnetic
spectrum.
Hertz experiment :
 The theoretical prediction of existence of electromagnetic wave by Maxwell was experimentally
confirmed by Henrich Hertz.
 His experimental set up consists of two met electrodes which are made of small spherical metals.
 These are connected to larger spheres and the ends of them are connected to induction coil which
produces very high emf.
 Due to this high voltage, the air between the electrodes gets ionized and spark is produced.
 A receiver (ring electrode) kept at a distance also gets spark which implies that the energy is
transmitted from electrode to the receiver as a wave known as electromagnetic waves.
 If the receiver is rotated by 90°, then no spark is observed by the receiver.
 This confirms that electromagnetic waves are transverse waves as predicted by Maxwell.
 Hertz detected radio waves and also computed the speed of radio waves which is equal to the speed
of light (3 x 108 m s−1).
2. Obtain an expression for energy density associated with an electromagnetic wave propagating
in vacuum or free space.
Energy density of electromagnetic wave :
 The energy per unit volume (i.e.) the energy density of electromagnetic wave is,
1 1 2
𝑢 = 𝑢𝐸 + 𝑢𝐵 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2 + 𝐵 − −(1)
2 2𝜇𝑜
 Where energy density in electric field,
1
𝑢𝐸 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2 − − − − − − − (2)
2
 and energy density in magnetic field,
1 2
𝑢𝐵 = 𝐵 − − − − − − − (3)
2𝜇𝑜
 The velocity of electromagnetic waves,
1 1
𝑐= 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 2 =
𝜀𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝜇𝑜
 If E=BC then, uE = um
 Hence, energy density of electromagnetic wave
1 2
𝑢 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2 = 𝐵
𝜇𝑜
 The average energy density for electromagnetic waves,
1 1 2
𝑢 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2 = 𝐵
2 2𝜇𝑜
3. Explain the sources of electromagnetic waves.
Sources of electromagnetic waves :
 Any stationary source charge produces only electric field. When the charge moves with uniform
velocity, it produces steady current which gives rise magnetic field around the conductor in which
flows.
 If the charged particle accelerates, in addition to electric field, it also produces magnetic field. Here
both electric and magnetic fields are time varying fields.
 The linked electric and magnetic fields have wave property which propagates in the direction
perpendicular to the plane containing electric and magnetic field vectors.
 This is known as electromagnetic waves and it is transverse in nature.
 Any oscillatory motion is also an accelerating motion, so when the charge oscillates about their
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 143 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
5. Electromagnetic Waves

mean position, it produces electromagnetic waves.

 Let, electric and magnetic vectors are given by,
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸𝑂 sin(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝐵𝑥 = 𝐵𝑂 sin(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)
 Then the direction of propagation of electromagnetic waves are along Z -axis
 Here the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is equal to the frequency of the source (oscillation
charge)
 In free space or vacuum, the ratio between Eo and Bo is equal to the speed of electromagnetic wave
which is equal to speed of light (c)
𝐸𝑜
𝑐=
𝐵𝑜
4. Write a note on Radio waves.
Radio waves :
 It is produced by oscillators in electric circuits.
 Wavelength range : 1 x 10−4m - 1 x 104m
 Frequency range ∶ 3 x 109 Hz − 3 x 104 Hz
 They obey reflection and diffraction
 It is used in,
o radio and television communication systems.
o cellular phones to transmit voice communication in the ultra high frequency band.
5. Write a note on infra microwaves.
Microwaves :
 It is produced by electromagnetic oscillators in electrical circuits
 Wavelength range: 1 x 10−3m - 3 x 10-4m
 Frequency range : 3 x 1011 Hz − 1 x 109 Hz
 They obey reflection and polarization
 It is used in,
o radar system for aircraft navigation,
o speed of the vehicle,
o microwave oven for cooking
o very long distance wireless communication through satellites
6. Write a note on infra red rays.
Infra red rays :
 It is produced from hot bodies and also when the molecules undergo rotational and vibrational
transitions.
 Wavelength range : 8 x 10−7m - 5 x 10-3m
 Frequency range : 4 x 1014 Hz − 6 x 1010 Hz
 It is used in,
o It provides electrical energy to satellites by means of solar cells
o producing dehydrated fruits
o green housed to keep the plants warm,
o heat therapy for muscular pain or sprain
o TV remote as a signal carrier, to look through haze fog or mist
o night vision or infrared photography

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
5. Electromagnetic Waves

7. Write a note visible light.

Visible light :
 It is produced by incandescent bodies and also it is radiated by excited atoms in gases.
 Wavelength range : 4 x 10−7m - 7 x 10-7m
 Frequency range : 7 x 1014 Hz − 4 x 1014 Hz
 It obeys the laws of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, polarization, photo -electric effect
and photographic action.
 It can be used to,
o study the structure of molecules
o arrangement of electrons in eternal shells of atoms and
o sensation of our eyes
8. Write a note on ultra violet rays.
Ultra violet rays :
 It is produced by Sun, arc and ionized gases.
 Wavelength range : 6 x 10−10m - 4 x 10-7m
 Frequency range : 5 x 1017 Hz − 7 x 1014 Hz
 It has less penetrating power
 It can be absorbed by atmospheric ozone and harmful to human body.
 It is used to,
o destroy bacteria
o sterilizing the surgical instruments,
o burglar alarm
o detect the invisible writing, finger prints and
o study of molecular structure
9. Write a note on X - rays.
X - rays :
 It is produced when there is a sudden deceleration of high speed electrons at high atomic number
target
 Also by electronic transitions among the innermost orbits of atoms.
 Wavelength range : 1 x 10−13m - 1 x 10-8m
 Frequency range : 3 x 1021 Hz − 1 x 1016 Hz
 It has more penetrating power than UV - rays.
 It is used in,
o studying structures of inner atomic electron shell and crystal structures.
o detecting fracture, diseased organs, formation of bones and stones, observing the progress of
healing bones
o detect faults, cracks, flaws and holes in a finished metal product
10. Write a note on gamma rays.
Gamma rays :
 It is produced by transitions of atomic nuclei and decay of certain elementary particles.
 Wavelength range : 1 x 10−14m - 1 x 10-10m
 Frequency range : 3 x 1022 Hz − 3 x 1018 Hz
 They produce chemical reactions on photographic plates, fluorescence, ionization, diffraction.
 Its penetrating power is higher than X-rays and UV rays.
 It has no charge but harmful to human body.
 It is used in,
o providing information about the structure of atomic nuclei
o radio therapy for the treatment of cancer and tumour
o food industry to kill pathogenic micro organism

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 145 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
5. Electromagnetic Waves

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 Marks)

1. 1. Write down Maxwell equations in integral form.
Maxwell equations - Integral form:
 Electrodynamics can be summarized into four basic equations, known as Maxwell’s equations.
 Maxwell’s equations completely explain the behaviour of charges, currents and properties of electric
and magnetic fields.
 This equation ensures the existence of electromagnetic waves.
Equation - 1:
 It is nothing but Gauss’s law
 It relates the net electric flu to net electric charge enclosed in a surface.
 Mathematically, Gauss law is expressed as,
𝑄𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀𝑜
 Here, 𝐸 → electric field, 𝑄𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 → charge enclosed
 This equation is true for both discrete or continuous distribution of charges
 It also indicates that the electric field lines start from positive change and terminate at negative
charge.
 The electric field lines do not form a continuous closed path (i.e.) isolated positive or negative
charges can exist.
Equation - 2 :
 It has no name. But this law is similar to Gauss law in electrostatics.
 Hence this law can be called as Gauss’s law in magnetism.
 According to this law, the surface integral of magnetic field over a closed surface is zero.
 Mathematically, this law can be expressed as,

𝐵 . 𝑑𝐴 = 0
 Here, 𝐵 → magnetic field
 This equation implies that the magnetic field lines form a continuous closed path. (i.e.) no isolated
magnetic monopole exists
Equation - 3 :
 This is Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
 This law relates electric field with the changing magnetic flux.
 This equation implies that, the line integral of electric field around any closed path is equal to the
rate of change of magnetic flux through the closed path bounded by the surface.
 Mathematically it is expressed as,
𝑑∅𝐵
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡
 Here, 𝐸 → electric field
 The electrical energy supplied to our houses from electricity board by using Faraday’s law of
induction.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 146 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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5. Electromagnetic Waves

Equation - 4 :
 It is modified Ampere’s circuital law and also called as Ampere - Maxwell’s law.
 This law relates the magnetic field around any closed path to the conduction current and
displacement current through that path.
 Mathematically it is expressed as,

𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐷 )

𝑑
𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝐶 + 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
 Here, 𝐵 → magnetic field
 It implies that both conduction and displacement current produces magnetic field
2. Explain the modification of Ampere’s circuital law.
Maxwell’s corrections to Ampere’s circuital law :

 According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the change in magnetic field produces an
electric field. Mathematically
𝜕 𝜕
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 = −∅𝐵 = − 𝐵. 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
 It implies that the electric field 𝐸 is induced along a closed loop by the changing magnetic flux ΦB in
the region encircled by the loop.
 The converse of this statement that is change in electric flux produces magnetic field is explained by
Maxwell.
𝜕 𝜕
𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = −
∅𝐸 = − 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
 This is known as Maxwell’s law of induction.
 To understand how the changing electric field produces magnetic field, let us consider the situation
of charging a parallel plate capacitor.
 The electric current passing through the wire is the conduction current ‘IC’
 This current generates magnetic field around the wire connected across the capacitor.
 To calculate the magnetic field at a point ‘P’ near the wire, let us consider an Amperian loop which
encloses the surface S1.
 Thus from Ampere circuital law,
𝑙

𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑂 𝐼𝐶 − − − − − −(1)
𝑙1

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
5. Electromagnetic Waves

 Suppose the same loop is enclosed by balloon shaped surface S2, then the boundaries of two are
same but shape of the enclosing surfaces are different.
 Ampere’s law does not depend on shape of the enclosing surface and hence the integrals will give
the same answer.
 But there is no current in between the plates of the capacitor, the magnetic field on the surface is
zero. So the magnetic field at ‘P’ is zero. Hence
𝑙

𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0 − − − − − −(2)
𝑙2

 Here there is an inconsistency between equation (1) and (2). Maxwell resolved this inconsistency as
follows.
 Due to external source, the capacitor gets charged up because of current flowing through the
capacitor. This produces an increasing electric field between the capacitor plates.
 This time varying electric field (or flux) existing between the plate of the capacitor also produces a
current known as displacement current.
 From Gauss ‘s law, Electric flux
𝑞
∅𝐸 = 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐸𝐴 =
𝜀𝑜
 The change in electric flux is,
𝑑∅𝐵 1 𝑑𝑞 1
= = 𝐼𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜 𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜
𝑑∅𝐵
𝐼𝑑 = 𝜀𝑜
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
 Where, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼𝑑 → Displacement current
 The displacement current can be defined as the current which comes in to play in the region in which
the electric field and the electric flux are changing with time.
 So Maxwell modified Ampere’s law as

𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑂 𝐼 = 𝜇𝑂 (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑑 ) − − − − − −(3)

 Where, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑑 → total current

3. Explain the properties of electromagnetic waves.
Properties of electromagnetic waves :
 Electromagnetic waves are produced by any
accelerated charge.
 They do not require any medium for propagation.
So electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical
wave.
 They are transverse in nature, (i.e.) the oscillating
electric field vector, oscillation magnetic field
vector and direction of propagation are mutually
perpendicular to each other.

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5. Electromagnetic Waves

 They travel with speed of light in vacuum or free space and it is given by,
1
𝑐= = 3 × 108 𝑚 𝑠 −1
𝜀𝑜 𝜇𝑜
 In a medium with permittivity ‘ε’ and permeability ‘μ’, the speed of electromagnetic wave is less
than speed in free space or vacuum. (i.e.) v < c. Hence, refractive index of the medium is,
𝜇= 𝜀𝑟 𝜇𝑟
 They are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.
 They show interference, diffraction and polarization.
 The energy density (energy per unit volume) associated with and electromagnetic wave propagating
in free space is
1 2
𝑢 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2 = 𝐵
𝜇𝑜
 The average energy density for electromagnetic wave is
1 1 2
𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2 =
𝑢 = 𝐵
2 2𝜇𝑜
 The energy crossing per unit area per unit time and perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
electromagnetic wave is called the intensity.
 They carry energy and momentum. The force exerted by an electromagnetic surface is called
radiation pressure.
 If the electromagnetic wave incident on a material surface is completely absorbed, then the energy
𝑼
delivered is ‘U’ and the momentum imparted on the surface is 𝒑 = 𝒄
 If the incident electromagnetic wave of energy ‘U’ is totally reflected from the surface, then the
momentum delivered to the surface is,
𝑈 𝑈 𝑈
− −
∆𝑝 = =2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
 The rate of flow of energy crossing a unit area is known as pointing vector for electromagnetic
waves.
1
𝑆= 𝐸 × 𝐵 = 𝑐 2 𝜀𝑂 𝐸 × 𝐵
𝜇𝑜

4. Explain in detail the emission spectra.

Emission spectra :
 The light from self luminous source gives emission spectrum.
 Each source has its own characteristic emission spectrum.
 The emission spectrum can be divided in to three types
1. Continuous emission spectra :
o Incandescent solids, liquids gives continuous spectra.
o It consists of wavelengths containing all the visible colours ranging from violet to red. (e.g.)
Spectrum obtained from carbon arc, incandescent filament lamp, etc

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5. Electromagnetic Waves

2. Line emission spectra :

o Light from excited atoms gives line spectrum.
o They are also known as discontinuous spectra.
o The line spectra are sharp lines of definite wavelengths or frequencies.
o It is different for different elements (e.g.) spectra of atomic hydrogen, helium, etc
3. Band emission spectra :
o The light from excited molecules gives band spectrum.
o It consists of several numbers of very closely spaced spectral lines which overlapped together
forming specific coloured bands.
o This spectrum has a sharp edge at one end and fades out at the other end.
o Band spectrum is the characteristic of the molecule. (e.g.) spectra of hydrogen gas, ammonia gas
in the discharge tube, etc
5. Explain in detail the absorption spectra.
Absorption spectra :
 When light is allowed to pass through an absorbing substance, then the spectrum obtained is known
as absorption spectrum.
 It is characteristic of the absorbing substance.
 Absorption spectrum is classified into three types
1. Continuous absorption spectrum :
o When the light is passed through a medium, it is dispersed by the prism, we get continuous
absorption spectrum.
o For instance, when we pass white light through a blue glass plate, it absorbs everything except
blue.
o This is an example for continuous absorption spectrum.
2. Line absorption spectrum :
o When light from incandescent lamp is passed through cold gas, the spectrum obtained through
the dispersion due to the prism is line absorption spectrum.
o For example, when light from carbon arc is made to pass through sodium vapour, a continuous
spectrum of carbon arc with two dark lines in the yellow region of sodium vapour is obtained.
3. Band absorption spectrum :
o When the white light is passed through the iodine vapour, dark bands on continuous bright
background is obtained.
o This is known as band absorption spectra.
o It is also obtained when white light is passed through diluted solution of blood or chlorophyll or
through certain solutions of organic and inorganic compounds.

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6. OPTICS
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (BOOK BACK)
1. State the laws of reflection.
 The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the surface all are coplanar.
 The angle of incidence (i) is equal to angle of reflection (r). That is i = r
2. What is the angle of deviation due to reflection?
 The angle between the incident ray (OA) and deviated
ray (OC) is called angle of deviation (d) of the light ray.
 From figure (a),
d = 180° – (i + r)
d = 180° – (i + i)
d = 180° – 2i
 The angle between the incident ray and the reflecting
surface is called glancing angle (α).
 From figure (b),
d = ∠BOY + ∠YOC
d=α+α
d = 2α
3. What are the characteristics of the image formed by the plane mirror?
 Image is virtual, erect and laterally inverted.
 Size of image is equal to the size of the object.
 The distance of the image behind the mirror is equal to the distance of object in front of it.
 If an object placed between two plane mirrors inclined at an angle θ , then the number (n) of images
formed is,
360 °
(1) For objects placed symmetrically or asymmetrically. If even, then
𝑛
°
360
𝑛= −1
𝜃
360 °
(2) For objects placed symmetrically. If even, then
𝑛
360°
𝑛= −1
𝜃
360 ° 360 °
(3) For objects placed asymmetrically. If 𝑛 even, then, 𝑛 = 𝜃
4. Obtain the relation between focal length (f) and radius of curvature (R) of the spherical mirror.
Relation between f and R :
 Let ‘C’ be the centre of curvature of the mirror.
 Consider a light ray parallel to the principal axis and
incident at ‘M’ on the mirror.
 After reflection, it will passes through principal focus ‘F’
 The line ‘CM’ is the normal to the mirror at ‘M’.
 Angle of incidence : i = ∠AMC
 Angle of reflection : r = ∠CMF
 By the law of reflection, we have, i = r MF«.
 From the figure, ∠MCP = i and ∠MFP = 2i
 Thus from, ∆MCP and ∆MFP
𝑃𝑀
tan 𝑖 =
𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝑀
tan 2 𝑖 =
𝑃𝐹
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 As the angles are small, we have tan i ≈ i and tan 2i ≈ 2i . So

𝑃𝑀
𝑖=
𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝑀
2𝑖 =
𝑃𝐹
𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝑀
2 =
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐹
2𝑃𝐹 = 𝑃𝐶
 From the figure, 2𝑓 = 𝑅
𝑅
𝑓=
2
 We can get this equation from concave mirror also.
5. What are the Cartesian sign conventions for a spherical mirror?
Cartesian sign convention :
 The incident light is taken from left to right.
 All the distances are measured from the pole.
 The distance measured to the right of pole along the
principal axis are taken as positive
 The distance measured to the left of pole along the
principal axis are taken as negative

 Heights measured in the upward perpendicular direction to the principal axis are taken as positive
 Heights measured in the downward perpendicular direction to the principal axis are taken as negative
6. Define optical path.
 Optical path of a medium is defined as the distance (d’) light travels in vacuum in the same time it
travels a distance (d) in the medium.
 If ‘n’ is the refractive index of the medium, then optical path is ; 𝑑 ′ = 𝑛𝑑
7. State the laws of refraction.
 The incident ray, refracted ray and normal are all coplanar.
 The ratio of angle of incident ‘i’ in the first to the angle of reflection ‘r’ in the second medium is
equal to the ratio of refractive index of the second medium ‘n2’ to that of the refractive index of the
first medium ‘n1’
sin 𝑖 𝑛2
=
sin 𝑟 𝑛1
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟
8. What is the angle of deviation due to refraction?
Angle of deviation due to refraction :
 The angle between the incident and deviated ray is called angle of deviation (d).
 When light travels from rarer to denser medium it deviates towards normal. Hence the angle of
deviation ; d = i - r
 When light travels from denser to rarer medium it deviates away normal. Hence the angle of
deviation ; d = r – i

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9. What is the principle of reversibility?

 The principle of reversibility states that, light will be following exactly the same path if its direction
of travel is reversed.
 This is true for both reflection and refraction.
10. Define relative refractive index.
sin 𝑖 𝑛
 From Snell’s law, sin 𝑟 = 𝑛 2
1
𝑛2
 Here the term is called relative refractive index of second medium with respect to the first
𝑛1
medium and it is denoted by (n21)
𝑛2
𝑛21 =
𝑛1
11. Obtain the equation for apparent depth.
Apparent depth :
 We observe that the bottom of a tank filled with water with water appears raised as shown.
 Light OB from the object ’O’ passes through water get refracted in air
 The refracted ray BC appears to come from ‘I’ which is just above ‘O’ (i.e.) the object is appears to
be at ‘I’

 Refractive index of water = n1  Angle of refraction in air = r

 Refractive index of air = n2  Original depth of tank = DO = d
 Angle of incidence in water = i  Apparent depth of tank = DI = 𝑑 ′
 Here n1 > n2 Hence, i < r
 By Snell’s law in product form, 𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟
 As the angles are small, sin 𝑖 = tan 𝑖
sin 𝑟 = tan 𝑟
 Hence, 𝑛1 tan 𝑖 = 𝑛2 tan 𝑟 − − − − − −(1)
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵
 In ∆DOB, ∆DIB tan 𝑖 = = ; tan 𝑟 = =
𝐷𝑂 𝑑 𝐷𝐼 𝑑′
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 1 1
 Put this in eqn (1) 𝑛1 = 𝑛2 ; 𝑛1 𝑑 = 𝑛2
𝑑 𝑑′ 𝑑′
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2
𝑑
= 𝑑′
; 𝑑′ = 𝑑 𝑛1
 For air ; n2=1 and let n1=n , then apparent depth
𝑑
𝑑′ =
𝑛
 Thus the bottom appears to be elevated by, 𝑑 − 𝑑 ′
𝑑 1
𝑑 − 𝑑′ = 𝑑 − = 𝑑 1−
𝑛 𝑛
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12. Why do stars twinkle?

 The stars actually do not twinkle. They appear twinkling because of the movement of the
atmospheric layers with varying refractive indices which is clearly seen in the night sky.
13. Define critical angle and total internal reflection
 The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the refracted ray graces the boundary is
called critical angle (ic)
 If the angle of incidence in the denser medium is greater than the critical angle, there is no refraction
possible in the rarer medium. The entire light is reflected back in to the denser medium itself. This
phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
14. Obtain an expression for critical angle.
Critical angle (ic) :
 When light ray passes from denser medium t rarer medium, it bends away from normal. So i < r
 As i increases, r also increases rapidly and at a certain stage it just gracing the boundary (r = 90°).
The corresponding angle of incidence is called critical angle (ic)
 From Snell’s law of product form
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟
 When i = ic , then r = 90°
𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛2 sin 90°
𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛2
𝑛2
sin 𝑖𝑐 =
𝑛1
 If the rarer medium is air, then n1=n and let n2=1 , then
1
sin 𝑖𝑐 =
𝑛
1
𝑖𝑐 = sin−1
𝑛
15. Obtain the reason for glittering of diamond.
Glittering of diamond :
 The glittering of diamond is due to the total internal reflection of light happens inside the diamond.
 The refractive index of diamond is 2.417 and the critical angle is 24.4°
 Diamond has large number of cut plane faces.
 So light entering the diamond get total internally reflected from many cut faces before getting out.
 This gives a sparkling effect for diamond.
16. What are mirage and looming?
Mirage :
 In hot places, air near the ground is hotter than air at a height. Hot air has less dense.
 The refractive index of air decreases with decrease in density.
 Because of this, the air near hot ground acts as rarer medium than the air at height.
 When light from tall object like tree, passes through a medium whose refractive index increases
towards the ground, it successively deviates away from the normal and undergoes total internal
reflection when the angle of incidence near the ground exceeds the critical angle.
 This gives an illusion as if the light comes from somewhere below the ground.
 For of the shaky nature of the layers of air, the observers feels as wet surface beneath the object.
 This phenomenon is called mirage.
Looming :
 In cold places, the refractive index increases towards the ground, because the temperature of air
close to the ground is less than the air at height.
 So in cold regions like glaciers and frozen lakes and seas, the reverse effect of mirage will happen.
Hence an inverted image is formed little above the surface. This phenomenon called looming.
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17. Write a note on the prisms making using of total internal reflection.
 Prisms making using use of total internal reflection
 Prisms can be designed to reflect light by 90° or by 180° by making use of total internal reflection.
 In both cases, the critical angle ic of material of the prism must be less than 45° .This is true for both
crown glass and flint glass

18. What is Snell’s window (or) Radius of illumination?

Snell’s window :
 When light source like electric bulb is kept inside a water tank, the light from the source travels in all
direction inside the water.
 The light that incident on water surface at an angle less than the critical angle will undergo refraction
and emerge out from the water.
 The light incident at an angle greater than the critical angle will undergo total internal reflection.
 But the light incident at critical angle graces the surface and hence the entire surface of water
appears illuminated when seen from outside.
 On the other hand, when light entering water from outside is seen from inside the water, the view is
restricted to a particular angle equal to the critical angle ic
 The restricted illuminated circular area is called Snell’s window.
19. Write a note on optical fibres.
Optical fibre:
 Transmitting signals from one end to another end due to the phenomenon of total internal reflection
is called optical fibres.
 It consists of inner part called core and outer part called cladding or sleeving
 The refractive index of the core must be higher than that of the cladding.
 Signal in the form of light is made to incident inside the core-cladding boundary at an angle greater
than the critical angle.
 Hence it undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre without
undergoing any refraction.
 Even while bending the optic fibre, it is done in such a way that the condition for total internal
reflection is ensured at every reflection.
20. Write a note on an endoscope.
Endoscope :
 An endoscope is an instrument used by doctors which has a bundle of optical fibres that are used to
see inside a patient’s body.
 It works on the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
 It is inserted in to the body through mouth or nose or a special hole made in the body.
 The necessary instrument for operation is attached at their ends.
21. Define primary and secondary focal points.
Primary focal point (F1) :
 It is defined as a point, where an object should be placed to give parallel emergent ray to the
principal axis
 For convergent lens such an object is real and for divergent lens, the object is virtual.
 Here, PF1 = f1 → principal focal length

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Secondary focus point (F2) :

 It is defined as a point, where l the parallel rays travelling close to the principal axis converge to
form an image on the principal axis.
 For convergent lens such an image is real and for divergent lens, the image is virtual.
 Here, PF2 = f2 → secondary focal length

22. What are the sign conventions for lens on focal length?
 The sign of focal length is not decided on the direction of measurement of the focal length from the
pole of the lens as they have two focal lengths on either side of the lens.
 The focal length of thin lens is taken as positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging
lens
23. Arrive at lens equation from lens maker’s formula.
 Lens maker’s formula
𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
− = −𝟏 −
𝒗 𝒖 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
 If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at the focus of the lens.
 Thus, for u = ∞, v = f. Then the equation becomes.
𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
− = −𝟏 −
𝒇 ∞ 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
= −𝟏 −
𝒇 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹 𝟐
 By comparing the above two equations, we arrived lens equation
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
24. Define power of a lens.
 The power ‘P’ of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length (f)
1 1 1
𝑃 = = 𝑛−1 −
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
 The unit of power is diopter (D)
 Power is positive for converging lens and negative for diverging lens.
25. Define angle of minimum deviation.
 The angle between incident ray and emergent ray is called angle of deviation (d).
 When the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation decreases reaches a minimum value
and then continues to increase.
 The minimum value of angle of deviation is called angle of minimum deviation (D).
26. What is called dispersion of light?
 The splitting of white light in to its constituent colours is called dispersion of light.
 This band of colours of light is called its spectrum.
 The spectrum consists seven colours in the order VIBGYOR
27. Why does sky appears blue colour?
 According to Rayleigh’s scattering, shorter wavelengths (violet) scattered much more than longer
wavelengths (Red)

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 As our eyes are more sensitive to blue colour than violet, the sky appears blue during day time.
28. How are rainbows formed?
Formation of rainbows :
 Rainbows are formed due to dispersion of sunlight through droplets of water during rainy days.
 Rainbow is observed during rainfall or after rainfall or looking water fountain provided the Sun is at
the back of the observer.
 When sun light falls on the water drop suspended air, it splits in to its constituent seven colours.
 Here water drops acts as a glass prism.
 Primary rainbow is formed when one total internal reflection takes place inside the drop. The angle
of view for violet to red in primary rainbow is 40° to 42°
 Secondary rainbow is formed when two total internal reflections takes place inside the drop. The
angle of view for violet to red in primary rainbow is 52° to 54°
29. Why does sky and Sun looks reddish during sunset and sunrise?
 During sunset or sunrise, the light from Sun travels a greater distance through atmosphere.
 Hence the blue light which has shorter wavelength is scattered away and less scattered red light of
longer wavelength reaches observer
 This is the reason for reddish appearance of sky and Sun during sunrise and sunset.
30. Why does cloud appears as white colour?
 When size of particles or water drops are greater than the wavelength of light (? ≫ ?), the intensity
of scattering is equal for all the wavelength.
 Since clouds contains large amount of dust and water droplets, all the colours get equally scattered
irrespective of wavelength. This is the reason for the whitish appearance of cloud.
 But the rain clouds appear dark because of the condensation of water droplets on dust particles that
make the cloud become opaque.
31. State Rayleigh’s scattering law.
 The intensity (I) of Rayleigh’s scattering is inversely proportional to fourth power of wavelength (λ)
1
𝐼 ∝ 𝜆4
32. What are the salient features of corpuscular theory of light?
Corpuscular theory :
 Sir Isaac Newton proposed corpuscular theory of light.
 According this theory, light is emitted as tiny, massless and perfectly elastic particles called
corpuscles.
 As the corpuscles are very small, the source of light does not suffer appreciable loss of mass even if
it emits light for a long time.
 They travel with high speed and they are unaffected by the force of gravity. So their path is a straight line.
 The energy of light is the kinetic energy of these corpuscles.
 When they impinge on the retina of the eye, vision is produced. The different size of the corpuscles
is the reason for different colours of light.
 The reflection of light is due to repulsion of the corpuscles by the medium and refraction of light is
due to the attraction of the corpuscles by the medium.
 This theory could not explain why speed of light is lesser in denser medium than rarer medium and
also interference, diffraction and polarization.
33. Write a note on wave theory of light.
Wave theory of light :
 Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light.
 According to wave theory, light is a disturbance from a source that travels as longitudinal
mechanical wave through the ether medium that was presumed to pervade in all space.
 This theory could successfully explain reflection, refraction, interference, and diffraction.
 But polarization could not explain by this theory as it is property of only transverse waves.

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 Later the existence of ether in all space was proved to be wrong.

34. Write a note on electromagnetic wave theory .
Electromagnetic wave theory of light :
 Maxwell proposed electromagnetic of light.
 According to electromagnetic wave theory, light is an electromagnetic wave which is transverse in
nature carrying electromagnetic energy.
 No medium is necessary for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.
 All the phenomenon of light could be successfully explained by electromagnetic theory.
But the interaction of light with matter like photoelectric effect, Compton effect could not be
explained by this theory.
35. Write a short note on quantum theory of light.
Quantum theory of light :
 By extending Max Plank quantum ideas, Albert Einstein proposed quantum theory of light.
 According to quantum theory, light is not continuous but it propagated in the form of discrete
packets of energy called photon.
 Each photon has energy ‘E’ of 𝐸 = 𝑕𝑣
 Here h →Plank’s constant 𝑕 = 6.625 x 10−34 𝐽 𝑠
36. Define wave front.
 A wave front is the locus of points which are in the same state or phase of vibration.
1. A point source located at a finite distance gives spherical wave front.
2. A line source gives cylindrical wave front.
3. A point source located at infinite distance gives plane wave front.
37. State Huygens’s principle.
Huygens’s principle :
 Each point of the wavefront is the source of secondary wavelets which spreading out in all directions
with speeds of the wave.
 The envelope to all this wavelets gives the position and shape of the new wavefront at a later time.
38. Define interference.
 The phenomenon of superposition of two light waves which produces increase in intensity at some
points and decrease in intensity at some other points is called interference of light.
39. What is phase of a wave?
 Phase is the angular position of a vibration.
40. Give the relation between phase difference and path difference.
 Phase is the angular position of a vibration.
 In the path of the wave, one wavelength 𝝀 corresponds to a phase of 2𝜋
 Hence the path difference 𝜹 corresponds to a phase difference ∅ is
𝝀
𝜹= ∅
𝟐𝝅
41. What are called coherent sources?
Two light sources are said to be coherent, if they produce waves which have same phase constant
phase difference, same frequency or wavelength, same waveform and preferably same amplitude.
42. Write a note on intensity or amplitude division.
Intensity or amplitude division :
 If light is incident on a partially silvered mirror, both reflection and refraction takes place
simultaneously.
 As the two light beams are obtained from the same light source, the two divided light beams will be
coherent beams.

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 They will be either in-phase or at constant phase difference. (e.g.) Michelson’s interferometer
43. Write a note on wavefront division.
Wavefront division :
 It is the common method used for producing two coherent sources.
 We know all the points on the wavefront are at the same phase.
 If two points are chosen on the wavefront by using a double slit, the two points will act as coherent
sources. (e.g.) Young’s double slit method
44. Write a note on Source and images method.
Source and images :
 In this method, a source and its image will act as a set of coherent source, because the source and its
image will have waves in-phase or constant phase difference. (e.g.) Fresnel’ bi-prism - two virtual
sources as coherent sources
 Lloyd’s mirror - the source and its virtual image as coherent sources
45. What is bandwidth of interference pattern?
 The band width (β) is defined as the distance between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes.
46. What is diffraction?
 Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp edges into the geometrically shadowed region.
 We observe diffraction only when the size of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength
47. Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.
Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction
 Spherical or cylindrical wave front undergoes  Plane wavefront undergoes diffraction
diffraction
 The source of light is finite distance from the  The source of light is infinite distance from the
obstacle obstacle
 Convex lenses need not be used  Convex lenses are to be used
 Difficult to observe and analyze  Easy to observe and analyze
48. Discuss the special cases on first minimum in Fraunhofer diffraction.
 Let us consider the condition for first minimum with (n = 1)
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝜆
 The first minimum has an angular spread of, sin 𝜃 = 𝑎
 Now, we have special cases to discuss on the above condition.
1. When a < λ, the diffraction is not possible, because sin θ can never be greater than 1.
2. When a ≥ λ, the diffraction is possible.
 For a = λ, sin θ = 1 i.e. θ = 90°. That means the first minimum is at 90°. Hence,
the central maximum spreads fully in to the geometrically shadowed region
leading to bending of the diffracted light to 90°.
 For a >> λ, sin θ << 1 i.e. the first minimum will fall within the width of the slit
itself. The diffraction will not be noticed at all.
𝜆 𝜆 1
3. When a > λ and also comparable, say a = 2λ, sin 𝜃 = 𝑎 = 2𝜆 = 2 then θ = 30°. These are
practical cases where diffraction could be observed effectively.
49. What is Fresnel’s distance? Obtain an expression for it.

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Fresnel’s distance:
 Fresnel’s distance is the distance upto which ray optics is
obeyed and beyond which ray optics is not obeyed but
wave optics becomes significant.
Expression :
 Let Fresnel distance = z
 From the diffraction equation for first minimum,
𝜆 λ
sin 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 θ =
𝑎 𝑎
 From the definition of Fresnel’s distance,
𝑎 𝑎
sin 2𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 2θ =
𝑧 𝑧
 Equating the above two equation,
λ 𝑎
2 =
𝑎 𝑧
𝑎2
𝑧=
2𝜆
50. What is diffraction grating?
 Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque rulings are made with a fine
diamond pointer.
 Thus grating has multiple slits with equal widths of size comparable to the wavelength of light
 The modern commercial grating contains about 6000 lines per centimeter.
51. What are resolution and resolving power?
 Two point sources must be imaged in such a way at their images are sufficiently far apart that their
diffraction patterns do not overlap. This is called resolution.
 The inverse of resolution is called resolving power. The ability of an optical instrument to separate
or distinguish small or closely adjacent objects through the image formation is said to be resolving
power of the instrument.
52. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.
Interference Diffraction
 Superposition of two waves  Bending of waves around the edges
 Superposition of waves from two coherent  Superposition of wave fronts emitted from
sources various points of the same wavefront
 Equally spaced fringes  Unequally spaced fringes
 Intensity of all the bright fringes is almost same  Intensity falls rapidly for higher orders
 Large numbers of fringes are obtained  Less number of fringes is obtained.
53. What is Rayleigh’s criterion?
 According to Rayleigh’s criterion, for tow point objects to be just resolved, the minimum distance
between their diffraction images must be in such a way that the central maximum of one coincides
with the first minimum of the other and vice versa.
 The Rayleigh’s criterion is said to be limit of resolution.
54. Define polarization.
 The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of light to a particular direction perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation motion is called polarization.
55. Distinguish between unpolarized and plane polarized light.
Unpolarized light Plane polarized light

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 A transverse wave which has vibrations in all  A transverse wave which has vibrations in
directions in a plan perpendicular to the direction only one direction in a plan perpendicular to
of propagation is said to be unpolarized light the direction of propagation is said to be
plane polarized light
 Symmetrical about the ray direction  Asymmetrical about the ray direction
 Produced by conventional light sources  It is obtained from unpolarized light with
help of polarizer
56. Discuss polarization by selective absorption.
Polarization by selective absorption (Polaroid) :
 Selective absorption is the property of a material which transmits waves whose electric field vibrate
in a plane parallel to a certain direction of orientation and absorbs all other waves.
 The Polaroids or polarizer using this property of selective absorption to produce intense plane
polarized light.
 Selective absorption is also called as dichroism.
 Edwin Land developed polarizer in the form of thin sheets.
 Tourmaline is a natural polarizing material. But Polaroids are made artificially.
 A number of needle shaped crystals of quinine iodosulphate with their axes parallel to one another
packed in between two transparent plastic sheets serves as a good Polaroid.
 Recently new types of Polaroids are prepared in which thin film of polyvinyl alcohol (colour less
crystals) is used.
57. State and prove Malus’ law.
 When a beam of plane polarized light of intensity 𝑰𝒐 is incident on an analyzer, the light transmitted
of intensity I from the analyzer varies directly as square of the cosine of the angle θ between the
transmission axis of polarizer and analyzer. This is known as Malus’ law.
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽

 Let the angle between plane of polarizer and analyzer = 𝜽

 Intensity of electric vector transmitted by the polarizer = 𝑰𝒐
 Amplitude of this electric vector =𝒂
 The amplitude of the incident light was resolved in to two components,
o 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 - parallel component to the axis of transmission of the analyzer
o 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 - perpendicular component to the axis of transmission of the analyzer
 Here only the parallel component (𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) will be transmitted by the analyzer.
 Hence the intensity of the transmitted light is,
𝑰 ∝ (𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)𝟐
𝑰 = 𝒌(𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)𝟐
𝑰 = 𝒌 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽
° °
 if 𝜃 = 0 𝑜𝑟 180 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜
 if 𝜃 = 90° , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐼 = 0
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58. Discuss how a plane polarized and partially polarized light will be analyzed using analyzer?
Plane polarized light :
 If the intensity of light varies from maximum to zero for every rotation of 90° of the analyzer, the
light is said to be plane polarized
Partially polarized light :
 If the intensity of light varies from maximum to minimum for every rotation of 90° of the analyzer,
the light is said to be partially polarized.
59. List the uses of polaroids.
Uses of polaroids :
 Used in goggles and cameras to avoid glare of light
 Used in holography (three dimensional motion pictures)
 Used to improve contrast in old oil paintings
 Used in optical stress analysis.
 Used as window glasses to control the intensity of incoming light
 Polarized needle beam acts as needle to read/write in compact discs (CDs)
 Polaroid produce polarized lights to be used in liquid crystal display (LCD)
60. State and prove Brewster’s law
Brewster’ s law :
 The angle of incidence at which a beam of unpolarized light falling on a transparent surface is
reflected as a beam of plane polarized light is called polarizing angle or Brewster’s angle (𝒊𝒑 )
 Sir David Brewster found that, at polarizing angle, the reflected and transmitted rays are
perpendicular to each other.
 Let, incident polarizing angle = 𝒊𝒑
 Angle of refraction =𝒓
 From the figure, 𝑖𝑝 + 90 + 𝑟𝑝 = 180°
°

𝑟𝑝 = 90° − 𝑖𝑝
 From Snell’s law
sin 𝑖𝑝
= 𝑛
sin 𝑟𝑝
sin 𝑖𝑝
= 𝑛
sin(90° − 𝑖𝑝 )
sin 𝑖𝑝
= 𝑛
cos 𝑖𝑝
tan 𝑖𝑝 = 𝑛
 This relation is known as Brewster’s law.
 This law states that, the tangent of the polarizing angle for a transparent medium is equal to its
refractive index.
61. What is polarizer and analyzer?
Polarizer :
 The Polaroid which plane polarizes the unpolarized light passing through it is called a polarizer.
Analyzer :
 The Polaroid which is used to examine whether a beam of light is polarized or not is called analyzer.
62. Defined angle of polarization.
 The angle of incidence at which the reflected beam is plane polarized is called polarizing angle or
Brewster’s angle (𝑰𝒑 )
 The polarizing angle for glass is 𝑰𝒑 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟓°
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63. Define double refraction.

 When a ray of unpolarized light is incident on a calcite crystal, two refracted rays are produced.
Hence two images of a single object are formed. This phenomenon is called double refraction.
 The obtained images are called as,
o Ordinary image
o Extra ordinary image
 Double refraction is also called bi refringence.
64. Write a note on pile of plates.
Pile of plates :
 It works on the principle of polarization by
reflection.
 It consists of a number of glass plates placed one
over the other in a tube.
 These plates are inclined at an angle 33.7° to the
axis of the tube.
 A beam of unpolarized light allowed falling on the
pile of plates along the axis of the tube. So the
angle of incidence of light will be 56.3° , it is the
polarizing angle for glass.
 The vibrations perpendicular to the plane of
incidence are reflected at each surface and those
parallel to it are transmitted.
 The larger the number of surfaces, the greater the
intensity of the reflected plane polarized light.
 The pile of plates is used as a polarizer and also as
an analyzer.
65. Define uniaxial crystal and biaxial crystal.
 Crystals like calcite, quartz, tourmaline and ice having only one optic axis are called uniaxial
crystals.
 Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite and aragonite having two optic axes are called biaxial crystals.
66. Discuss about Nicol prism.
 Nicol prism is made by calcite crystal which is
double refracting crystal.
 ABCD is the principal section of a calcite crystal
with its length is three times of its breadth.
 The face angles are 72° and 108°
 It is cut in to two halves along the diagonal AB and
joined together by a layer of canada balsam, a
transparent cement.
 Let an unpolarized light from monochromatic source is incident on the face AC of the Nicol prism.
 Here double refraction takes place, and the ray split in to ordinary ray and extraordinary ray.
 For this calcite crystal.
 refractive index for ordinary ray = 1.658
 refractive index for the extraordinary ray = 1.486
 The refractive index of canada balsam = 1.523
 Here canada balsam does not polarize light
 The ordinary ray is totally internally reflected at the layer of canada balsam.
The extraordinary ray alone is transmitted through the crystal which is plane polarized.
67. Distinguish between near point focusing and normal focusing.

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Near point focusing Normal focusing

 The image is formed at near point  The image is formed at infinity
 In this position, the eye is feel little strain  In this position, the eye is most relaxed to
view the image
𝐷 𝐷
 Magnification is high 𝑚 =1+  Magnification is low 𝑚=𝑓
𝑓

68. Explain polarization by scattering.

 The light from a clear blue portion of the sky shows
a rise and fall of intensity when viewed through a
Polaroid which is rotated.
 This is because of sunlight, which has changed its
direction on encountering the molecules of the
earth’s atmosphere.
 The electric field of light interacts with the
electrons present in the air molecules.
 Under the influence of the electric field of the
incident wave the electrons in the molecules
acquire components of motion in both these
directions.
 We have shown an observer looking at 90° to the
direction of the sun.
 Clearly, charges accelerating parallel do not radiate energy towards this observer since their
acceleration has no transverse component.
 The radiation scattered by the molecule is therefore polarized perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
 This explains the reason for polarization of sunlight by scattering.
69. Discuss about simple microscope and obtain the equations for magnification for near point
focusing and normal focusing.
Simple microscope - Near point focusing :
 A simple microscope is a single magnifying lens of
small focal length.
 In near point focusing, object distance ‘u’ is less
than ‘f’
 The image is formed at near point or least distance
‘D’ of distinct vision.
 The magnification ‘m’ is given by,
𝑣
𝑚=
𝑢
 Using lens equation,
𝑣
𝑚 = 1−
𝑓
 Substitute, 𝑣 = −𝐷
𝐷
𝑚 = 1+
𝑓
Simple microscope - Normal focusing :

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 Here the image is formed at infinity.

 So we will not get direct practical relation for
magnification. Hence we can practically use the
angular magnification.
 The angular magnification is defined as the ratio of
angle 𝜃𝑖 subtended by the image with aided eye
to the angle 𝜃𝑜 subtended by the object with
unaided eye. That is,
𝜃𝑜
𝑚=
𝜃𝑖

𝑕
 For unaided eye, tan 𝜃𝑜 ≈ 𝜃𝑜 = 𝐷
 For aided eye,
𝑕
tan 𝜃𝑖 ≈ 𝜃𝑖 =
𝑓
𝜃𝑜
∴𝑚=
𝜃𝑖
𝑕
𝑚= 𝐷
𝑕
𝑓
𝐷
𝑚=
𝑓
70. What is the use of an erecting lens in a terrestrial telescope?
 A terrestrial telescope is used to see object at long distance on the surface of earth. Hence image
should be erect.
So an additional erecting lens is used to make the final image enlarged and erect.
71. Why is oil immersed objective preferred in a microscope?
 The ability of microscope depends not only in magnifying the object but also in resolving two points
1.22𝜆
on the object separated by a small distance 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 sin 𝛽
 That is, smaller the value of ′𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 ′ better will be the resolving power of the microscope.
 To further reduce the value of, the optical path of the light is increased by immersing the objective of
1.22𝜆
the microscope in to a bath containing oil of refractive index ‘n’. i.e. 𝑑𝑚 𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑛 sin 𝛽
 Such an objective is called oil immersed objective.
 The term ‘𝑛 sin 𝛽’ is called numerical aperture (NA)
72. What are the merits and demerits of reflecting telescope?
Merits :
 Only one surface is to be polished and maintained.
 Support can be given from the entire back of the mirror rather than only at the rim for lens.
 Mirror weigh much less compared to lens.
Demerits :
 The objective mirror would focus the light inside the telescope tube. One must have an eye piece
inside obstruction some light.
73. What is the use of collimator in spectrometer?
 The collimator is an arrangement to produce a parallel beam of light.
74. What are the uses of spectrometer?
 Spectrometer is an optical instrument used to,
1. study the spectra of different sources of light

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2. measure the refractive indices of materials

75. What is myopia? What is its remedy?
 A person suffering from myopia or nearsightedness cannot see distant objects clearly.
 It occurs when the eye lens has too short focal length due to thickening of the lens or larger diameter
of the eyeball than usual.
 Using concave lens this defect can be rectified.
76. What is hypermetopia? What is its remedy?
 A person suffering from hypermetopia or farsightedness cannot see objects close to the eye.
 It occurs when the eye lens has too long focal length due to thinning of eye lens or shortening of the
eyeball than normal.
 Using convex lens this defect can be rectified.
77. What is presbyopia?
 The least distance for clear vision for aged people is appreciably more than 25 cm and the person has
to keep the object inconveniently away from the eye.
 Thus reasoning or viewing smaller things held in the hands is difficult for them.
 This kind of farsightedness arising due to aging is called presbyopia.
78. What is astigmatism?
 Astigmatism is the defect arising due to different curvatures along different planes in eye lens.
 Astigmatic person cannot see all the directions equally well.
 Lenses with different curvatures in different planes called cylindrical lens is used to rectify
astigmatism defect.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (CONCEPTUAL)

79. Define reflection.
 The bouncing back of light in to the same medium when it encounters a reflecting surface is called
reflection of light.
80. Write a note on real and virtual images formed by a plane mirror.
Virtual image :
 When a real object is placed at a point ‘O’ in front of a plane
mirror, it produces divergent rays in all directions.
 After reflection at plane mirror, they appear to come from a point
‘I’ behind the mirror.
 This image cannot be formed on the screen but only seen with eyes.
 It is called virtual image.
Real image :
 If convergent rays incident on a plane mirror and after reflection,
they pass through a point ‘I’ in front of the mirror.
 This image can be formed on a screen and can also be seen with
eyes.
 It is called real image.
81. What are the conditions for nature of objects and images regarding plane mirror.
Nature of object/image Condition
 Real image  actually converge at the image
 Virtual image  appear to diverge from the image
 Real object  actually diverge from the object

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 Virtual object  Rays appear to diverge at the object

82. What is Spherical mirrors? Mention it types.
 A spherical surface is a part cut from a hollow sphere.
Spherical mirrors are generally constructed from glass.
One surface of the glass is silvered. The reflection takes
place at the other polished surface.
 Spherical mirrors are two types, they are
1. If the reflection takes place at the convex surface, it is called a convex mirror.
2. If the reflection takes place at the concave surface, it is called a concave mirror.
83. Distinguish convex mirror and concave mirror?
Convex mirror Concave mirror
 It is a spherical mirror in which reflection takes  It is a spherical mirror in which reflection
place at the convex surface and other surface is takes place at the concave surface and other
silvered surface is silvered
84. Define paraxial rays and marginal rays.
Paraxial rays :
 The rays travelling very close to the principal axis and make small angle with it are called paraxial
rays.
Marginal rays :
 The rays travelling far away from the principal axis and fall on the mirror far away from the pole are
called as marginal rays.
85. Define refractive index.
 Refractive index (n) of a transparent medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light (c) in vacuum
(or air) to the speed of light (v) on that medium.
86. What is called refraction?
 Refraction is passing through of light from one optical medium to another optical medium through a
boundary.
87. Define (1) centre of curvature, (2) Radius of curvature (3) pole, (4) principal axis, (5) focus or
focal point, (6) focal length, (7) focal plane
(1) Centre of curvature :
 The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called centre of curvature (C)
(2) Radius of curvature :
 The radius of the sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part is called the radius of curvature (R) of
the mirror.
(3) Pole :
 The middle point on the spherical surface of the mirror (or) the geometrical centre of the mirror is
called the pole (P) of the mirror.
(4) Principal axis :
 The line joining the pole (P) and the centre of curvature (C) is called the principal axis (or) optical
axis of the mirror.
(5) Focus or Focal point :
 Light rays travelling parallel and close to the principal axis when incident on a spherical mirror,
converge at a point for concave mirror or appears to diverge from a point for convex mirror on the
principal axis. This point is called the focus or focal point (F) of the mirror

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(6) Focal length :

 The distance between the pole (P) and Focus (F) is called
the focal length (f) of the mirror.
(7) Focal plane :
 The plane through the focus on perpendicular to the
principal axis is called the focal plane of the mirror.
88. What are the conditions to achieve total internal reflection?
 Light must travel from denser to rarer medium
 Angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle (i > ic)
89. What is Rayleigh’s scattering?
 The scattering of light by atoms and molecules which have size (a) very less than that of the
wavelength (λ) of light is called Rayleigh’s scattering. (i.e.) condition for Rayleigh’s scattering is
a << λ
90. How we locate the image formation in spherical mirrors?
Image formation in spherical mirrors:

a) A ray parallel to the principal axis after reflection will pass through or appear to pass through the
principal focus.
b) A ray passing through or appear to pass through the principal focus, after reflection will travel
parallel to the principal axis.
c) A ray passing through the centre of curvature retraces its path after reflection as it is a case of normal
incidence.
d) A ray falling on the pole will get reflected as per law of reflection keeping principal axis as the
normal.
91. Write the characteristics of refraction?
Characteristics of refraction :
 When light passes from rarer to denser medium it deviates towards normal in the denser medium.
 When light passes from denser to rarer medium it deviates away from normal in the rarer medium.
 In any refracting surface, there will also be some reflection takes place. This phenomenon in which
light undergoing reflection and refraction at the same time at same surface is called simultaneous
reflection or simultaneous refraction.
92. Write a note on prism.
 A prism is a triangular block of glass or plastic which is bounded by the three plane faces not
parallel to each other.
 Its one face is grounded which is called base.
 The other two faces are polished which are called refracting faces of the prism.
 The angle between the two refracting faces is called angle of prism (A)
93. Define dispersive power.
 Dispersive power (ω) is the ability of the material of the prism to cause prism.
 It is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion for the extreme colours to the deviation for any

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mean colour.
 It has no units and dimension. It is a positive number.
94. What is Dual nature of light ?
 A light has both wave as well as particle nature and hence it is said to have dual nature.
o Light propagated as a waves
o Light interacts with matter as a particle
95. Write a note on wave nature of light.
Wave nature of light :
 Light is transverse electromagnetic wave.
 The wave nature of light was confirmed by the experiments on interference and diffraction.
 Like electromagnetic wave, light can travel through vacuum.
 The transverse nature of light was proved by polarization.
96. Can two independent monochromatic sources acts as coherent sources?
 Two independent monochromatic sources never be coherent, because they may emit waves of
frequency and same amplitude, but not with same phase.
 Due to thermal vibrations, the atom while emitting light undergoes this change in phase.
97. Give the methods to obtain coherent light waves.
 Coherent waves are obtained by following three techniques.
1. Intensity or amplitude division
2. Wavefront division
3. Source and images
98. What are called constructive and destructive interference?
Constructive interference :
 During superposition of two coherent waves, points where the crest of one wave meets the crest of
other (or) the trough of one wave meets the trough of the other wave, the waves are in-phase.
 Hence the displacement is maximum and these points appear as bright.
 This type of interference is said to be constructive interference.
Destructive interference :
 During superposition of two coherent waves, points where the crest of one wave meets the trough of
other (or) vice versa, the waves are out-of-phase.
 Hence the displacement is minimum and these points appear as dark.
 This type of interference is said to be destructive interference.
99. What are the conditions for obtaining clear and broad interference bands?
 The screen should be as far away from the source as possible.
 The wavelength of light used must be larger.
 Two coherent sources must be as close as possible
100. Brilliant colours are exhibited by the surface of oil films and soap bubbles. Why?
 The colours exhibited by the surface of oil films and soap bubbles are due to interference of white
light undergoing multiple reflections from the top and bottom surfaces of thin films.

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 The colours depends upon,

1. thickness of the film
2. refractive index of the film
3. angle of incidence of the light
101. Define grating element and corresponding points.
 The combined width of a ruling (b) and a slit (a) is called grating element
e=a+b
 Points on successive slits separated by a distance equal to the grating element are called
corresponding points.
102. Define plane of vibration and plane of polarization.
Plane of vibration:
 The plane containing the vibrations of the electric field vector is known as plane of vibration.
Plane of polarization:
 The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration and containing the ray of light is known as the
plane of polarization.
103. How an unpolarized light can be polarized?
 The unpolarized light can be polarized by following techniques.
1. Selective absorption
2. reflection
3. double refraction
4. Polarization by scattering
104. Explain polarization by reflection.
Polarization by reflection :
 It is the simplest method to produce plane polarized
light.
 It is discovered by Malus.
 Here, XY - reflecting surface
 AB - incident unpolarized light beam
 BC - reflecting
 BD - refracted light beam
 On examining the reflected beam ‘BC’ with an analyzer, it is found that the ray is partially plane
polarized.
 When the light is allowed to be incident on particular angle, the reflected beam is found to be plane
polarized.
 That angle of incidence is called polarizing angle (𝑰𝒑 )
105. Distinguish between ordinary ray and extra ordinary ray.

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Ordinary ray Extraordinary ray

 They obey the laws of refraction  They do not obey the laws of refraction
 Inside the crystal, they travel with same  Inside the crystal, they travel with velocities
velocity in all directions along different directions
 A point source inside the crystal produces  A point source inside the crystal produces
spherical wavefront for ordinary ray elliptical wavefront for extra ordinary ray
106. Define Optic axis.
 Inside the double refracting crystal, there is a particular direction in which both the ordinary and
extraordinary rays travel with same velocity. This direction is called optic axis.
 Along optic axis, the refractive index is same for both rays.
107. What are the uses and drawbacks of Nicol prism?
Uses :
 It produces plane polarized light and functions as a polarizer.
 It can also used as an analyzer.
Drawbacks :
 It cost is very high due to scarcity of large and flawless calcite crystal.
 Due to extraordinary ray passing obliquely through it, the emergent ray is always displaced a little to
one side.
 The effective field of view is quite limited.
 Light emerging out of it is not uniformly plane polarized.
108. Explain Young’s double slit method.
Young’ s double slit experiment :
 Thomas Young used an opaque screen with two
small openings called double slit S1 and S2 kept
equidistance from a source ‘S’
 The width of each slit is about 0.03 mm and they
are separated by a distance of about 0.3 mm.
 As S1 and S2 are equidistant from ‘S’, the light
waves from ‘S’ reach S1 and S2 in phase.
 So S1 and S2 act as coherent sources which are the
requirement of obtaining interference pattern.
 The wave fronts from S1 and S2 get superposed on the other side of the double slit.
 When screen is placed at a distance of about 1 m from double slit, equally spaced alternate bright
and dark fringes are appears on the screen. These are called interference fringes.
 At the point ‘O’ on the screen, the waves from S1 and S2 travels equal distances and arrive in-phase.
Due to constructive interference, bright fringe is formed at point ‘O’. This is called central bright
fringe.
 When one of the slit is covered, then the fringes disappear and there is uniform illumination
observed on the screen. This clearly shows that the fringes are due to interference e.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 171 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

109. What are called Airy’s discs?

 When a circular aperture like a lens or the iris of eye forms an image of a point object, the image
formed will not be a point, but a diffraction pattern of concentric circles that becomes fainter while
moving away from the centre.
 These are known as Airy’s discs.
110. Give the reason for colourful appearance of the compact disc.
 On the read or writable side of the disc, there many narrow circular tracks whose width are
comparable to the wavelength of visible light.
 Hence the diffraction takes place after reflection for incident white light to give colourful
appearance.
 Thus tracks act as reflecting grating.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 172 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 Marks)

1. Derive the mirror equation and the equation for lateral magnification.
Mirror equation :
 The equation which gives the relation between
object distance (u), image distance (v) and
focal length (f) is of spherical mirror is called
mirror equation.
 Let an object AB is placed on the principle
axis of a concave mirror beyond the centre of
curvature ‘C’
 The real and inverted image A'B' is formed between C and F
 By the laws of reflection, angle of incidence (i) = angle of reflection (r)
∠BPA = ∠B'PA'
 From figure, ∆ BPA and ∆ B'P'A are similar triangles. So
𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑃𝐴′
= − − − − − −(1)
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴
 Also ∆ DPF and ∆ B'A'F are similar triangles. So
𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐹
= [𝑃𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵]
𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐹
′ ′ ′
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐹
= − − − − − −(2)
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐹
 From equations (1) and (2),
𝑃𝐴′ 𝐴′ 𝐹 𝑃𝐴′ − 𝑃𝐹
= = − − − − − −(3)
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝐹
 By applying Cartesian sign conventions,
𝑃𝐴 = −𝑢 ; 𝑃𝐴′ = −𝑣 ; 𝑃𝐹 = −𝑓
−𝑣 −𝑣 − (−𝑓)
=
−𝑢 (−𝑓)
𝑣 𝑣−𝑓 𝑣
= = −1
𝑢 𝑓 𝑓
 Dividing both sides by v
1 1 1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= − 𝑜𝑟 = + − − − −(4)
𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
 This is called mirror equation. It is also valid for convex mirror.
Lateral magnification:
 It is defined as the ratio of the height of the image (h') to the height of the object (h).
 From equation (1)
𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑃𝐴′
=
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴
−𝑕′ −𝑣
=
𝑕 −𝑢
 Hence magnification,
𝑕′ 𝑣
𝑚= = − − − − − − −(5)
𝑕 𝑢
 Using equation (4)
𝒉′ 𝒇−𝒗 𝒇
𝒎= = =
𝒉 𝒇 𝒇−𝒖

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 173 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

2. Describe the Fizeau’s method to determine speed of light.

Fizeau’s method :
 The light from the source ‘S’
was first allowed to fall on a
partially silvered glass plate G
kept at an angle of 45° to the
vertical.
 The light then allowed passing
through a rotating toothed-wheel
with N -teeth and N -cuts.

 The speed of rotation of the wheel could be varied through an external mechanism.
 The light passing through one cut in the wheel get reflected by a mirror M kept at a long distance ‘d’
(about 8 km) from the toothed wheel.
 If the toothed wheel was not rotating, the reflected light from the mirror would again pass through
the same cut and reach the observer through G.
Working :
 The angular speed of the rotation of the toothed wheel was increased until light passing through one
cut would completely be blocked by the adjacent tooth. Let that angular speed be ω
 The total distance traveled by the light from the toothed wheel to the mirror and back to the wheel is
‘2d’ and the time taken be ‘t’.
 Then the speed of light in air,
2𝑑
𝑣=
𝑡
 But the angular speed is,
θ
ω=
𝑡
 Here θ is the angle between the tooth and the slot which is rotated by the toothed wheel within that
time ‘t’ . Then,

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛

θ=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑠 + 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠
2π π
θ= =
2𝑁 𝑁
 Hence angular speed,
π/𝑁
ω=
𝑡
π π
ω= 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 =
𝑁𝑡 𝑁ω
 Therefore the speed of light in air,
2𝑑 2𝑑
𝑣= = π
𝑡 ( 𝑁ω)
𝟐𝒅𝑵𝛚
𝒗=
𝛑
 The speed of light in air was determined as,
v = 2.99792 x 108 m s-1
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 174 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

3. Obtain the equation for radius of illumination (or) Snell’s window.

Radius of Snell’s window :
 Light is seem from a point ‘A’ at a depth ‘d’
 Applying Snell’s law in product form at point ‘B,
sin 𝑖𝑐 𝑛2
0
=
sin 90 𝑛1
𝑛2
sin 𝑖𝑐 = − − − − − − − − − − − −(1)
𝑛1
 From ∆ABC,
𝐶𝐵 𝑅
sin 𝑖𝑐 = = − − − − − −(2)
𝐴𝐵 𝑅 + 𝑑2
2

 Compare equations (1) and (2)

𝑅 𝑛2
=
𝑅2 + 𝑑2 𝑛1
𝑅2 𝑛2 2

2 2
=
𝑅 +𝑑 𝑛1

𝑅2 + 𝑑 2 𝑛1 2
2
=
𝑅 𝑛2

𝑑2 𝑛1 2
1+ 2 =
𝑅 𝑛2
𝑑2 𝑛1 2
2
= −1
𝑅 𝑛2

𝑑2 𝑛12
= −1
𝑅2 𝑛22

𝑑2 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
=
𝑅2 𝑛22

𝑅2 𝑛22
=
𝑑2 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

𝑛22
𝑅2 = 𝑑 2
𝑛12 − 𝑛22

𝑛22
𝑅=𝑑
𝑛12 − 𝑛22

 If the rarer medium outside is air, then n2 = 1 and let n1 = n , then

𝟏
𝑹=𝒅
𝒏𝟐 − 𝟏

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 175 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

4. Derive the equation for acceptance angle and numerical aperture of optical fibre.
Acceptance angle :
 To ensure the critical angle incidence in the core-cladding boundary inside the optical fibre, light
should be incident at a certain angle at the end of the optical fibre while entering in to it. This angle
is called acceptance angle (ia).
 Applying Snell’s law at point ‘A’,
sin 𝑖𝑎 𝑛1
= − − − − − −(1)
sin 𝑟𝑎 𝑛3
 To have total internal reflection inside optical fibre, the angle of incidence at the core-cladding
interface at B should be atleast critical angle (ic)
 Appling Snell’s law at point ‘B’
sin 𝑖𝑐 𝑛2
𝑜
=
sin 90 𝑛1
𝑛2
sin 𝑖𝑐 = − − − − − −(2)
𝑛1
 From ∆ABC , ic = 90° − ra
 Then equation (2) becomes,
𝑛2
sin(90𝑜 − 𝑟𝑎 ) =
𝑛1
𝑛2
cos 𝑟𝑎 =
𝑛1
𝑛2 2
sin 𝑟𝑎 = 1 − cos 2 𝑟𝑎 = 1−
𝑛1

𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

sin 𝑟𝑎 = =
𝑛12 𝑛1
 Put this in equation (1),
sin 𝑖𝑎 𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝑎 1
= ⟹ =
𝑛 12 −𝑛 22
𝑛3 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛3
𝑛1

𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 −1

𝑛12 − 𝑛22
sin 𝑖𝑎 = = ⟹ 𝑖𝑎 = sin
𝑛3 𝑛32 𝑛32
 If the outer medium is air, then n3 = 1. The acceptance angle becomes,

𝑖𝑎 = sin−1 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

 Light can have any angle of incidence from zero to ia with the normal at the end of the optical fibre
forming a conical shape called acceptance cone.
 The term (𝑛3 sin 𝑖𝑎 ) is called numerical aperture (NA) of optical fibre

𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝒂 = 𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 176 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

5. Derive the equation for lateral displacement of light passing through a glass slab.
Refraction through a glass slab :

 Thickness of glass slab =t

 Refractive index of glass =n
 The perpendicular distance ‘CE’ between refracted ray and incident ray at C gives the lateral
displacement (L).
 From ∆BCE,
𝐿
sin(𝑖 − 𝑟) =
𝐵𝐶
𝐿
𝐵𝐶 =
sin(𝑖 − 𝑟)

 From ∆BCF,
𝑡
cos 𝑟 =
𝐵𝐶
𝑡
𝐵𝐶 =
cos r
 Hence,
𝐿 𝑡
=
sin(𝑖 − 𝑟) cos r

𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒊 − 𝒓)
𝑳=𝒕
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐫

 Therefore lateral displacement depends on,

1. thickness of the glass slab
2. angle of incidence

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 177 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

6. Derive equation for refraction at single spherical surface.

Refraction at single spherical surface :
 Refractive index of rarer medium = n1
 Refractive index of spherical medium = n2
 Centre of curvature of spherical surface =C
 Object in rarer medium =O
 Point image formed in denser medium =I
 Apply Snell’s law of product form at the point N
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟
 Since the angles are small, we have, sin 𝑖 ≈ 𝑖 and sin 𝑟 ≈ 𝑟
𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟 − − − − − − − (1)
 Let ∠ NOP = α, ∠ NCP = β, ∠ NIP = γ then
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
tan 𝛼 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 =
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝑂
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
tan 𝛽 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛽 =
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
tan 𝛾 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 =
𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐼
 From figure, i = α + β and β = r + γ (or) r = β - γ
 Put the values of i and r in equation (1)
𝑛1 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑛2 (𝛽 − 𝛾)
𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛1 𝛽 = 𝑛2 𝛽 − 𝑛2 𝛾
𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = 𝑛2 𝛽 − 𝑛1 𝛽
𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )𝛽
 Put α , β and γ, we have
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶
𝑛1 𝑛2 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )
+ =
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶
 Using Cartesian sign conversion, we get
PO = -u ; PI = +v ; PC = +R
𝑛1 𝑛2 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )
+ =
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
𝑛2 𝑛1 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )
− = − − − − − − − (2)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
 Here rarer medium is air and hence n1 = 1 and let the refractive index of second medium be n2 = n.
Therefore
𝒏 𝟏 𝒏 − 𝟏
− = −−−−−−− 3
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 178 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

7. Obtain an equation for lateral magnification due to single spherical surface.

Lateral magnification in single spherical surface :
 Height of the object ; OO' = 𝑕1
 Height of the image ; II' = 𝑕2
 Refractive index of first medium = n1
 Refractive index of second medium = n2
 Centre of curvature of spherical surface = C
 The ratio between image height to the object height is
called lateral magnification (m). i.e.
𝐼𝐼 ′
𝑚= − − − − − −(1)
𝑂𝑂′
 ∆COO' and ∆CII' are similar triangles. So
𝐼𝐼 ′ 𝐶𝐼 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑃𝐶
′
= =
𝑂𝑂 𝐶𝑂 𝑃𝐶 + 𝑃𝑂
 Using Cartesian sign conversion, we get
−𝑕2 𝑣−𝑅
𝑚= =
𝑕1 𝑅 + (−𝑢)
𝑕2 𝑣−𝑅 𝑅−𝑣
𝑚= =− = − − − − − −(2)
𝑕1 𝑅−𝑢 𝑅−𝑢
 We know that, equation for single spherical surface
𝑛2 𝑛1 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
𝑢𝑛2 − 𝑣𝑛1 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )
=
𝑣𝑢 𝑅
𝑣𝑢(𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) 𝑣𝑢𝑛2 − 𝑣𝑢𝑛1
𝑅= =
𝑢𝑛2 − 𝑣𝑛1 𝑢𝑛2 − 𝑣𝑛1
 Thus,
𝑛2 𝑢(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝑅−𝑢 =
𝑢𝑛2 − 𝑣𝑛1
𝑛1 𝑣(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝑅−𝑣=
𝑢𝑛2 − 𝑣𝑛1
 Put this equation (2), we get
𝑛 1 𝑣(𝑣−𝑢 )
𝑕2 𝑅−𝑣 𝑢𝑛 2 −𝑣𝑛 1
𝑚= = =
𝑕1 𝑅−𝑢 𝑛 2 𝑢(𝑣−𝑢)
𝑢𝑛 2 −𝑣𝑛 1

𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒗
𝒎= = − − − − − −(3)
𝒉𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒖

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 179 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

8. Obtain Lens maker formula and mention its significance.

Lens maker’s formula :
 A thin lens of refractive index n2 is placed in a medium of refractive index n1
 Let R1 and R2 be radii of curvature of two spherical surfaces ① and ② respectively
 Let P be pole of the lens and O be the Point object.
 I' be the image to be formed due the refraction at the surface ①
 I be the final image obtained due the refraction at the surface ②
 We know that, equation for single spherical surface
𝑛2 𝑛1 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
 For refracting surface ①, the light goes from n1 to n2. Hence
𝑛2 𝑛1 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )
′
− = − − − − − −(1)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1
 For refracting surface ②, the light goes from n2 to n1. Hence
𝑛1 𝑛2 (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
− ′ = − − − − − −(2)
𝑣 𝑣 𝑅2
 Adding equation (1) and (2), we get,
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
′
− + − ′ = +
𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
− + = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) −
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) 1 1
− = −
𝑣 𝑢 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 𝑛2 1 1
− = −1 − − − − −(3)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
 If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at the focus of the lens. Thus, for u = ∞, v = f. Then
equation becomes,
1 1 𝑛2 1 1
− = −1 −
𝑓 ∞ 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 𝑛2 1 1
= −1 − − − − − − −(4)
𝑓 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
 Here first medium is air and hence n1 = 1 and let the refractive index of second medium be n2=n.
Therefore
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒏−𝟏 − − − − − − −(5)
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
 The above equation is called lens maker’s formula.
 By comparing equation (2) and (3)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− =
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇
 This equation is known as lens equation.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 180 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

9. Derive the equation for thin lens and obtain its magnification.
Magnification of thin lens :
 Let an object OO' is placed on the principal axis with
its height perpendicular to the principal axis.
 The ray O'P passing through the pole of the lens
goes undeviated.
 But the ray parallel to principal axis, after refraction
it passes through secondary focus ‘F’
 At the point of intersection of these two rays, an inverted, real image II' is formed.
 Height of the object, OO' = 𝑕1
 Height of the image, II' = 𝑕2
 The lateral magnification (m) is defined as ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
i.e.
𝐼𝐼 ′
𝑚=
𝑂𝑂′
 ∆POO' and ∆PII' are similar triangles. So,
𝐼𝐼 ′ 𝑃𝐼
=
𝑂𝑂′ 𝑃𝑂
 Using Cartesian sign conversion,
−𝑕2 𝑣
𝑚= =
𝑕1 −𝑢
𝑕2 𝑣
𝑚= =
𝑕1 𝑢
 The magnification is negative for real image and positive for virtual image.
 Thus for convex lens, the magnification negative.
 And for concave lens, the magnification is positive.
 Combining the lens equation and magnification equation, we get
𝒉𝟐 𝒇 𝒇−𝒗
𝒎= = =
𝒉𝟏 𝒇 + 𝒖 𝒇

10. Derive the equation for effective focal length for lenses in contact.
Focal length of lenses in contact:
 Let us consider two lenses ① and ② are placed co-axially in
contact with each other.
 The focal lengths of two lenses ① and ② are f1 and f2
 Let the object is placed at ‘O’ beyond the principal focus of
① on the principal axis.
 It forms an image at I'
 This image I' acts as an object for lens ② and hence the final image is formed at ‘I’

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 Writing the lens equation for lens ①

1 1 1
′
− = − − − − − −(1)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓1
 Writing the lens equation for lens ②
1 1 1
− ′ = − − − − − −(2)
𝑣 𝑣 𝑓2
 Adding equation (1) and (2)
1 1 1 1 1 1
′
− + − ′ = +
𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣 𝑓1 𝑓2
1 1 1 1
− = + − − − −(3)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓1 𝑓2
 If this combination acts as a single lens of focal length ‘F’, then,
1 1 1
− = − − − − − −(4)
𝑣 𝑢 𝐹
 Compare equation (3) and (4)
1 1 1
= + − − − − − −(5)
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2
 For any number of lenses,
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + ⋯
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3 𝑓4
 Let P1, P2, P3, P4 … be the power of each lens, then the net power of the lens combination,
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + …
 Let m1, m2, m3, m4 … be the magnification of each lens, then the net magnification of the lens
combination,
m = m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 + …
11. Derive the equation for angle of deviation produced by at prism and thus obtain the equation
for refractive index of material of the prism.
Angle of deviation (d):
 Let ‘ABC’ be the section of triangular prism.
 Here face ‘BC’ is grounded and it is called base of the
prism.
 The other two faces ‘AB’ and ‘AC’ are polished which are
called refracting faces.
 The angle between two refraction faces is called angle of
the prism ‘A’
 Here, ‘PQ’ be incident ray, ‘QR’ be refracted ray and ‘RS’
be emergent ray.
 The angle between incident ray and emergent ray is called
angle of deviation (d)
 Let QN and RN be the normal drawn at the points Q and R
 The incident and emergent ray meet at a point M
 From figure, ∠ MQR = d1 = i1 – r1 and ∠ MRQ = d2 = i2 – r2
 Then total angle of deviation,
d = d1 + d2
d = (i1 – r1) + (i2 – r2)
d = (i1 + i2) - (r1 + r2) ------(1)

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 In the quadrilateral AQNR, ∠ Q = ∠ R = 90°. Hence

A + ∠ QNR = 180°
A = 180° - ∠ QNR ------(2)
 In ∆QNR,
r1 + r2 + = 180°
r1 + r2 = 180° − ∠ QNR ------(3)
 From equation (2) and (3)
A = r1 + r2 ------(4)
 Put equation (4) in equation (1),
d = (i1 + i2) - A ------(5)
 Thus the angle of deviation depends on,
o incidence (i1)
o angle of the prism (A)
o refractive index of the material of the prism (n)
o the wavelength of the light (λ)
Angle of minimum deviation ( (D) ) :
 A graph is plotted between the angle of incidence along x-
axis and angle of deviation along y-axis.
 From the graph, as angle of incidence increases, the angle
of deviation decreases, reaches a minimum value and then
continues to increase.
 The minimum value of angled of deviation is called angle
of minimum deviation (D).
 At minimum deviation,
o i1 = i2
o r1 = r2
o Refracted ray ‘QR’ is parallel to the base ‘BC’
of the prism.
Refractive index of the material of the prism (n):
 At angle of minimum deviation,
i1 = i 2 = i
r1 = r2 = r
 Put this value in equation (4) and (5)
A = r + r = 2r
𝐴
𝑟=
2
 and D = (i + i) - A
D = 2i – A
2i = A + D
𝐴+𝐷
𝑖=
2
 Then by Snell’s law,
sin 𝑖
𝑛=
sin 𝑟

𝑨+𝑫
𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐
𝒏= 𝑨
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐

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12. Derive the equation for effective focal length for lenses in out of contact.
Focal length for lenses in out of contact :
 OA - incident ray
 AI - refracted ray
 Let, ∠ AOP = α and ∠ AIP = β
 From ∆OAI, the angle of deviation,
δ=α+β − − − − − − − (1)
 In ∆ OAP and ∆ PAI, the angles α and β are small. Hence
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐴
tan 𝛼 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛼=
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝑂
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐴
tan 𝛽 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛽=
𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐼
 So, angle of deviation,
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐴
δ= +
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼
 Here, PA = 𝑕, PO = −u, PI = v . then
𝑕 𝑕 1 1 𝑕
δ= + =𝑕 − =
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓

 Let f1 and f2 be the focal lengths.

 And ‘d’ be separation between two lenses, then the net deviation is,
δ = δ1 + δ2
𝑕1 𝑕1 𝑕2
= + − − − − − (1)
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
 From figure,
𝑕1 − 𝑕2 = 𝑃2 𝐺 − 𝑃2 𝐶 = 𝐶𝐺
𝑕1 − 𝑕2 = 𝐵𝐺 tan 𝛿1 ≈ 𝐵𝐺 𝛿1 ≈ 𝑑 𝛿1
𝑕1
𝑕1 − 𝑕2 = 𝑑
𝑓1
𝑕1
𝑕1 = 𝑕2 + 𝑑 − − − − − (2)
𝑓1
 Put equation (3) in (2)
𝑕1 𝑕1 𝑕1 𝑕1 𝑑
= + +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
1 1 1 𝑑
= + + − − − −(3)
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2

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13. What is dispersion? Obtain the equation for dispersive power of a medium.
Dispersion :
 Splitting of white light into its constituent colours is called dispersion.
 The coloured band obtained due to dispersion is called spectrum.
 Dispersive power (ω) the ability of the material of the prism to cause dispersion.
 It is defined as the ration of the angular dispersion for the extreme colours to the deviation for any
mean colour.
 Let A be the angle of prism and D be the angle minimum deviation, then the refractive index of the
material of the prism is
𝑨+𝑫
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
𝒏= 𝑨
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
 If the angle of the prism is small in the order of 10° then it is called small angle prism. In this prism,
the angle of deviation also becomes small.
 Let A be the angle of prism and δ be the angle of minimum deviation, then the refractive index
𝑨+𝜹
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
𝒏= 𝑨
− − − − − −(𝟏)
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
 Since A and δ are small, we may write,
𝑨+𝜹
𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐
𝑨+𝜹
≈
𝟐
𝑨 𝑨
𝐬𝐢𝐧 ≈
𝟐 𝟐
 Put this in equation (1),
𝑨+𝜹
𝟐 𝑨+𝜹
𝒏= =
𝑨 𝑨
𝟐
𝒏𝑨 = 𝑨 + 𝜹
𝜹 = 𝒏𝑨 – 𝑨
𝜹 = 𝒏 – 𝟏 𝑨 − − − − − −(𝟐)
 Thus, angle of deviation for violet and red light,
𝜹𝒗 = 𝒏𝒗 – 𝟏 𝑨 − − − − − (𝟑)
𝜹𝒓 = 𝒏𝒓 – 𝟏 𝑨 − − − − − (𝟒)
 The angular dispersion is given by,
𝜹𝒗 − 𝜹𝒓 = 𝒏𝒗 – 𝟏 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒓 – 𝟏 𝑨
𝜹𝒗 − 𝜹𝒓 = 𝒏𝒗 𝑨 – 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒓 𝑨 + 𝑨
𝜹𝒗 − 𝜹𝒓 = 𝒏𝒗 – 𝒏𝒓 𝑨 − − − (𝟓)
 Let δ be the angle of deviation for mean ray (yellow) and n be the corresponding refractive index,
then
𝜹 = 𝒏 – 𝟏 𝑨 − − − − − −(𝟔)
 By definition, dispersive power
𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝜹𝒗 − 𝜹𝒓
𝜔= =
𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝜹
𝒏𝒗 – 𝒏𝒓 𝑨 𝒏𝒗 – 𝒏𝒓
𝜔= = − − − − − −(7)
𝒏– 𝟏 𝑨 𝒏– 𝟏
 Dispersive power is a dimensionless quantity. It has no unit. It is always positive.

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14. Prove laws of reflection using Huygens principle.

Laws of reflection - Proof :
 XY - Reflecting surface
 AB - Incident plane wavefront.
 The incident rays from L and M are
perpendicular to this incident wavefront.
 Initially the point ‘A’ reaches reflecting surface.
 Then the successive points between AB reaches
the surface.
 Finally, by the time B reaches B', the point A would have reached A'
 This is applicable to all the points on the wavefront AB. Thus the reflected wavefront A'B' emanates
as a plane wavefront.
 The line from L'M' perpendiculars to A'B' represent reflected rays.
 As the reflection happens in the same medium, the speed of light is same before and after reflection.
 Hence, AA' = BB'
Law (1) :
 The incident rays, the reflected rays and the normal are in the same plane.
Law (2) :
 Angle of incidence,
∠ i = ∠ NAL = 90° − ∠ NAB = ∠ BAB'
 Angle of reflection,
∠ r = ∠ N'B'M' = 90° − ∠ N'B'A' = ∠ A'B'A
 In ∆ ABB' and ∆ B'A'A,
o ∠ B = ∠ A' = 90°
o AA' = BB'
o And hypotenuse AB' is common Thus the two triangles are congruent. (i.e.)
∠ BAB' = ∠ A'B'A. Hence, ∠ i = ∠ r
 Incident angle = Reflecting angle
 Hence laws of reflection are proved.

15. Prove laws of refraction using Huygens principle.

Laws of refraction - Proof :
 Let XY be the refracting surface.
 The wave front AB is in rarer medium (1)
 The incident rays from L and M are perpendicular to
this incident wavefront.
 Initially the point ‘A’ reaches refracting surface.
 Then the successive points between AB reaches the
surface.
 Finally, by the time B reaches B', the point A would
have reached A' in the other medium.

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 This is applicable to all the points on the wavefront AB. Thus the refracted wavefront A'B' emanates
as a plane wavefront.
 The line from L'M' perpendiculars to A'B' represent refracted rays.
 Let v1 be the speed of light in medium (1) and v2 be the speed of light in medium (2). Here v1 > v2
 The time taken for the ray to travel from B to B' is same as the time taken for the ray to travel from
A reaches A'. So
AA' = v2 t and BB' = v1 t
𝐵𝐵′ 𝑣1
∴ = − − − − − −(1)
𝐴𝐴′ 𝑣2
Law (1) :
 The incident rays, refracted rays and the normal are in the same plane.
Law (2) :
 Angle of incidence,
∠ i = ∠ NAL = 90° − ∠ NAB = ∠ BAB'
 Angle of refraction,
∠ r = ∠ N'B'M' = 90° − ∠ N'B'A' = ∠ A'B'A
 From ∆ ABB' and ∆ B'A'A,
𝐵𝐵′ 𝑐
sin 𝑖 𝐴𝐵′ 𝐵𝐵′ 𝑣1 𝑛1 𝑛2
= = = = =
sin 𝑟 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐴𝐴′ 𝑣2 𝑐 𝑛1
𝐴𝐵′ 𝑛2

 In product form,
𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓

16. Obtain the equation for resultant intensity due to interference of light.
Resultant intensity due to interference :
 Let S1 and S2 are the two light waves meeting at a point
‘P’
 At any instant ‘t’, the displacement equations,
𝑦1 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − −(1)
𝑦2 = 𝑎2 sin (𝜔𝑡 + ∅) − − − (2)
 where, ∅ →phase difference between them
 Then the resultant displacement at ‘P’,
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2

𝑦 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 sin (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

 By solving this, we get,
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin (𝜔𝑡 + ∅) − − − −(3)
𝑎 2 sin ∅
 where, 𝐴 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 cos ∅ and 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑎
2
1 +𝑎 2 cos ∅
(1) When, ∅ = 0, ±2π, ±4π, … the resultant amplitude becomes maximum
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2
(2) When, ∅ = ±π, ±3π, ±5π … the resultant amplitude becomes minimum
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )2
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 187 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
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 The intensity of light is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude.

𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
𝐼 ∝ 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 cos ∅
𝐼 ∝ (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos ∅)— (4)
(1) When, ∅ = 0, ±2π, ±4π, … the resultant intensity becomes maximum. This is called
constructive interference.
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 )— −(5)
(2) When, ∅ = ±π, ±3π, ±5π … the resultant intensity becomes minimum. This is called
destructive interference.
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )2
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 )— −(6)
Special case :
 If a1 = a2 = a, then resultant amplitude,
𝐴 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 cos ∅
𝐴 = 2𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 cos ∅
𝐴 = 2𝑎2 (1 + cos ∅)
∅
𝐴= 2𝑎2 2 cos 2
2
∅
𝐴 = 2𝑎 cos − − − − − (7)
2
 If I1 = I2 = Io, then the resultant intensity,
𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
∅
𝐼 ∝ 4𝑎2 cos 2 2
∅
𝐼 ∝ 4𝐼𝑂 cos 2 2 − − − − − (8)
∅ = 0, ±2π, ±4π, … than 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝐼𝑂
∅ = ± π, ±3π ,±5π … than 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
 Thus the phase difference (∅) between the two waves decides the intensity of light at the point,
where the two waves meet.
17. Obtain the equation for Path difference and band width in Young’s double slit experiment.
Path difference (δ) :
 Let distance between S1 and S1 is d
 Distance of the screen from double slit D
 Wavelength of coherent light wave = λ
 Hence path difference between the light waves from S1
and S1 to the point ‘P’ is

𝛿 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑀𝑃 = 𝑆2 𝑀
 From the figure, ∠ OCP = ∠ S2S1M = θ
 From ∆ S2S1M,
𝑆2 𝑀 𝛿
sin 𝜃 = =
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑑
𝛿 = sin 𝜃 . 𝑑

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 Here θ is small. Hence, sinθ ≈ tanθ ≈ θ

𝛿 = 𝜃. 𝑑 − − − − − −(1)
 Also, in ∆ OCP,
𝑂𝑃 𝑦
𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 = =
𝑂𝐶 𝐷
𝑦
𝜃=
𝐷
 Put this in equation (1)
𝑦
𝛿 = . 𝑑 − − − − − −(2)
𝐷
 Point ‘P’ may be appear either bright or dark depending on the path difference.
Condition for bright fringe (maxima) :
 For constructive interference, the path difference will be,
𝛿 = 𝑛𝜆 [𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … ]
𝑦
. 𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆
𝐷
 Thus the distance of the nth bright fringe from ‘O’ is
𝐷
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 − − − − − (3)
𝑑
Condition for dark fringe (minima) :
 For destructive interference, the path difference will be,
𝜆
𝛿 = (2𝑛 − 1) [𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … ]
2
𝑦 𝜆
. 𝑑 = (2𝑛 − 1)
𝐷 2
 Thus the distance of the nth dark fringe from ‘O’ is
𝐷 𝜆
𝑦𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1) − −(4)
𝑑 2
Band width (β) :
 The band width is defined as the distance between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes.
 The distance between (n+1)th and nth consecutive bright fringes from ‘O’ is
𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛 +1 − 𝑦𝑛
𝐷 𝐷
𝛽 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆 − 𝑛𝜆
𝑑 𝑑
𝐷
𝛽 = 𝜆 − − − − − −(5)
𝑑
 Simillarly the distance between (n+1)th and nth consecutive dark fringes from ‘O’ is
𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛 +1 − 𝑦𝑛
𝐷 𝜆 𝐷 𝜆
𝛽 = (2[𝑛 + 1] − 1) − (2𝑛 − 1)
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
𝐷
𝛽 = 𝜆 − − − − − −(6)
𝑑
 Eqn (5) and (6) shows that the bright and dark fringes are of same width equally spaced on either
side of central bright fringe

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18. Obtain the equations for constructive and destructive interference for transmitted and
reflected waves in thin films.
Interference in thin films :
 Consider a thin film of transparent material of refractive
index ‘μ’ and thickness ‘d’
 A parallel beam of light is incident on the film at an angle
‘i’
 At upper surface, the light wave is divided in to two
parts. One part is reflected and other part is refracted.
 The refracted part which enters in to the film again gets
divided at the lower surface in two parts. One is
transmitted and the other is reflected back in to the film.
 Here interference is produced by both the reflected and transmitted light.
Interference due to transmitted light :
 If we approximate the incidence to be nearly normal (i = 0), then the points ‘B’ and ‘D’ are very
close to each other.
 The extra distance travelled by the wave transmitted at ‘D’ is (BC+CD).
 Hence the path difference between the waves transmitted from ‘B’ and ‘D’ is
𝛿 = 𝜇 𝐵𝐷 + 𝐶𝐷 = 𝜇(𝑑 + 𝑑)
𝛿 = 2𝜇𝑑 − − − − − −(1)
(1) The condition for constructive interference in transmitted ray is,
𝛿 = 𝑛𝜆
2𝜇𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆 − − − − − −(2)
(2) The condition for destructive interference in transmitted ray is,
𝜆
𝛿 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑑 = 2𝑛 − 1 − − − (3)
2
Interference due to reflected light :
 When light travelling in a rarer medium and getting reflected by a denser medium, undergoes a
𝜆
phase change of π. Hence an additional path difference of is introduced.
2
 Again for normal incidence (i = 0), the points ‘A’ and ‘C’ are very close to each other.
 The extra distance travelled by the wave coming out from ‘C’ is (AB + BC)
 Hence the path difference between the waves reflected at ‘A’ and ‘C’ is
𝛿 = 𝜇 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝜇(𝑑 + 𝑑) = 2𝜇𝑑
𝜆
 Since additional path difference is introduced due to reflection at A, the total path difference,
2
𝜆
𝛿 = 2𝜇𝑑 + − − − −(4)
2
(1) The condition for constructive interference in (2) The condition for destructive interference in
reflected ray is, reflected ray is,
𝛿 = 𝑛𝜆 𝜆
𝛿 = (2𝑛 + 1)
𝜆 2
2𝜇𝑑 + = 𝑛𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
2 2𝜇𝑑 + = 2𝑛 + 1
𝜆 2 2
2𝜇𝑑 = (2𝑛 − 1) − − − (5) 2𝜇𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆 − − − (6)
2
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 190 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

19. Discuss diffraction at single slit and obtain the condition for n th minimum.
Diffraction at single slit:
 Let a parallel beam of light fall normally on a single slit AB. The centre of the slit is C
 A straight line through ‘C’ perpendicular to the plane of slit meets the centre of the screen at ‘O’
 Let ‘y’ be the distance of point ‘P’ from ‘O’
 The lines joining ‘P’ to the different points on the slit can be treated as parallel lines, making and
angle θ with the normal ‘CO’
 All the parallel waves from different pos on the slits get interfere at ‘P’ to give resultant intensity.

Condition for minima :

 To explain minimum intensity, divide the slit in to even number of parts.
(1) Condition for P to be first minimum :
𝒂
 Let us divide the slit AB in to two half’s each of width 𝟐
𝒂
 The various points on the slit which are separated by the same width (𝟐) called corresponding
points
 The path difference of light waves from different corresponding points meeting at ‘P’
𝑎
𝛿 = sin 𝜃
2
 The condition for ‘P’ to be first minimum,
𝑎 𝜆
sin 𝜃 =
2 2
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆
(2) Condition for P to be second minimum :
𝒂
 Let us divide the slit AB in to four equal parts of width 𝟒
𝒂
 Here various corresponding points on the slit which are separated by the same width ( )
𝟒
 The path difference of light waves from different corresponding points meeting at ‘P’
𝑎
𝛿 = sin 𝜃
4
 The condition for ‘P’ to be second minimum,
𝑎 𝜆
sin 𝜃 =
4 2
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 2𝜆

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 191 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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6. Optics

(3) Condition for P to be nth minimum :

𝒂
 Let us divide the slit AB in to 2n equal parts of width 𝟐𝒏
 The condition for ‘P’ to be nth minimum,
𝑎 𝜆
𝛿= sin 𝜃 =
2𝑛 2
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
Condition for maxima :
 To explain maximum intensity, divide the slit in to odd number of parts.
𝒂
 For first maximum, the slit is divided in to three equal parts each of width ( ). Hence
𝟑
𝑎 𝜆 𝜆
sin 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 3
3 2 2
𝒂
 For second maximum, the slit is divided in to five equal parts each of width ( 𝟓 ). Hence
𝑎 𝜆 𝜆
sin 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 5
5 2 2
𝒂
 In general, for n first maximum, the slit is divided in to (2n+1) equal parts each of width,
th
𝟐𝒏+𝟏
. Hence
𝑎 𝜆
sin 𝜃 =
(2𝑛 + 1) 2
𝜆
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
20. Discuss the experiment to determine the wavelength of monochromatic light using diffraction
grating.
Experiment to determine wavelength of light :
 The wavelength of a spectral line can be very
accurately determined with help of a diffraction
grating and a spectrometer.
 Let all the preliminary adjustments are made on
the spectrometer.
 The slit of the spectrometer is illuminated by a monochromatic light, whose wavelength to be
determined.
 The telescope is brought in line with collimator to view the direct image of the slit.
 The given transmission grating is then mounted on the prism table with its plane perpendicular to the
incident beam of light coming from collimator.
 The telescope is turn to one side until the first order diffraction image of the slit coincides with the
vertical cross wire of the eye piece.
 The reading of the position of the telescope is noted.
 Similarly the first order diffraction image on the other side is made to coincide with vertical cross
wire and corresponding reading is noted.
 The difference between two positions gives 2θ
 Half of its value gives θ, the diffraction angle for first order maximum.
 The wavelength of light is calculated from,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝝀 =
𝒎𝑵

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 192 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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6. Optics

21. Discuss the diffraction at a grating and obtain the condition for mth maximum.
Diffraction in grating :
 Let ‘AB’ represent the plane transmission grating.
 It has number of slits of equal width (a) and equal
number of opaque rulings of equal width (b)
 Let a plane wavefront of monochromatic light of
wavelength ‘λ’ be incident normally on the grating.
 As the slit size is comparable to that of wavelength,
the incident light diffracts at the grating.
 Using convex lens, the diffracted waves are focused on the screen.
 Consider a point ‘P’ on the screen, at an angle ‘θ’ with the normal drawn from the centre of the
grating to the screen.
 The path difference (δ) between the diffracted waves from one pair of corresponding points is,
𝛿 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃
 The point ‘P’ will be bright, when
𝛿 = 𝑚𝜆 [𝑚 = 0,1,2,3, … ]
 Hence,
𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 − − − − − −(1)
 where m → order of diffraction
1. Condition for zero order maximum :
o When, 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 0 then, 𝜃 = 0, 𝑚 = 0
o It is zero order diffraction or central maximum
2. Condition for first order maximum :
o When, 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃1 = 𝜆 then, 𝜃 = 𝜃1 , 𝑚 = 1
o It is first order diffraction
3. Condition for second order maximum :
o When, 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃2 = 2𝜆 then, 𝜃 = 𝜃2 , 𝑚 = 2
o It is second order diffraction
4. Condition for higher order maxima :
𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
o If ‘N’ be the number of rulings drawn per unit width (1 m), then,
𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑏 = 1
𝑁 𝑎+𝑏 = 1
1
𝑎+𝑏 =
𝑁
1
sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑁
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝑵𝒎𝝀 − − − − − −(2)

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 193 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

22. Discuss the experiment to determine the wavelength of different colours using diffraction
grating.
Determination of wavelength of different colours :
 White light is a composite light which contains all
wavelengths from violet to red in visible region.
 When white light is used, the diffraction pattern
consists of a white central maximum and on both sides
continuous coloured diffraction patterns are formed.
 The central maximum is white as all the colours meet
here constructively with no phase difference.
 It produces a spectrum of diffraction pattern from
violet to red on either side of central maximum.
 By measuring the angle (θ) at which these colours appear for various order (m) of diffraction, the
wavelength of different colours could be calculated using the formula,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝝀 =
𝒎𝑵
 where, N → number of rulings drawn per unit width of grating.
23. Explain about compound microscope and obtain the equation for magnification.
Compound microscope :
 The lens near the object is called the
objective, forms a real, inverted,
magnified image of the object.
 This serves as the object for the second
lens which is the eyepiece.
 Eye piece serves as a simple microscope
that produces finally an enlarged and
virtual image.
 The first inverted image formed by
objective is to be adjusted close to, but
within the focal plane of the eyepiece, so
that the final image is formed nearly at
infinity or at the near point.
 The final image is inverted with respect to the original object.
Magnification (m) :
 From the ray diagram, the linear magnification due to the objective is,
𝑕′ 𝐿
𝑚𝑜 = = − − − − − −(1)
𝑕 𝑓𝑜
 Here ‘L’ is the distance between the first focal point of the eye piece to the second focal point of the
objective. This is called the tube length.
 The magnification of the eyepiece,
𝐷
𝑚𝑒 = 1 + − − − − − −(2)
𝑓𝑒
 The total magnification ‘m’ in near point focusing,
𝐿 𝐷
𝑚 = 𝑚 𝑜 𝑚𝑒 = 1+
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 194 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

 If the final image is formed at infinity (normal focusing), the magnification if eye piece is,
𝐷
𝑚𝑒 = − − − − − − − −(3)
𝑓𝑒
 The total magnification ‘m’ in normal focusing is,
𝑳 𝑫
𝒎 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒎𝒆 =
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
24. Discuss about astronomical telescope.
Astronomical telescope:
 An astronomical telescope is used to get the
magnification of distant astronomical objects like
stars, planets …
 The image formed by this will be inverted.
 It has an objective of long focal length and a much
larger aperture than eye piece.
 Light from a distant object enters the objective and
a real image is formed in the tube at its second focal
point.
 The eye piece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image.
Magnification (m) :
 The magnification ‘m’ is the ratio of the angle (β) subtended at the eye by the final image to the
angle (a) which the object subtends at the lens or the eye.
𝛽
𝑚=
𝛼
 From figure,
𝑕
𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜
𝑚= =
𝑕 𝑓𝑒
𝑓𝑜
 The length of the telescope is approximately,
𝑳 = 𝒇𝒐 + 𝒇𝒆
25. Explain the experimental determination of material of the prism using spectrometer.
Determination of refractive index ::
 The preliminary adjustments of the telescope, collimator and the prism table of the spectrometer are
made.
 The refractive index (μ) of this determined by knowing the angle of the prism (A) and the angle of
minimum deviation (D)
(1) Angle of the prism (A) :
 The prism is pled on the prism table with its
refracting edge facing the collimator.
 The slit is illuminated by a sodium light.
 The parallel rays coming from the collimator fall on
the two faces AB and AC.
 The telescope is rotated to the position T1 until the
image of the slit formed by the reflection at the face
AB coincides with the vertical cross wire of the
telescope.
 The corresponding vernier readings are noted.
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 195 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
6. Optics

 The telescope is then rotated to the position T2 where the image of the slit formed by the reflection at
the face AC coincides with the vertical cross wire of the telescope. The corresponding vernier
readings are again noted.
 The difference between these two readings gives angle rotated by the telescope, which is twice the
angle of the prism.
 Half of this value gives the angle of the prism (A)
(2) Angle of minimum deviation (D) :
 The prism placed on the prism table, so that the light
from the collimator falls on a refracting face and the
refracted image is observed through the telescope.
 The prism table is now rotated, so that the angle of
deviation decreases.
 A stage comes when the image stops for a moment
and if we rotate the prism table further in the same
direction, the image is seen to recede and the angle
of deviation increases.
 The vertical cross wire of telescope is made to coincide with the image of the slit, where it turns
back. This gives the minimum deviation position.
 The vernier readings corresponding to this position is noted.
 Now the prism is removed and the telescope is turned to receive the direct ray and the vernier
readings are again noted.
 The difference between the two readings gives the angle of minimum deviation (D)
(3) Refractive index (μ) of the prism :
 The refractive index (μ) of the material of the prism is calculated using the formula,
𝑨+𝑫
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
𝝁= 𝑨
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 196 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

7. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (BOOK BACK)
1. Why do metals have large number of free electrons?
 In metals, the electrons in the outer most shells are loosely bound to the nucleus.
 Even at room temperature, due to thermal agitation the loosely bounded electrons are detached from
their orbit and free to move inside the metal in a random manner. This is the reason for large number
of free electrons in the metal.
2. Define work function of a metal. Give its unit.
 The minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the metal surface is called work function
of that metal. It is denoted by Φo
 Its unit is electron volt (eV).
3. What is photo electric effect?
 The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light or any other electromagnetic
radiation of suitable wavelength or frequency is called photo electric effect.
 The ejected electrons are called as photo electrons and the corresponding current is called photo
electric current
4. How does photo electric current vary with the intensity of the incident light?
Variation of photo current with intensity :
 Keeping the frequency (v) and acceleration potential (V) as
constant, the intensity of incident light is varied and the
corresponding photo electric current is measured
 A graph is drawn between intensity along X-axis and the photo
current along Y-axis.
 From the graph, the photo current (i.e.) the number of electrons
emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light.
5. Define intensity of light according to the quantum concept.
 According to quantum concept, the intensity of light of given wavelength is defined as the number of
energy quanta or photons incident per unit area per unit time with photon having same energy.
 The unit is W m-2
6. Define threshold frequency.
 For a giver surf, the emission of photo electrons takes place only if the frequency of incident light is
greater than a certain minimum frequency called threshold frequency.
7. What is photo electric cell? Give its type.
 The device which converts light energy into electrical energy is called photo electric cell or simply
photo cell.
 It works on the principle of photo electric cell
 Photo cells are classified in to three types.
o emissive cell
o voltaic cell
o Photo conductive cell
8. Write the expression for the de Broglie wavelength associated with a charged particle of
charge ‘q’ and mass ‘m’, when it is accelerated through a potential V.
 De Broglie wavelength in terms of potential ‘V’,
𝒉
𝝀=
𝒎𝒗
𝒉
𝝀=
𝟐𝒎𝒒𝑽

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 197 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

9. What is De Broglie hypothesis?

 Due to the symmetry in nature, de Broglie suggested that if radiation like light can act as particles at
times, then matter particles like electrons should also act as waves at times.
 According to de Broglie hypothesis, all matter particles like electrons, protons, neutrons in motion
are associated with waves. These waves are called de Broglie waves or matter waves.
10. Why we do not see the wave properties of a baseball?
𝒉
 The de Broglie wavelength of matter is, 𝝀 = 𝒎𝒗
 Thus the de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass
 Since the mass of base ball is too large as compared with the electron, the de Broglie wavelength of
base ball is negligibly small
 So we do not see the wave property of the baseball
11. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has greater de Broglie
wavelength. Justify.
ℎ
 De Broglie wavelength of proton, 𝜆𝑝 = 2𝑚 𝐾
𝑝
ℎ
 De Broglie wavelength of electron, 𝜆𝑒 = 2𝑚 𝑒 𝐾
 Here the mass of the proton is greater than the mass of the electron, 𝑚𝑒 < 𝑚𝑝
 Hence the de Broglie wavelength of electron is greater than that of proton, 𝜆𝑒 > 𝜆𝑝
12. Write the relationship of de Broglie wavelength λ associated with a particle of mass m in terms
of its kinetic energy K.
 De Broglie wavelength of a particle of a mass ‘m’, charge ‘q’ accelerated at the potential ‘V’,
𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= =
𝒎𝒗 𝟐𝒎𝒒𝑽
 Since, q V = K (kinetic energy), we have,
𝒉
𝝀=
𝟐𝒎𝑲
13. Name an experiment which shows wave nature of the electron. Which phenomenon was
observed in this experiment using an electron beam?
 The wave nature of electron (i.e.) de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves was experimentally
confirmed by Davisson and Germer experiment.
 Diffraction is the important property of waves. So in this experiment, diffraction of electron beam
was observed when they fall on crystalline solids.
14. An electron and an alpha particle have same kinetic energy. How are the de-Broglie
wavelengths associated with them related?
ℎ
 De Broglie wavelength of electron beam, 𝜆𝑒 = 2𝑚 𝐾 ----(1)
𝑒
ℎ
 De Broglie wavelength of alpha particle, 𝜆𝛼 = ----(2)
2𝑚 𝛼 𝐾
 Divide equation (1) by (2)
ℎ
𝜆𝑒 2𝑚 𝑒 𝐾 ℎ 2𝑚𝛼 𝐾
= ℎ = ×
𝜆𝛼 2𝑚𝑒 𝐾 ℎ
2𝑚 𝛼 𝐾

𝜆𝑒 𝑚𝛼
=
𝜆𝛼 𝑚𝑒

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 198 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (CONCEPTUAL)

15. Define surface barrier.
 The potential barrier which prevents free electrons from leaving the metallic surface is called surface
barrier. It is created by the positive nuclei of the metal
16. Define electron emission.
 The liberation of electrons from any surface of a substance is called electron emission.
 The material with small work function is more effective in electron emission.
17. Define electron volt (eV)
 One electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated by a
potential difference of 1 volt.
1eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J
18. What are called photo sensitive materials?
 The materials which eject photoelectrons upon irradiation of electromagnetic wave of suitable
wavelength are called photosensitive materials.
1. (e.g.) Metals like cadmium, zinc, magnesium etc emits photo electrons by UV rays.
2. (e.g.) Alkali metals like lithium, sodium, cesium etc emits photo electrons by Visible lights.
19. Define stopping potential.
 The negative or retarding potential given to collecting electrode which is just sufficient to stop the
most energetic photoelectrons emitted and make the photo current zero is called stopping potential
or cut - off potential.
20. What is the nature of light?
 The light possesses dual nature that of both wave and particle.
 Light behaves as a wave during its propagation and behaves as a particle during its interaction with
matter.
21. What is called matter waves or de Broglie waves?
 The waves associated with matter particles like electrons in motion are called matter waves or de
Broglie waves.
22. List the properties of X - rays.
Properties of X - rays :
 They travel in straight line with the velocity of light
 They are not deflected both by electric and magnetic field
 X - ray photons are highly energetic
 They pass through materials which are opaque to visible light.
23. What is X -ray spectra? Give its types.
 The intensity of the X-rays when plotted against its wavelength gives a curve called X – ray
spectrum.
 X - ray spectrum consists of two parts, namely
1. Continuous X -ray spectrum
2. Characteristic X - ray spectrum
24. What factor does the quality and intensity of X - rays were depends?
 The quality of X - rays is measured in terms of its penetrating power which depends on the velocity
of the striking electron and the atomic number of target material.
 The intensity of X - rays is depends on the number of electrons striking the target
25. What are called X - rays? Why are they so called?
 X - rays are invisible, electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength ranging from 0.1 Å to 100 Å.
 When a fast moving electrons strike a metal target of high atomic weight, X - rays are produced.
 In 1875, Wilhelm Roentgen accidently discovered X-rays.
 At the time of discovery, the origin of this highly penetrating was not known. So they were called as
X - rays.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 199 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 Marks)

1. State the laws of photo electric effect.
Laws of photo electric effect :
 For a given frequency of incident light, the number of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional
to the intensity of the incident light. The saturation current is also directly proportional to the
intensity of incident light.
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is independent of intensity of the incident light.
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons from a given metal is directly proportional to the
frequency of incident light.
 For a given surface, the emission photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency of incident light is
greater than a certain minimum frequency called the threshold frequency.
 There is no time lag between incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons.
2. Explain why photoelectric effect cannot be explained on the basis of wave nature of light
Failures of classical wave theory :
 According to wave theory, light of greater intensity should impart greater kinetic energy to the
liberated electrons. But the experiments show that maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
does not depend on the intensity of the incident light.
 According to wave theory, if a sufficiently intense beam of light is incident on the surface, electrons
will be liberated from the surface of the target, however low the frequency of the radiation is. But
photoelectric emission is not possible below a certain minimum frequency called threshold
frequency.
 Since the energy of light is spread across the wavefront, each electron needs considerable amount of
time (a few hours) to get energy sufficient to overcome the work function and to get liberated from
the surface. But experiments show that photoelectric emission is almost instantaneous process
3. Explain Einstein’s explanation for the particle nature (quanta ) of light.
Particle nature of light - Einstein’s explanation :
 According to Einstein, the energy in light is not spread out over wavefronts but is concentrated in
small packets or energy quanta.
 Therefore, light of frequency v from any source can be considered as a stream of quanta.
 The energy of each light quantum, E = h ν
 The linear momentum of quanta is, p = hv / c
 The individual light quantum of definite energy and momentum can be associated with a particle.
The light quantum can behave as a particle and this is called photon.
4. Explain the concept of quantization of energy.
Quantization of energy :
 Max Planck proposed quantum concept in 1900 in order to explain the block body radiations.
 According to Planck, matter is composed of a large number of oscillating particles (atoms) which
vibrate with different frequencies.
 Each atomic oscillator which vibrates with it characteristic frequency emits or absorbs
electromagnetic radiation of the same frequency.
1. If an oscillator vibrates with frequency v, its energy can have only certain discrete values,
En = nhv [n = 1, 2, 3, ... ]
2. The oscillators emit or absorb energy in small packets or quanta and the energy of each quantum
is E = h ν
where h → Planck’s constant
 This implies that the energy of the oscillator is quantized and not continuous. This is called
quantization of energy.

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

5. Write a note on the production of X - rays.

Production of X - rays :
 X - rays are produced in a Coolidge tube which
is a discharge tube.
 Here a tungsten filament ‘F’ is heated by L.T, so
that electrons are emitted from it by thermionic
emission.
 These electrons are accelerated to very high
speeds by H.T
 The target material like tungsten is embedded in
the face of solid copper anode.
 When high speed electrons strike the target, they are decelerated suddenly and lose their kinetic
energy. As a result, X -ray photons are produced.
 The face of target is inclined at particular angle, so that the X - rays can leave the tube through its
side.
 Since most of the kinetic energy of electrons get converted to heat, the target made of high melting
point and a cooling system are usually employed.
6. Write a note on continuous X - ray spectrum.
Continuous X - ray spectrum :
 When a fast moving electron penetrates and approaches a target nucleus, it get accelerates or
decelerates.
 It may results in a change of path of the electron.
 The radiation produced from such decelerating electron is called Bremsstrahlung or braking
radiation.
 The energy of the emitted photon (radiation) is equal to the loss of kinetic energy of the electron.
 So the photons are emitted with all possible energies or frequencies.
 The continuous X -ray spectrum is due to such radiations.
 When an electron gives up all its energy, then the photon is emitted with highest frequency (vo) or
lowest wavelength (λo)
 The initial kinetic energy of an electron = eV where, V → accelerating voltage
𝑐 ℎ𝑐
 Thus, 𝑒𝑉 = ℎ𝜈𝑜 = ℎ 𝜆 𝑜𝑟 𝜆𝑜 =
𝑜 𝑒𝑉
12400
 Substitute known values, 𝜆𝑜 = Å
𝑉
 This relation is known as Duane - Hunt formula.
7. Explain the applications of X -rays.
1. Medical diagnosis :
o X - rays can pass through flesh more easily than through bones. Thus X -ray radiograph
containing a deep shadow of the bones and a light shadow of flesh.
o So X -rays radiographs are used to detect fractures, foreign bodies, diseased organs etc.,
2. Medical therapy :
o X - ray can kill diseased tissues.
o So they are employed to cure skin diseases, malignant tumours etc.
3. Industry:
o They are used to check for flaws in welded joints, motor tyres, tennis balls and wood,
o At the custom post, they are used for detection of contraband goods.
4. Scientific Research :
o X - ray diffraction is important tool to study structure of the crystalline materials (i.e.) the
arrangement of atoms and molecules in crystals.
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 201 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

8. Write a note on characteristic X - ray spectra.

Characteristic X - ray spectra :
 When the target is hit by fast electrons, the obtained X - ray
spectra shows some narrow peaks at some well-defined
wavelength.
 The line spectrum showing these peaks is called characteristic
X - ray spectrum.
 This X -ray spectrum is due to the electronic transitions within
the atoms.
 For example, when an energetic electron penetrates in to the
target atom and removes the electrons in K - shell and create a
vacancy in it.
 So the electrons from outer orbits jump to fill up the vacancy
in K - shell.
 During the downward transition, the energy difference
between the levels is given out in the form of X - ray photon
of definite wavelength.
 Such wavelengths, characteristic of the target, constitute the
line spectrum.
 It is evident that K - series of lines in the X – ray spectrum arise due to the electronic transitions
from L, M. N, O, ... ... shells to K - shell.
 Similarly L - series originates due to electronic transition from M, N, O, ... ... shells to L - shell.
9. Derive the expression of de Broglie wavelength.
De Broglie wavelength :
 The momentum of photon of frequency ′v′ is,
𝑬 𝒉𝒗 𝒉
𝒑= = =
𝒄 𝒄 𝝀
𝒉
 The wavelength of a photon is, 𝝀 = 𝒑

 According to de Broglie, this equation is applicable to matter particle also.

 Let ‘m’ be the mass and ‘v’ be the velocity of the particle, then the wavelength
𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= =
𝒎𝒗 𝒑
 This wavelength of the matter waves is known as de Broglie wavelength.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 202 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 Marks)

1. What do you mean by electron emission? Explain briefly various methods of electron emission.
Electron emission :
 The liberation of electrons from any surface of a substance is called electron emission.
 The minimum energy needed to liberate the electrons from the metal surface is called work function
of that metal.
Depending upon the energy source, the electron emission is classified as four types which are
explained below.

(1) Thermionic emission :

 When a metal is heated to a high temperature, the
free electrons on the surface get sufficient energy
in the form of heat, so that they are emitted from
the metallic surface.
 This type of emission is known as thermionic
emission.
 The intensity of the thermionic emission depends on the metal used and its temperature.
(e.g.) electron microscopes, X-ray tubes

(2) Field emission :

 When a very strong electric field is applied across
the metal, this strong field pulls free electrons and
helps to overcome the surface barrier of the metal.
 This type of emission of electron is called field
emission. (e.g.) Field emission display

(3) Photo electric emission :

 When an electromagnetic radiation of suitable
frequency is incident on the surface of the metal,
the energy is transferred from the radiation to free
electrons.
 Hence the free electrons get sufficient energy to
cross the surface barrier.
 This type is called photo electric emission. (e.g.)
photo electric cells, photo diodes

(4) Secondary emission :

 When a beam of fast moving electrons strike the
surface of the metal, the kinetic energy is
transferred to the free electrons on the metal
surface.
 Thus free electrons get sufficient kinetic energy
and emitted from the surface.
 This type is called secondary emission. (e.g.) photo
multiplier tube
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 203 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

2. Briefly discuss the observations of Hertz, Hallwachs and Lenard.

Hertz experiment :

 Heinrich Hertz successfully generating and detecting the existence of electromagnetic waves.
 He used high voltage induction coil to cause a spark discharge between two metallic spheres.
 When spark is formed, the charges will oscillate back and forth rapidly and the electromagnetic
waves are produced.
To detect these electromagnetic waves, a copper wire bent in the shape of a circle is used as detector.

Hallwachs’s experiment :

 In Hertz experiment, in order to improve the visibility

of the spark, it is exposed to ultra violet rays which
make the spark as more vigorous.
 Wilhelm Hallwachs confirmed that the strange
behaviour of the spark is due to the photo electric
emission under the action of ultra violet light.

 In Hallwachs experiment, a clean circular plate of zinc is mounted in insulating stand and is attached
to a gold leaf electroscope by a wire.
 When uncharged zinc plate is irradiated by ultraviolet light, it becomes positively charged and the
leaves are open as shown in figure (a)
 If negatively charged zinc plate is exposed to ultraviolet light, the leaves will close as the charges
leaked away quickly as shown in figure (b)
 If positively charged plate is exposed to UV-light, it becomes more positive and the leaves are open
further as shown in figure (c)
From these observations, it was concluded that negatively charged electrons were emitted from the
zinc plate under the action of UV - light.

Lenard experiment :

 ‘A’ and ‘C’ are two metallic plates placed in an evacuated

quartz bulb.
 Galvanometer G and battery B are connected in the circuit.
 When UV - light is incident on plate C, and electric current
flows in a circuit which is indicated by the deflection in the
galvanometer.
 But if the plate A is irradiated by UV - light, no current is
observed in the circuit.
 From these observations, it is concluded that when UV- light falls on the negative plate C, electrons
are ejected from it, which are attracted by the positive plate A.
 Hence the circuit is completed and the current flows in it.
 Thus the UV - light falling on the negative plate causes the electron emission from the surface of the
plate.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 204 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

3. Explain the experimental set up for study of photo electric effect

 Experiment for study of photo electric effect :

 S is the source of electromagnetic wave of frequency ‘v’ and intensity ‘I’

 C is the cathode made up of photo sensitive material and is used to emit electrons.
 A is the anode which collects the emitted electrons
 ‘A’ and ‘C’ are placed in an evacuated glass envelope with a quartz window that permits UV -light
and visible light.
 PQ is a potential divider arrangement which is connected through a key K and battery B
 The voltmeter ‘V’ and micro ammeter ‘μA’ also included in this circuit.
 If there is no light incident on the cathode C, no photoelectrons are emitted and the micro ammeter
reads zero.
 When UV - light or visible light is allowed to fall on C, the photo electrons are emitted and are
attracted towards anode.
 As a result, the photo electric current is set up in the circuit which is measured using micro ammeter.
 The photo electric current depends following quantities,
o intensity of incident light
o the potential difference between the electrodes
o the nature of the material
o frequency of incident light

4. Explain the effect of potential difference on photo electric current.

Effect of potential difference on photoelectric current :
 Let the frequency and intensity of the incident light are kept constant.
 Now, the potential of A is increased and the corresponding photocurrent is noted.
 Simillarly, a negative (retarding) potential is applied to A and again the photocurrent is noted.
 Plot a graph by taking anode potential along x -axis and photo current along y - axis
 From the graph,

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 205 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

1. When the potential of A increases, the photo current

also increases and reaches a saturation value called
saturation current.
2. When a negative potential is applied to A, the photo
current does not immediately drop to zero, because
the photo electrons are emitted with some definite
and different kinetic energies.
3. If the negative or retarding potential of A gradually
increased, the photo current starts decreasing and
becomes zero at one particular negative potential Vo.
4. The value of negative or retarding potential give to
anode A which is just sufficient to stop the most
energetic photo electrons emitted and make the photo
current zero is called stopping potential or cut - off
potential ( Vo)
5. Here the initial kinetic energy of the fastest electron is equal to the work done by the stopping
potential to stop it. i.e.,
1 2
𝑒𝑉𝑂 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
2𝑒𝑉𝑂
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 5.93 × 105 𝑉𝑂
𝑚

5. Explain how frequency of incident light varies with stopping potential.

Effect of frequency on photoelectric current:
 Let the intensity of incident light is kept
constant.
 The variation of photo current with the Anode
potential is studied for different incident
frequencies.
 A graph is plotted by taking anode potential
along x - axis and photo current along y - axis
 From the graph,
1. Stopping potential vary over different
frequencies of incident light. (i.e.)
Greater the frequency, larger the stopping
potential
2. Thus as the frequency is increased, the photoelectrons are emitted with greater kinetic
energies so that the retarding potential needed to stop the photoelectrons is also greater.
Variation of stopping potential with frequency :
 From the graph,
1. The stopping potential varies linearly
with frequency.
2. Below a particular frequency called
threshold frequency (vo), no electrons are
emitted.
3. Hence at threshold frequency stopping
potential is zero for that reason.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 206 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

6. List out the laws of photoelectric effect.

Laws of photoelectric effect:
1. For a given frequency of incident light, the number of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional
to the intensity of the incident light. The saturation current is also directly proportional to the
intensity of incident light.
2. Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is independent of intensity of the incident light.
3. Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons from a given metal is directly proportional to the
frequency of incident light.
4. For a given surface, the emission of photo electrons takes place only if the frequency of incident
light is greater than a certain minimum frequency called the threshold frequency.
5. There is no time lag between incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons. (i.e.) photo electric
effect is an instantaneous process
7. Explain the particle nature of light. List the characteristics of photons.
Particle nature of light :
 According to Einstein, the energy in light is not spread out over wavefronts, but is concentrated in
small packets or energy quanta.
 The energy of each light quantum is E = hv
 The individual light quantum of definite energy momentum can be associated with a particle and this
is called photon.
Characteristics of photons :
 Each photon will have energy given by
𝒉𝒄
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒗 =
𝝀
 The energy of a photon is determined by the frequency of the radiation and not by its intensity.
 The photons travel with the velocity of light and its momentum is given by,
𝒉 𝒉𝒗
𝒑= =
𝝀 𝒄
 Photons are electrically neutral, and hence they are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
 When photon interacts with matter, the total energy, total linear momentum and angular momentum
are conserved.
8. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric equation with necessary explanation.
Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric equation:
 When a photon of energy ‘hν’ is incident on metal
surface, it is completely absorbed by a single
electron and the electron is ejected.
 In this process, the energy of incident photon is
utilized in two ways.
o Part of the photon energy is used for the
ejection of the electrons from the metal
surface and it is called work function (ΦO)
o Remaining energy as the kinetic energy (K)
of the ejected electron.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 207 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

 From the law of conservation of energy,

ℎ𝑣 = 𝜙𝑂 + 𝐾
1
ℎ𝑣 = 𝜙𝑂 + 𝑚𝑣 2 − − − − − −(1)
2
 where m → mass of the electron and υ → velocity
 At threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of ejected electrons will be zero.
 (i.e.) when. v = vo then K = 0 Thus equation (1) becomes
ℎ𝑣𝑜 = 𝜙𝑂 − − − − − −(2)
 Put equation (2) in (1)
1
ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑣𝑜 + 𝑚𝑣 2 − − − − − −(3)
2
 The equation (3) is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
 If the electron does not lose energy by internal collisions, then it is emitted with maximum kinetic
energy Kmax. Then
1
ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑣𝑜 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣𝑜
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙𝑜 − − − − − −(4)
 A graph between maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the photoelectron and frequency ν of the incident
light is a straight line
9. Explain experimentally observed facts of photoelectric effect with the help of Einstein’s
explanation.
Explanation for photo electric effect:
 As each photon liberates one electron, then increase of intensity of the light increases the number of
electrons emitted there by increasing the photo current.
 From, 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙𝑜 , it is evident that 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 is proportional to the frequency of the light and is
independent of intensity of the light.
1
 From, ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑣𝑜 + 2 𝑚𝑣 2 there must be minimum energy (equal to the work function of the metal)
for incident photons to liberate electrons from the metal surface. Below which, emission of electrons
is not possible.
 Correspondingly, there exists minimum frequency called threshold frequency below which there is
no photoelectric emission.
 According to quantum concept, the transfer of photon energy to the electrons is instantaneous so that
there is no time lag between incidence of photons and ejection of electrons.
10. Explain photo electric cells and its types.
Photo electric cell :
 Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy. It
works on the principle of photo electric effect.
 When light is incident on the photosensitive materials, their electric properties will get affected,
based on which photo cells are classified into three types. They are
o emissive cell
o voltaic cell
o Photo conductive cell

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 208 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

1. Photo emissive cell :

 Its working depends on the electron emission from a metal cathode due to irradiation of light or
other radiations.
2. Photo voltaic cell :
 Here sensitive element made of semiconductor is used which generates voltage proportional to the
intensity of light or other radiations.
3. Photo conductive cell :
 In this, the resistance of the semiconductor changes in accordance with the radiant energy incident
on it.
11. Give the construction and working of photo emissive cell.
Photo emissive cell:
 It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb in which two metallic
electrodes a cathode and an anode are fixed.
 The cathode C is semi-cylindrical in shape and is coated with a photo
sensitive material.
 The anode A is a thin rod or wire kept along the axis of the semi-
cylindrical cathode.
 A potential difference is applied between the anode and the cathode
through a galvanometer G.
Working :
 When cathode is illuminated, electrons are emitted from it.
 These electrons are attracted by anode and hence a current is produced
which is measured by the galvanometer.
 For a given cathode, the magnitude of the current depends on
o The intensity to incident radiation and
o The potential difference between anode and cathode.

12. Give the application of photo cells.

Applications of photo cells:
 Photo cells have many applications especially as switches and sensors.
 Automatic lights that turn on when it gets dark use photocells, as well as street lights that switch on
and off according to whether it is night or day.
 Photo cells are used for reproduction of sound in motion pictures
 They are used as timers to measure the speeds of athletes during a race.
 Photo cells of exposure meters in photography are used to measure the intensity of the given light
and to calculate the exact time of exposure.
13. Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength of electrons.
De Broglie wavelength of electrons:
 An electron of mass m is accelerated through a potential difference of V volt.
 The kinetic energy acquired by the electron is given by
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2
 Hence the speed of the electron is.
2𝑒𝑉 2𝑒𝑉
𝑣2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 =
𝑚 𝑚
 The de Broglie wavelength of electron is
ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = =
𝑚𝑣 2𝑒𝑉 2𝑚𝑒𝑉
𝑚 𝑚

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 209 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

 where, h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s

e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
m = 9.11 x 10-31 kg
12.27 × 10−10 12.27
𝜆= = Å
𝑉 𝑉

14. Describe briefly Davisson – Germer experiment which demonstrated the wave nature of
electrons.
Davisson - Germer experiment :
 De Broglie hypothesis of matter waves was experimentally
confirmed by Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer in 1927.
 They demonstrated that electron beams are diffracted when
they fall on crystalline solids.
 Since crystal can act as a three-dimensional diffraction grating
for matter waves, the electro waves incident on crystals are
diffracted off in certain specific directions.
 The filament F is heated by a low tension (L.T.) battery so that
electrons are emitted from the hot filament by thermionic
emission.
 They are then accelerated due to the potential difference
between the filament and the anode aluminium cylinder by a
high tension (H.T.) battery.
 Electron beam is collimated by using two thin aluminium
diaphragms and is allowed to strike a single crystal of Nickel.
 The electrons scattered by Ni atoms in different directions are received by the electron detector
which measures the intensity of scattered electron beam.
 The detector is rotatable in the plane of the paper so that the angle θ between the incident beam and
the scattered beam can be changed at our will.
 The intensity of the scattered electron beam is measured as a function of the angle θ.
 The graph shows the variation of intensity of scattered
electrons with the angle θ for the accelerating voltage of 54V.
 For a given accelerating voltage V, the scattered wave shows a
peak or maximum at an angle of 50° to the incident electron
beam.
 This peak in intensity is attributed to the constructive
interference of electrons diffracted from various atomic layers
of the target material.
 From the known value of interplanar spacing of Nickel, the wavelength of the electron wave has
been experimentally calculated as 1.65Å.
 The wavelength can also be calculated from de Broglie relation for V = 54 V as
12.27 12.27
𝜆= Å= Å = 1.67 Å
𝑉 54
 This value agrees well with the experimentally observed wavelength of 1.65Å.
 Thus this experiment directly verifies de Broglie’s hypothesis of the wave nature of moving
particles.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 210 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics Short Questions- 2 marks
7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

15. Briefly explain the principle and working of electron microscope.

Electron microscope :
Principle :
 The wave nature of the electron is used in the construction of
microscope called electron microscope.
 The resolving power of a microscope is inversely proportional to
the wavelength of the radiation used.
 Thus higher resolving power can be obtained by employing the
waves of shorter wavelengths.
 De Broglie wavelength of electron is very much less than (a few
thousands less) that of the visible light.
 As a result, the microscopes employing de Broglie waves of
electrons have very much higher resolving power than optical
microscope.
 Electron microscopes giving magnification more than 2,00,000
times are common in research laboratories.
Working :
 The construction and working of an electron is similar to that of
an optical microscope except that in electron microscope focusing
of electron beam is done by the electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
 The electron beam passing across a suitably arranged either
electric or magnetic fields undergoes divergence or convergence
thereby focusing of the beam is done
 The electrons emitted from the source are accelerated by high
potentials.
 The beam is made parallel by magnetic condenser lens.
 When the beam passes through the sample whose magnified image is needed, the beam carries the
image of the sample.
 With the help of magnetic objective lens an magnetic projector lens system, the magnified image is
obtained on the screen.
 These electron microscopes are being used in almost all branches of science.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 211 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

8. ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (BOOK BACK)
1. What are called cathode rays?
 When the pressure is about 0.01 mm of Hg, positive column disappears and a dark space formed
between anode and cathode which is called Crooke’s dark space.
 At this time the walls of the tube appear with green colour and some invisible rays emanate from
cathode called cathode rays, which are later found be a beam of electrons.
2. Give the properties of cathode rays.
Properties of cathode rays:
 Cathode rays possess energy and momentum
 They travel in a straight line with high speed of the order of 10 7 m s-1.
 It can be deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
 The direction of deflection indicates that they are negatively charged particles.
 When the cathode rays are allowed to fall on matter, they produce heat.
 They affect the photographic plates
 They produce fluorescence
 When the cathode rays fall on a material of high atomic weight, x-rays are produced.
 Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they pass.
1
 The speed of cathode rays is up to (10 )th of the speed of light.
3. Give the results of Rutherford alpha scattering experiment.
Results of alpha scattering experiment:
 Most of the alpha particles are not deflected through the gold foil and went straight.
 Some of the alpha particles are deflected through a small angle.
 A few alpha particles (one in thousands) are deflected through the angle more than 90°
 Very few alpha particles returned back (back scattered) –that is, deflected back by 180°
4. State the postulates of Bohr’s atom model.
Postulate (1):
 The electron in an atom moves around nucleus in circular orbits under the influence of Coulomb
electrostatic force of attraction.
 This Coulomb force gives necessary centripetal force for the electron to undergo circular motion.
Postulate (2):
 Electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus only in certain discrete orbits called stationary
orbits where it does not radiate electromagnetic energy.
 The angular momentum (l) of the electron in these stationary orbits are quantized (i.e.) integral
𝑕
multiple of 2𝜋
𝑕
𝑙=𝑛 = 𝑛ℏ
2𝜋
 where n → principal quantum number
 This condition is known as angular momentum quantization condition.
Postulate (3):
 Energy of orbits are not continuous but discrete. This is called the quantization of energy.
 An electron can jump from one orbit another orbit by absorbing or emitting a photon whose energy
is equal to the difference in energy (ΔE) between the two orbital levels
𝑐
△ 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑖 = 𝑕𝜐 = 𝑕
𝜆
 where c → speed of light, λ → wavelength of the radiation used and ν → frequency of the radiation

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8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

5. Define excitation energy.

 The energy required to excite an electron from lower energy state to any higher energy state is
known as excitation energy.
 Its unit is electron volt (eV)
6. Define ionization energy and ionization potential.
Ionization Energy
 The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom in the ground state is known as
binding energy or ionization energy.
 Ionization energy of hydrogen atom is 𝐸𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 13.6 𝑒𝑉
Ionization Potential
 Ionization potential is defined as ionization energy per unit charge.
 The ionization potential of hydrogen atom is 𝑉𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 13.6 𝑉
7. What are the drawbacks in Bohr atom model?
Drawbacks of Bohr atom model:
 Bohr atom model is valid only for hydrogen atom or hydrogen like-atoms but not for complex atoms
 When the spectral lines are closely examined, individual lines of hydrogen spectrum is accompanied
by a number of faint lines. These closed packed lines are called fine structure. This is not explained
by Bohr atom model.
 Bohr atom model fails to explain the intensity variations in the spectral lines.
 The distribution of electrons in atoms is not completely explained by Bohr atom model.
8. What is distance of closest approach?
 The minimum distance between the centre of the nucleus and the alpha particle just before it gets
reflected back through 180° is defined as the distance of closest approach (or) contact distance ro
9. Define impact parameter.
 The impact parameter (b) is defined as perpendicular distance between the centre of the gold nucleus
and the direction of velocity vector of alpha particle when it is at a large distance.
10. Write a general notation of nucleus of element X. What each term denotes?
 The general notation of nucleus is, 𝑨𝒁𝑿
 Where,
o X → the chemical symbol of the element
o Z → the atomic number
o A → the mass number
11. What is isotope? Give an example.
 The atoms of the same element having same atomic number Z, but different mass number A are
called isotopes.
 The isotopes of any element have same electronic structure and same chemical properties.
 (e.g.) Hydrogen isotopes: 𝟏𝟏𝑯, 𝟐𝟏𝑯, 𝟑𝟏𝑯
12. What is isotone? Give an example.
 The atoms of different elements having same number of neutrons are called isotones.
 (e.g.): 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑩, 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝑪
13. What is isobar? Give an example.
 The atoms of different elements having the same mass number A, but different atomic number Z are
called isobars.
 They have different physical and chemical properties
 (e.g.): 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎
𝟏𝟔𝑺, 𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍 , 𝟏𝟖𝑨𝒓 , 𝟏𝟗𝑲, 𝟐𝟎𝑪𝒂
14. Define atomic mass unit.
 One atomic mass unit (u) is defined as the 1/12th of the mass of the isotope of carbon ( 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝑪)
1u = 1.66 x 10-19 kg

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 213 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

15. Show that nuclear density is almost constant for nuclei with Z > 10.
 Nuclear density is defined as the ratio of mass of the nucleus to its volume.
𝐴. 𝑚 𝑚
𝜌=4 =4
𝜋𝑅𝑜 𝐴 3 𝜋𝑅𝑜3
3
3
 The above expression shows that the nuclear density is independent of the mass number A.
 In other words, all the nuclei (Z > 10) have the same density
 It is an important characteristic of the nuclei.
 We can calculate the numerical value of this density by substituting the corresponding values.
1.67 × 10−27
𝜌=4 = 2.3 × 1017 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
𝜋 × 1.2 × 10 −15 3
3
16. What is mass defect?
 The experimental mass of a nucleus is less than the total mass of its individual constituents.
 The mass difference between total mass of the nucleons and the real mass of the nucleus is called
mass defect (Δm)
∆m = ( Zmp + Nmn ) – M
17. What is binding energy of a nucleus? Give its expression.
 When Z protons and N neutrons are combine form a nucleus, the mass disappear equivalent to mass
defect (Δm) is converted in to energy which is used to bind the nucleons in the nucleus. This is
known as binding energy (BE) of a nucleus.
BE = ∆mc2 = [(Zmp + Nmn) – M]c2
18. Calculate the energy equivalent to one atomic mass unit (1 u). Give the answer in eV unit.
 According to Einstein’s mass - energy relation
o E = mc2 = ( 1u ) ( 3 x 108 )2
o E = 1.66 x 10-27 x 9 x 1016
o E = 14.94 x 10-11 J
 But we have,
o 1eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J
o E = 934 MeV
19. Define average binding energy per nucleon?
 The average binding energy per nucleon is the energy required to separate single nucleon from the
particular nucleus (𝐵𝐸 ).
 It measures the stability of the nucleus.
20. Define radioactivity.
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of highly penetrating radiations such as α, β and γ rays by
an element is called radioactivity and the substances which emit these radiations are called
radioactive elements.
21. Give the symbolic representation of alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay.
(1) Alpha decay:
 When unstable nuclei decay by emitting an α-particle ( 42𝐻𝑒 ), its atomic number (Z) by 2, the mass
number (A) decreases by 4. The α- decay process symbolically written as
𝑨 𝑨−𝟒 𝟒
𝒁 𝑿 → 𝒁−𝟐 𝒀 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆
 Example: 𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝟒
𝟗𝟐 𝑼 → 𝟗𝟎 𝑻𝒉 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆
(2) Beta decay:
-
(i) β − decay
- -
 If metal emits electron 𝑒 − −𝟏𝟎 𝒆 , it is called β − decay. In β − decay, the atomic number of the
nucleus increases by one but mass number remains the same.
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 214 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
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8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics
𝑨 𝑨
𝒁 𝑿 → 𝒁+𝟏 𝒀 + −𝟏𝟎 𝒆 + 𝝂
𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟒
 Example: 𝟔 𝑪 → 𝟕 𝑵 + −𝟏𝟎 𝒆 + 𝝂

(ii) β+ − decay:
 If metal emits positron 𝑒 + 𝟎𝟏 𝒆 , it is called β+ − decay. In β+ − decay, the atomic number of the
nucleus decreases by one but mass number remains the same.
𝑨 𝑨 𝟎
𝒁 𝑿 → 𝒁−𝟏 𝒀 + 𝟏 𝒆 + 𝝂
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟎
 Example: 𝟏𝟏 𝑵𝒂 → 𝟏𝟎 𝑵𝒆 + 𝟏 𝒆 + 𝝂
(3) Gamma decay:
 In α and β decay, the daughter nucleus is in the excited state most of the time.
 So this excited state nucleus immediately returns to the ground state or lower energy state by
emitting highly energetic photons called γ rays.
 During gamma decay there is no change in atomic number and mass number
𝑨 ∗ 𝑨
𝒁 𝑿 → 𝒁 𝑿 + gamma rays (γ)
 Example: 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝑩 → 𝟏𝟐𝟔 𝑪∗ + −𝟏𝟎 𝒆 + 𝝂
𝟏𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟐
𝟔𝑪 → 𝟔𝑪+𝜸

22. In alpha decay, why the unstable nucleus emits 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 nucleus? Why it does not emit four
separate nucleons?
 For example, if 𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟐𝟑𝟒
𝟗𝟐 𝑼 nucleus decays into 𝟗𝟎 𝑻𝒉 by emitting four separate nucleons (two protons
and two neutrons), then the disintegration energy Q for this process turns out to be negative.
 It implies that the total mass of products is greater than that of parent ( 𝟐𝟑𝟖
𝟗𝟐 𝑼) nucleus.
 This kind of process cannot occur in nature because it would violate conservation of energy.
23. What is mean life of nucleus? Give the expression.
 The mean life time (τ) of the nucleus is the ratio of sum or integration of life times of all nuclei to
the total number nuclei present initially.
𝟏
𝝉=
𝝀
24. What is half life of nucleus? Give the expression.
 The half life (𝑻𝟏/𝟐 ) is the time required for th number of atoms initially present to reduce to one half
of the initial amount.
𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏
𝑻𝟏/𝟐 =
𝝀
25. Define activity. Give its unit.
 Activity or decay rate which is the number of nuclei decayed per second and it is denoted as R
𝒅𝑵
𝑹=
𝒅𝒕
 Its unit is Becquerel (Bq) and curie (Ci)
26. Define one curie.
 one curie was defined as number of decays per second in 1 g of radium
1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decays / second
27. What are the constituent particles of neutron and proton?
 Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks which are now considered as elementary particles
 According to quark model,
2 1
o Proton is made up of two up quarks + 3 𝑒 and one down quark − 3 𝑒 and
2 1
o Neutron is made up of one up quark + 3 𝑒 and two down quarks − 3 𝑒

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8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (CONCEPTUAL)

28. Define specific charge.
 Charge per unit mass is called specific charge (or) mass-normalized charge. Its unit is C kg-1
29. Write a note on Thomson’s atom model.
Thomson’s atom model:
 According to J. J. Thomson’s atom model, the atoms are considered as homogeneous spheres which
contain uniform distribution of positively charged particles.
 The negatively charged electrons are embedded in it like seeds in water melon fruit.
 The atoms are electrically neutral, this implies at the total positive charge in an atom is equal to the
total negative charge.
 This model could not explain stability of atom and further, it fails to explain the origin of spectral
lines observed in the spectrum of hydrogen atom and other atoms.
30. What is distance of closest approach? Obtain expression for it.
Definition:
 The minimum distance between the centre of the nucleus and the alpha particle just before it gets
reflected back through 180° is defined as the distance of closest approach (or) contact distance ro
Expression:
 At this closest distance (𝑟𝑜 ), all the kinetic energy of the alpha particle will be converted into
electrostatic potential energy
1 1 2𝑒 (𝑍𝑒)
𝑚𝑣𝑜2 =
2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑜
1 2𝑒 (𝑍𝑒)
𝑟𝑜 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (1 𝑚𝑣𝑜2 )
2
1 2𝑍𝑒 2
𝑟𝑜 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝐾
 where, 𝐸𝐾 → kinetic energy of alpha particle
31. What are the drawbacks of Rutherford atom model?
(1) Stability of atom cannot be explained:
 According to classical electrodynamics, any accelerated charge emits electromagnetic radiations
which results lose in its energy.
 Hence, it can no longer sustain the circular motion and the radius of the orbit becomes smaller and
smaller (undergoes spiral motion) and finally the electron should fall into the nucleus and hence the
atoms should disintegrate.
 But this does not happen. Hence, Rutherford model could not account for the stability of atoms.
(2) Line spectrum of atom could not explained:
 According to this model, emission of radiation must be continuous and must give continuous
emission spectrum.
 But experimentally we observe only line (discrete) emission spectrum for atoms.
32. Define excitation potential.
 Excitation potential is defined as excitation energy per unit charge.
 Its unit is volt (V)
33. Define atomic number and mass number.
 The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number (Z)
 The number of neutrons in the nucleus is called neutron number (N).
 The total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus is called the mass number(A) [A = Z+N]
34. What is the charge of nucleus?
 The nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons.
 So the net charge of the nucleus is positive and it has the value = + Z e

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35. Give the empirical formula for nuclear radius.

 The nuclear radius is given by,
1
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 𝐴3
 where, Ro = 1.2 F [1 F = 10−15 m ]
36. What is nuclear force?
 It was concluded that there must be a strong attractive force between protons to overcome the
repulsive Coulomb’s force. This strong attractive force which holds the nucleus together is called
nuclear force.
37. Give the properties of nuclear forces?
Properties of Nuclear forces:
 The strong nuclear force is of very short range, acting only up to a distance of a few Fermi. Nuclear
force is the strongest force in nature.
 The strong nuclear force is attractive and acts with an equal strength between proton-proton, proton-
neutron, and neutron – neutron.
 Strong nuclear force does not act on the electrons. So it does not alter the chemical properties of the
atom.
38. Define disintegration energy.
 In decay process, the total mass of the daughter nucleus and product nucleus is always less than that
of the parent nucleus.
 The difference in mass (Δm) is released as energy called disintegration energy Q
 If Q > 0, the decay is spontaneous (natural radioactivity).
 If Q < 0, the decay process cannot occur spontaneously and energy must be supplied to induce the
decay.
39. Write a note on positron?
 The positron is an anti-particle of an electron whose mass is same as that of electron and charge is
opposite to that of electron (i.e.) +e.
40. State the properties of neutrino.
Properties of neutrino:
 It has zero charge
 It has an antiparticle called anti-neutrino.
 Recent experiments showed that the neutrino has very tiny mass.
 It interacts very weakly with the matter. Therefore, it is very difficult to detect.
41. State the law of radioactive decay.
 At any instant t, the number of decays per unit time, called rate of decay is proportional to the
number of nuclei (N) at the same instant.
42. Define one Becquerel.
 One Becquerel (Bq) is equal to one decay per second.
1 Bq = 1 decay / second
43. Write a note on the discovery of neutron.
Discovery of neutron:
 In 1930, Bothe and Becker found that when beryllium was bombarded with α particles, highly
penetrating radiation was emitted.
 This radiation was capable of penetrating thick layer of lead and was unaffected by the electric and
magnetic fields. Initially, it was thought wrongly as γ - radiation.
 But in 1932, James Chadwick discovered that those radiations are articles of mass little greater than
the mass of the proton and had no charge.
 He called them as neutrons ( 𝟏𝟎 𝒏). The above reaction was written as
𝟗 𝟒 𝟏𝟐
𝟒 𝑩𝒆 + 𝟐 𝑯𝒆 → 𝟔𝑪 + 𝟏𝟎 𝒏
 where, 𝟏
𝟎𝒏 → neutron

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44. What is meant by nuclear fission?

The process of breaking up of the nucleus of a heavier atom into two smaller nuclei with the release
of a large amount of energy is called nuclear fission.
45. List the properties of neutrons.
Properties of neutrons:
 Mass of the neutron is little greater than the mass of the proton and had no charge.
 Neutrons are stable inside the nucleus. But free neutron has half life of 13 minutes. Then it decays
with emission of proton, electron and anti neutrino.
 Neutrons are classified according to their kinetic energy as
1. Slow neutrons (0 to 1000 eV)
2. Fast neutrons (0.5 MeV to 10 MeV).
 The neutrons with average energy of about 0.025 eV in thermal equilibrium are called thermal
neutron.
46. Calculate the energy released per fission.
Energy released in one fission:
 Consider the following fission reaction.
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏 𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝟗𝟐
𝟗𝟐 𝑼+ 𝟎𝒏 → 𝟓𝟔 𝑩𝒂 + 𝟑𝟔 𝑲𝒓 + 𝟑 𝟏𝟎 𝒏 + 𝑸
 Total mass before fission :
mass of 𝟐𝟑𝟓𝟗𝟐 𝑼 = 235.045733 u
𝟏
mass of 𝟎 𝒏 = 1.008665 u
= 236.054398 u
 Total mass after fission :
mass of 𝟏𝟒𝟏
𝟓𝟔 𝑩𝒂 = 140.917700 u
𝟗𝟐
mass of 𝟑𝟔 𝑲𝒓 = 91.885400 u
mass of 𝟑 𝟏𝟎 𝒏 = 3.025995 u
235.829095 u
 Hence, mass defect ∆m
236.054398 u
(-) 235.829095 u
0.225303 u
 Then energy released during this fission reaction,
 Q = ∆m x 931 MeV
 Q = 0.225303 x 931 MeV
 Q = 200 MeV
47. What is called chain reaction. Give its types.
 During every fission reaction, three neutrons are released along with products.
 These three neutrons cause further fission produces nine neutrons and this process goes on.
 Thus the number of neutrons goes on increasing almost in geometric progression and this is called a
chain action
 There are two kinds of chain reactions:
1. Uncontrolled chain reaction
2. Controlled chain reaction.
48. What is called nuclear reactor?
 Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear fission takes place in a self-sustained controlled
manner. The energy produced is used either for research purpose or for power generation.
 The first nuclear reactor was built in the year 1942 at Chicago, USA
49. What is nuclear fusion?
 When two or more light nuclei (A<20) combine to form a heavier nucleus, then it is called nuclear
fusion.

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50. What is mean by thermo nuclear reactions?

 When two light nuclei come closer to combine, it is strongly repelled by the coulomb repulsive force
 To overcome this repulsion, the two light nuclei must have enough kinetic energy to move closer to
each other such that the nuclear force becomes effective.
 This can be achieved if the temperature is very much greater than the value 10 7 K.
 When the surrounding temperature reaches around 107 K, lighter nuclei start fusing to form heavier
nuclei and this resulting reaction is called thermonuclear fusion reaction.
51. What is the source of stellar energy?
 The energy generation in every star is only through thermonuclear fusion because its temperature is
of the order of 107 K
 Most of the stars including our Sun fuse hydrogen into helium and some stars even fuse helium into
heavier elements.
52. Write a note on proton - proton cycle.
 The sun’s interior temperature is around 1.5 x 107 K.
 At this temperature, fusion reaction takes place and the sun is converting 6 x 1011 kg hydrogen into
helium every second.
 According to Hans Bethe, the sun is powered by proton-proton cycle of fusion reaction.
 This cycle consists of three steps:
 Step - 1: 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝟏𝑯+ 𝟏𝑯 → 𝟏𝑯+ 𝟏𝒆+ 𝒗
𝟎

 Step - 2: 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝑯 + 𝟏 𝑯 → 𝟐 𝑯𝒆 + 𝜸
 Step - 3: 𝟑 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏
𝟐 𝑯𝒆 + 𝟐 𝑯𝒆 → 𝟐 𝑯𝒆 + 𝟏 𝑯 + 𝟏 𝑯
𝟏

 In general, the above three steps can be written as.

𝟒 𝟏𝟏 𝑯 → 𝟒
𝟐 𝑯𝒆 + 𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝑯 + 𝟐 𝟎𝟏 𝒆 + 𝟐𝒗 + 𝟐𝟕 𝑴𝒆𝑽

53. What are the conclusion made by Rutherford from the results of alpha scattering experiments.
Conclusion made in alpha scattering experiment: (Rutherford atom model)
 Rutherford proposed that an atom has a lot of empty space and contains a tiny matter known as
nucleus whose size is of the order of 10-14 m.
 The nucleus is positively charged and most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in nucleus.
 The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
 Since static charge distribution cannot be in a stable equilibrium, he suggested that the electrons are
not at rest and they revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits like planets revolving around the
sun.
54. What is radio carbon dating?
 Radioactive dating or carbon dating is the technique to estimate the age of ancient object by using
radio carbon isotope ( 𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝑪)
55. Write a note on smoke detector.
Smoke detector:
 An important application of alpha decay is smoke detector which prevent us from any hazardous
fire.
 It uses around 0.2 mg of man-made weak radioactive isotope called americium ( 𝟐𝟒𝟏 𝟗𝟓 𝑨𝒎)
 This radioactive source is placed between two oppositely charged metal plates and α radiations from
𝟐𝟒𝟏
𝟗𝟓 𝑨𝒎 continuously ionizes the nitrogen, oxygen molecules in the air space between the plates.
 As a result, there will be a continuous flow of small steady current in the circuit.
 If smoke enters, the radiation is being absorbed by the smoke particles rather than air molecules.
 As a result, the ionization and along with it the current is reduced. This drop in current is detected by
the circuit and alarm starts.
 The radiation dosage emitted by americium is very much less than safe level, so it can be considered
harmless.

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SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (CONCEPTUAL)

1. Explain the J.J. Thomson experiment to determine the specific charge of electron.
Specific charge of electron – J.J. Thomson Experiment:
 Charge per unit mass of an electron is called specific charge (e/m).
Principle:
 Cathode rays (electron beam) deflects by both electric and magnetic fields is the principle involved
in this method.
Set up:
 It is a highly evacuated discharge tube
 Cathode rays (electron beam) produced at cathode
‘C’ are attracted towards anode disc A which allow
only a narrow beam of cathode rays.
 These cathode rays are now allowed to pass through
the parallel plates and strike the screen coated with
ZnS, a light spot is observed at O
 The metal plates are maintained at high voltage.
 Further, this gas discharge tube is kept in between
pole pieces of magnet such that both electric and
magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other.
Velocity of cathode rays (v):
 Let ‘e’ be the charge of cathode ray particle.
 The upward force acting on cathode rays due to electric field
‘E’ is FE = e E
 The downward force acting on cathode rays due to magnetic
field is FB = e B v
 In undeflected equilibrium position,

FE = FB
eE=eBv
𝑬
𝒗= − − − − − −(𝟏)
𝑩
Method (1) - To find specific charge:
 Let ‘V’ be the potential difference between anode and cathode.
 Since the cathode rays (electron beam) are accelerated from cathode to anode, the potential energy
‘eV’ of the electron beam at the cathode is converted into kinetic energy of the electron beam at the
anode. Hence,
𝟏
𝒆𝑽 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
𝒆 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟏 𝑬𝟐
= =
𝒎 𝟐𝑽 𝟐 𝑽𝑩𝟐
 The value of specific charge is,
𝒆
= 𝟏. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑪 𝒌𝒈−𝟏
𝒎

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Method (2) - Deflection due to electric field:

 When the magnetic field is turned off (B = 0), the
deflection is only due to electric field.
 Let ‘m’ be the mass of the electron, the upward
acceleration due to electric field ‘E’ is
𝑭𝑬 𝒆𝑬
𝒂𝑬 = =
𝒎 𝒎
 Upward initial velocity, u = 0
𝒍
 Let ‘l’ be the length of the deflecting plate, then time taken to travel in electric field is, 𝒕 = 𝒗
 Hence the deflection at the end of the electric field
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚′ = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎 + 𝒂𝑬 𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 𝒆𝑬 𝒍 𝟏 𝒆𝑬 𝒍𝟐
𝒚′ = =
𝟐𝒎 𝒗 𝟐 𝒎 𝒗𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝒆𝑬 𝒍 𝑩
𝒚′ =
𝟐 𝒎 𝑬𝟐
𝟏 𝒆 𝒍𝟐 𝑩𝟐
𝒚′ = − − − − − −(𝟐)
𝟐𝒎 𝑬
 Then the deflection on the screen, y ∝ y' (or) y = C y'
 C → Proportionality constant, Using equation (2),
𝟏 𝒆 𝒍𝟐 𝑩𝟐
𝒚= 𝑪
𝟐𝒎 𝑬
𝒆 𝟐𝒚𝑬
= 𝟐 𝟐 − − − − − − − −(𝟑)
𝒎 𝑪𝒍 𝑩
 By substituting the known values, we get
𝒆
= 𝟏. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑪 𝒌𝒈−𝟏
𝒎

 Method (3) - Deflection due to magnetic field:

 When the electric field is turned off (E = 0), the deflection is only due to magnetic field.
 The magnetic force provides the centripetal force, the electron beam undergoes semi-circular path.
Hence.
𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝒆𝒗𝑩 =
𝑹
𝒎𝒗
𝒆𝑩 =
𝑹
𝑬
𝒎 𝑩
𝒆𝑩 =
𝑹
𝒎𝑬
𝒆𝑩 =
𝑹𝑩
𝒆 𝑬
= 𝟐 − − − − − − − (𝟒)
𝒎 𝑩 𝑹

 The specific charge is independent of

o Gas used
o Nature of the electrodes

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 221 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

2. Discuss the Millikan’s oil drop experiment to determine the charge of an electron.
Millikan’s oil drop method:
 It consists of two horizontal circular metal plates A
and B each with diameter around 20 cm and are
separated by a small distance 1.5 cm.
 These two parallel plates are enclosed in a chamber
with glass walls.
 A high potential difference around 10 kV applied
across the metal plates, such that electric field acts
vertically downward.
 A small hole is made at the centre of the upper plate A and atomizer is kept exactly above the hole to
spray the liquid.
 When a fine droplet of highly viscous liquid (like glycerin) is sprayed using atomizer, it falls free
downward through the hole of the top plate only under the influence of gravity.
 Few oil drops in the chamber can acquire electric charge (negative charge) because of friction with
air or passage of x-rays in between the parallel plates.
 Further the chamber is illuminated by light which is passed horizontally and oil drops can be seen
clearly using microscope placed perpendicular to the light beam.
 These drops can move either upwards or downward.
(1) Radius of oil drop:
 When the electric field is switched off, the oil drop accelerates downwards.
 Due to the presence of air drag forces, the oil drops easily attain its terminal
velocity and moves with constant velocity. Let it be ‘v’
 Free body diagram of the oil drop is shown in figure
o Radius of the oil drop =r
o Density of the oil =ρ
o Density of the air =σ
 The downward gravitational force acting on the oil drop is,

4 3
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜌 𝜋𝑟 𝑔
3
 The upthrust force experienced by the oil drop due to displaced air is,
4 3
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑚′ 𝑔 = 𝜍 𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜍 𝜋𝑟 𝑔
3
 Once the oil drop attains a terminal velocity υ, the net downward force acting on the oil drop is equal
to the viscous force acting opposite to the direction of motion of the oil drop.
 From Stokes law, the viscous force on the oil drop is
𝐹𝑣 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣
 From the free body diagram, 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑣
4 3 4 3
𝜌 𝜋𝑟 𝑔 = 𝜍 𝜋𝑟 𝑔 + 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣
3 3
4 3 4 3
𝜌 𝜋𝑟 𝑔 − 𝜍 𝜋𝑟 𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣
3 3
4 3
𝜋𝑟 𝜌 − 𝜍 𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣
3
2 3
𝜋𝑟 𝜌 − 𝜍 𝑔 = 3 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣
3

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 222 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

𝑟3 3𝜋 𝜂𝑣
=2
𝑟 𝜋 𝜌− 𝜍 𝑔
3
𝟏
𝟗 𝜼𝒗 𝟐
𝒓 = – − − − − (𝟏)
𝟐 𝝆− 𝝇 𝒈
(2) Determination of electric charge:
 When the electric field is switched on, charged oil drops experience an
upward electric force (qE).
 Strength of the electric field is adjusted to make that particular drop to be
stationary.
 Under these circumstances, there will be no viscous force acting on the oil
drop.
From the free body diagram,
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝐸
4 3 4 3
𝜌 𝜋𝑟 𝑔 = 𝜍 𝜋𝑟 𝑔 + 𝑞𝐸
3 3
4 3 4 3
𝑞𝐸 = 𝜌 𝜋𝑟 𝑔 − 𝜍 𝜋𝑟 𝑔
3 3
4
𝑞𝐸 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌 − 𝜍 𝑔
3
4
𝑞= 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌 − 𝜍 𝑔
3𝐸
 Put equation (1), we get
𝟏
𝟏𝟖𝝅 𝜼𝟑 𝒗𝟑 𝟐
𝒒=
𝑬 𝟐 𝝆− 𝝇 𝒈

 Millikan repeated this experiment several times and computed the charges on oil drops.
 He found that the charge of any oil drop can be written as integral multiple of a basic value, (−1.6 X
10−19 C), which is nothing but the charge of an electron. Hence,
e = − 1.6 x 10−9 C
3. Derive the expression for radius and energy of the n th orbit of hydrogen atom using Bohr atom
model.
Radius of nth orbit:
 Consider an atom which contains the nucleus at rest which is
made up of protons and neutrons.
 Let an electron revolving around the stable nucleus
Atomic number =Z
Total charge of the nucleus = + Ze
Charge of an electron =-e
Mass of the electron =m
 From Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction between the
nucleus and the electron is
1 (+𝑍𝑒)(−𝑒)
𝐹 coulomb= 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀 𝑜 𝑟𝑛2

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 223 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

1 𝑍𝑒 2
𝐹 coulomb= − 4𝜋 𝜀 𝑟𝑛2
𝑟
𝑜
𝑚𝑣𝑛2
 centripetal force given by, 𝐹 centripetal= − 𝑟
𝑟𝑛
 At equilibrium, 𝐹 coulomb= 𝐹 centripetal
1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚𝑣𝑛2
− 𝑟 = − 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 [𝑚𝑣𝑛2 𝑟𝑛2 ]
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑍𝑒 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 [𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 ]2
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚
 From Bohr’s postulate,
𝑕
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛 = 𝑛ℏ
2𝜋
4𝜋𝜀 𝑜 [𝑙𝑛 ]2
 Hence, 𝑟𝑛 =
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚
2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑛ℏ
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚
𝑕 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 [𝑛 ]
2𝜋
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑛2 𝑕2
𝑟𝑛 = 2 2
4𝜋 𝑍𝑒 𝑚
𝑕2 𝜀𝑜 𝑛2
𝑟𝑛 =
𝜋𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚
𝑕2 𝜀𝑜 𝑛2
𝑟𝑛 =
𝜋𝑒 2 𝑚 𝑍
 Here 𝑕, 𝜀𝑜 , 𝑚, 𝑒, 𝜋 are constant.
𝑛2
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑎𝑜
𝑍
 where,
𝑕 2 𝜀𝑜
𝑎𝑜 = = 0.529 Å → Bohr radius
𝜋𝑒 2 𝑚
 For hydrogen, (Z = 1), So radius of nt𝑕 orbit,
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑎𝑜 𝑛2
 For first orbit, n = 1, (ground level)
𝑟1 = 𝑎𝑜 = 0.529 Å
 For second orbit, n = 2, (first excited level)
𝑟2 = 4𝑎𝑜 = 4 × 0.529 Å = 2.116Å
 For third orbit, n = 3, (second excited level)
𝑟3 = 9𝑎𝑜 = 9 × 0.529 Å = 4.761Å
 Thus, radius of the orbit, 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 224 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

Velocity of electron in nth orbit:

 According to Bohr’s quantization condition,
𝑕
𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
2𝜋
𝑛2 𝑕
𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑎𝑜 =𝑛
𝑍 2𝜋
𝑕 𝑍
𝑣𝑛 =
2𝜋𝑚𝑎𝑜 𝑛
1
 Hence, 𝑣𝑛 ∝ (i.e.) the velocity of the electron decreases as the principal quantum number
𝑛
increases
Total Energy of electron in nth orbit:
 Electrostatic force is a conservative force.
 So potential energy of the electron in nth orbit,
1 (+𝑍𝑒)(−𝑒) 1 𝑍𝑒 2
𝑈𝑛 = =−
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑛 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑛
 Kinetic energy of the electron in nth orbit,
1 1 1 𝑍𝑒 2
𝐾𝐸𝑛 = 𝑚𝑣𝑛2 =
2 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑛
 Therefore, 𝑈𝑛 = −2𝐾𝐸𝑛
 Total energy of the electron in nth orbit,
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑈𝑛 + 𝐾𝐸𝑛 = −2𝐾𝐸𝑛 +𝐾𝐸𝑛 = −𝐾𝐸𝑛
1 𝑍𝑒 2
𝐸𝑛 = −
8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑛
 Substitute the value of rn
𝑚𝑒 4 𝑍 2
𝐸𝑛 = −
8𝜀𝑜2 𝑕2 𝑛2
 For hydrogen, (Z = 1), then
𝑚𝑒 4 1
𝐸𝑛 = −
8𝜀𝑜2 𝑕2 𝑛2
 The negative sign in equation (7) indicates that the electron is bound to the nucleus.
 Put the values of 𝑕, 𝜀𝑜 , 𝑚, 𝑒 and using ‘eV’ unit we have,
13.6
𝐸𝑛 = − 𝑒𝑉
𝑛2
 When n=1 than, 𝐸1 = −13.6 𝑒𝑉
 When n=2 than, 𝐸2 = −3.4 𝑒𝑉
 When n=3 than, 𝐸3 = −1.51 𝑒𝑉
 Thus, as ‘n’ increases, energy also increases. (i.e.) the orbit which is closest to the nucleus has lowest
energy. So it is often called ground state
 The ground state energy of hydrogen (- 13.6 eV) is used as a unit of energy called Rydberg.
1 Rydberg = − 13.6 eV

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 225 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

4. Explain the spectral series of hydrogen atom.

Spectral series of hydrogen atom:
 When an electron jumps from mth orbit to nth orbit, a spectral line was obtained whose wave number
(i.e.) reciprocal of wave length is,

1 1 1
𝑣= =𝑅 2− 2
𝜆 𝑛 𝑚

 here, R → Rydberg constant (R = 1.097 x 107 m−1)

 For m > n, various spectral series are obtained.

1. Lyman series:
 n = 1 and m = 2, 3, 4, …
 Hence the wave number,
1 1 1
𝑣= =𝑅 2− 2
𝜆 1 𝑚
 They lie in ultra violet region

2. Balmer series:
 n = 2 and m = 3,4,5,.….
 Hence the wave number,
1 1 1
𝑣= =𝑅 2− 2
𝜆 2 𝑚
 They lie in visible region

3. Paschen series:
 n = 3 and m = 4,5,6,…
 Hence the wave number,
1 1 1
𝑣= =𝑅 2− 2
𝜆 3 𝑚
 They lie in infra red region

4. Brackett series:
 n = 4 and m = 5,6,7,…
 Hence the wave number,
1 1 1
𝑣= =𝑅 2− 2
𝜆 4 𝑚
 They lie in middle infra red region.

5. Pfund series:
 n = 5 and m = 6,7,8,…
 Hence the wave number
1 1 1
𝑣= =𝑅 2− 2
𝜆 5 𝑚
 They lie in far infra red region.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 226 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

5. Explain the variation of average binding energy with the mass number by graph and discuss
its features.
Binding energy curve:
 The average binding energy per nucleon (𝐵𝐸 ) is the
energy required to separate single nucleon from the
particular nucleus.

𝑍𝑚𝐻 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀𝐴 𝑐 2
𝐵𝐸 =
𝐴

 𝐵𝐸 (Y-axis) is plotted against A (X-axis) of all

known nuclei and the graph obtained is called binding
energy curve.
 From the graph,
1. The value of 𝐵𝐸 rises as the mass number A increases until it reaches a maximum value of 8.8 MeV
for A = 56 (iron) and then it slowly decreases.
2. The average binding energy per nucleon is about 8.5 MeV for nuclei having mass number between
A = 40 and 120. These elements are comparatively more stable and not radioactive.
3. For higher mass numbers, the curve reduces slowly and 𝐵𝐸 for uranium is about 7.6 MeV. They are
unstable and radioactive.
4. If two light nuclei with A<28 combine to form heavier nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon is
more for final nucleus than initial nuclei. Thus, if the lighter elements combine to produce a nucleus
of medium value A, a large amount of energy will be released. This is the basis of nuclear fusion and
is the principle of the hydrogen bomb.
5. If a nucleus of heavy element is split (fission) into two or more nuclei of medium value A, the
energy released would again be large. The atom bomb is based on this principle.
6. Explain radio carbon dating.
Radio carbon dating:
 The important application of beta decay radioactive dating or carbon dating. Using this technique,
the age of an ancient object can be calculated.
 All living organisms absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from air to synthesize organic molecules.
 In this absorbed CO2, the major part is 𝟏𝟐𝟔 𝑪 and very small fraction 𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝑪 whose half-life is 5730
years.
 Carbon-14 in the atmosphere is always decaying but at the same time, cosmic rays from outer space
are continuously bombarding the atoms in the atmosphere which produces 𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝑪.
 So the continuous production and decay of 𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝑪 in the atmosphere keep the ratio of 𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝑪 to 𝟏𝟐𝟔 𝑪
always constant.
 Since our human body, tree or any living organism continuously absorbs CO 2 from the atmosphere,
the ratio of 𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝑪 to 𝟏𝟐𝟔 𝑪 in the living organism is also nearly constant.
 But when the organism dies, it stops absorbing CO 2.
 Since 𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝑪 starts to decay, the ratio of 𝟏𝟒
𝟔 𝑪 to 𝟏𝟐
𝟔 𝑪 in a dead organism or specimen decreases over
the years.
 Suppose the ratio of 𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝑪 to 𝟏𝟐
𝟔 𝑪 in the ancient excavated is known, and then the age of the tree
pieces can be calculated.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 227 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

7. Describe the working of nuclear reactor with a block diagram.

Nuclear reactor:
 Nuclear reactor is a system in which the
nuclear fission takes place in a self-
sustained controlled manner
 The energy produced is used either for
research purpose or for power generation.
 The first nuclear reactor was built in the
year 1942 at Chicago.

Main parts of Nuclear reactor:

(1) Fuel:
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟑𝟗
 The commonly used fuels are 𝟗𝟐 𝑼 and 𝟗𝟒 𝑷𝒖
 Naturally occurring uranium contains only 0.7% of 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟑𝟖
𝟗𝟐 𝑼 and 99.3% are only 𝟗𝟐 𝑼.
 So the 𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐 𝑼 must be enriched such that it contains at least 2 to 4% of 𝟗𝟐 𝑼
(2) Neutron source:
 A neutron source is required to initiate the chain action for the first time.
 A mixture of beryllium with plutonium or polonium is used as the neutron source
(3) Moderators:
 The probability of initiating fission by fast neutron in another nucleus is very low.
 Therefore, slow neutrons are preferred for sustained nuclear reactions
 The moderator is a material used to convert fast neutrons into slow neutrons.
 Usually the moderators having mass comparable to that of neutrons. Hence, these light nuclei
undergo collision with fast neutrons and the speed of the neutron is reduced
 Most of the reactors use water, heavy water (D2O) and graphite as moderators.
(4) Control rods:
 The control rods are used to adjust the reaction rate.
 During each fission, on an average 2.5 neutrons are emitted
 In order to have the controlled chain reactions, only one neutron is allowed to cause another fission
and the remaining neutrons are absorbed by the control rods.
 Usually cadmium or boron acts as control rod material
(5) Coolants:
 The cooling system removes the heat generated in the reactor core.
 Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid sodium are used as coolant since they hav very high specific
heat capacity and have large boiling point under high pressure.
 This coolant passes through the fuel block and carries away the heat to the steam generator through
heat exchanger
 The steam runs the turbines which produces electricity in power reactors.
(6) Shielding:
 For a protection against harmful radiations, the nuclear reactor is surrounded by a concrete wall of
thickness of about 2 to 2.5 m.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 228 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

8. Briefly explain the elementary particles of nature.

Elementary particles:
 An atom has a nucleus surrounded by electrons and nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons.
 Initially, protons, neutrons and electrons are considered as fundamental building blocks of matter.
 But in 1964, Murray Gellman and George Zweig theoretically proposed that protons and neutrons
are not fundamental particles, but they are made up of quarks.
 These quarks are now considered elementary particles of nature.
 Electrons are fundamental or elementary particles because they are not made up of anything.
 In the year 1968, the quarks were discovered experimentally by Stanford.
 There are six quarks namely,
(1) Up quark (2) Down quark
(3) Charm quark (4) Strange quark
(5) Top quark and (6) Bottom quark
 There exists their anti particle also.
 All these quarks have fractional charges. For example,
2
o Charge of up quark is = +3 𝑒
1
o Charge of down quark is = −3 𝑒
 According to quark model,
(1) Proton is made up of two up quarks and one down quark
(2) Neutron is made up of one up quark and two down quarks
9. Explain in detail the four fundamental forces.
Fundamental forces in nature:
 Gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak forces are called fundamental forces of nature.
(1) Gravitational forces:
 The attractive force between two masses is called gravitational force and it is universal in nature.
 Our planets are bound to the sun through gravitational force of the sun.
 We are in the Earth because of Earth’s gravitational attraction on our body.
(2) Electromagnetic force:
 Between two charges there exists electromagnetic force and it plays major role in most of our day-
today events.
 We are standing on the surface of the earth because of the electromagnetic force between atoms of
the surface of the earth with atoms in our foot
 It is stronger than gravitational force.
(3) Strong Nuclear force:
 Between two nucleons, there exists a strong nuclear force and this force is responsible for stability of
the nucleus.
 The atoms in our body are stable because of strong nuclear force.
(4) Weak Nuclear force:
 In addition to these three forces, there exists another fundamental force of nature called the weak
force.
 This weak force is even shorter in range than nuclear force.
 This force plays an important role in beta decay and energy production of stars.
 During the fusion of hydrogen into helium in sun, neutrinos and enormous radiations are produced
through weak force.
The lives of species in the earth depend on the solar energy from the sun and it is due to weak force
which plays vital role during nuclear fusion reactions going on in the core of the sun

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 229 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

10. Obtain the law of radioactivity (radioactive decay)

Law of radioactivity:
 At any instant t, the number of decays per unit time, called rate of decay (dN/ dt) is proportional to
the number of nuclei (N) at the same instant. This is called law of radioactive decay.
Expression:
 No be the number of nuclei at initial time (t = 0)
 Let ‘N’ be the number of undecayed nuclei at any time ‘t’
𝒅𝑵
 If ‘dN’ be the number of nuclei decayed in time ‘dt’ then, rate of decay = 𝒅𝒕
 From law of radioactivity,

𝑑𝑁
∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁
= − 𝜆𝑁 − − − − − −(1)
𝑑𝑡
 Here, λ → decay constant
 Decay constant (λ) is different for different radioactive sample and the negative sign in the equation
implies that the N is decreasing with time.
 By rewriting the equation (1), we get
𝑑𝑁
= − 𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
 Integrating on both sides,
𝑁 𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= − 𝜆 𝑑𝑡
𝑁𝑜 𝑁 0

𝑁
ln 𝑁 𝑁𝑜 = − 𝜆𝑡

ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁𝑜 = − 𝜆𝑡

𝑁
ln = − 𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜

 Taking exponential on both sides,

𝑁
= 𝑒 − 𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜

𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 − 𝜆𝑡 − − − − − −(2)

 Equation (2) is called the law of radioactive decay.

 Here the number of atoms is decreasing exponentially over the time.
 This implies that the time taken for all the radioactive nuclei to decay will be infinite.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 230 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
8. Atomic and Nuclear Physics

11. Obtain an expression for half life time and mean life time.
Half life time (T½):
 Half-life T½ is the time required for the number of atoms initially present to reduce to one half of the
initial amount.
 From the law of radioactive decay, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 − 𝜆𝑡
𝑁
 If t = T½ then, 𝑁 = 2𝑜 . Hence
𝑁𝑜 − 𝜆𝑇 1
= 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 2
2
1 − 𝜆𝑇 1
= 𝑒 2
2
𝜆𝑇 1
2= 𝑒 2

 Taking log on both sides,

ln 2 = 𝜆𝑇1
2

ln 2 0.6931
𝑇1 = =
2 𝜆 𝜆

 If the number of atoms present at t = 0 is No, then

𝑁𝑜
1. Number of atoms remains undecayed after 1st half life = 2
𝑁𝑜
2. Number of atoms remains undecayed after 2nd half life = 4
𝑁𝑜
3. Number of atoms remains undecayed after 3rd half life =
8
𝑁𝑜
4. In general, after n half-lives, the number of nuclei remaining undecayed is given by 𝑁 = 2𝑛

Mean life time (τ):

 The mean life time of the nucleus is the ratio of sum or integration of life times of all nuclei to the
total number nuclei present initially.
 Let λ be the decay constant of the radioactive substance, then
𝟏
𝝉=
𝝀
 Thus mean life and decay constant is inversely proportional to each other.

Half life and mean life - Relation:

 Half life time is given by,
ln 2 0.6931
𝑇1 = =
2 𝜆 𝜆
 Mean life period is given by,
1
𝜏=
𝜆
 From the above two equations,
𝑻𝟏 = 𝝉 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝝉
𝟐

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 231 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
9. Semiconductor Electronics

9. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (BOOK BACK)
1. Define electron motion in a semiconductor.
 In semiconductors, there exists a narrow forbidden energy gap (E g < 3eV) between the valence band
and the conduction band.
 At a finite temperature, thermal agitations in the solid can break the covalent bond between the
atoms.
 This releases some electrons from valence band to conduction band.
 Since free electrons are small in number, the conductivity of the semiconductors is not as high as
that of the conductors.
2. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors
 A semiconductor in its pure form without  The semiconductor obtained by doping either
impurity is called an intrinsic semiconductor. pentavalent impurity or trivalent impurity is
called extrinsic semiconductor.
 Its conduction is low.  Its conduction is high.
 (e.g.) Silicon, Germanium  (e.g.) P - type and N-type semiconductor
3. Define doping.
 The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor is called doping.
 It increases the concentration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in the semiconductor and in
turn, its electrical conductivity.
 The impurity atoms are called dopants.
4. How electron-hole pairs are created in a semiconductor material?
 A small increase in temperature is sufficient enough to break some of the covalent bonds and release
the electrons free from the lattice.
 Hence a vacant site is created in the valance band and these vacancies are called holes which are
treated to possess positive charges.
Thus electrons and holes are the two charge carriers in semiconductors.
5. Draw the output waveform of a full wave rectifier.

6. A diode is called as a unidirectional device. Explain

 An ideal diode behaves a conductor when it is forward biased and behaves as an insulator when it is
reverse biased.
 Thus diode conducts current only from P -type to N -type through the junction when it is forward
biased.
 Hence Diode is a unidirectional device.
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 232 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
9. Semiconductor Electronics

7. Define reverse saturation current.

 Under reverse bias, a small current flows across the junction due to the minority charge carriers in
both regions.
 Because the reverse bias for majority charge carriers serves as the forward bias for minority charge
carriers.
 The current that flows under a reverse bias is called the reverse saturation current or leakage current
(IS). It depends on temperature.
8. Distinguish between avalanche and zener breakdown.
Avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown
 It will occur in lightly doped junctions which have  It will occur in heavily doped P-N junction
wide depletion layers. which have narrow depletion layers(<10-6 m)
 The thickness of the depletion region is very high  The thickness of the depletion region is very
small
 Here the electric field is not strong enough to  When a reverse voltage across this junction is
produce breakdown. But the minority charge increased to the breakdown limit, a very strong
carriers accelerated by the electric field gains electric field of strength 3 x 107 V m–1 is set up
sufficient kinetic energy, collide with the across the narrow layer.
semiconductor atoms while passing through the
depletion region.
 This leads to the breaking of covalent bonds and in  This electric field is strong enough to break or
turn generates electron-hole pairs. This is known as rupture the covalent bonds in the lattice and
avalanche breakdown. thereby generating electron-hole pairs. This
effect is called Zener effect.
 The newly generated charge carriers are also  Even a small further increase in reverse voltage
accelerated by the electric field resulting in more produces a large number of charge carriers.
collisions and further production of charge carriers.
 This cumulative process leads to an avalanche of  Hence the junction has very low resistance in
charge carriers across the junction and the breakdown region. This process of
consequently reduces the reverse resistance. Here emission of electrons due to the rupture of
the diode current increases sharply. bands in from the lattice due to strong electric
field is known as internal field emission or
field ionization. The electric field required for
this is of the order of 106 V m–1
9. Explain the need for a feedback circuit in a transistor oscillator.
 The circuit used to feedback a portion of the output to the input is called the feedback network.
 If the portion of the output fed to the input is in phase with the input, then the magnitude of the input
signal increases. It is necessary for sustained oscillations.
10. Discuss the different modes of NPN and PNP transistor biasing.
Transistor Biasing: The application of suitable dc voltages across the transistor terminals is called biasing.
Different modes of transistor biasing
(1) Forward Active:
 In this bias the emitter-base junction (JEB) is forward biased and the collector-base junction (JCB) is
reverse biased.
 The transistor is in the active mode and in this mode, the transistor functions as an amplifier.
(2) Saturation:
 Here, both the emitter-base junction (JEB) an collector-base junction (JCB) are forward biased.
 The transistor has a very large flow of currents across the junctions.
 In this mode, transistor is used as a closed switch.
(3) Cut-off:
 In this bias, both the emitter-base junction (JEB) and collector-base junction (JCB) are reverse biased.
 Transistor in this mode is an open switch.
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 233 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
9. Semiconductor Electronics

11. Explain the current flow in a NPN transistor.

Common-Base (CB) configuration:
 The base is common to both the input and output circuits.
 The input current is the emitter current I E and the output current is the collector current IC.
𝐼
 The current gain is 𝛼 = 𝐶
𝐼𝐸
Common-Emitter (CE) configuration:
 The emitter is common to both the input and output circuits.
 The input current is the base current IB and the output current is the collector current IC.
𝐼
 The current gain is 𝛽 = 𝐼 𝐶
𝐵
Common-Collector (CC) configuration:
 The collector is common to both the input and output circuits.
 The input current is the base current IB and the output current is the emitter current IE.
12. What is the phase relationship between the AC input and output voltages in a common emitter
amplifier? What is the reason for the phase reversal?
 The phase relationship between the AC input and output voltages in a common emitter amplifier is
180°
𝐼
 Collector current is 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐵 𝛽 [∵ 𝛽 = 𝐼 𝐶 ]
𝐵
 Emitter voltage is 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
The reason for the phase reversal:
(1) During the positive half cycle:
 Input signal (Vs) increases the forward voltage across the emitter-base.
 As a result, the base current (IB) increases.
 Consequently, the collector current (IC) increases β times.
 This increases the voltage drop across RC which in turn decreases the collector-emitter voltage
(VCE).
 Therefore, the input signal in the positive direction produces an amplified signal in negative
direction at the output. Hence, the output signal is reversed by 180°
(2) During the negative half cycle:
 Input signal (Vs) decreases the forward voltage across the emitter-base.
 As a result, base current (IB) decreases and in turn increases the collector current (I C).
 The increase in collector current (IC) decreases the potential drop across RC and increases the
collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
 Thus, the input signal in the negative direction produces an amplified signal in the positive direction
at the output.
 Therefore, 180° phase reversal is observed during the negative half cycle of the input signal
13. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table of AND gate.
AND Gate
Circuit Symbol Boolean Expression
 Let A and B are the inputs and Y be the output,
then
Y = A.B

Logical Operation Truth Table

 The output of AND gate is high (1) only when Inputs Output
all the inputs are high (1). A B Y = A.B
 The rest of the cases the output is low (0) 0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
9. Semiconductor Electronics

14. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table of OR gate.
OR Gate
Circuit Symbol Boolean Expression
 Let A and B are the inputs and Y be the output,
then
Y=A+B

Logical Operation Truth Table

 The output of OR gate is high (1) when either
Inputs Output
of the inputs or both are high (1)
A B Y=A+B
 The rest of the cases the output is low (0) 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
15. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table of NOT gate.
NOT Gate
Circuit Symbol Boolean Expression
 If A be the input and Y be the output, then
𝐘=𝐀

Logical Operation Truth Table

 The output is the complement of the input. It is
Input Output
represented with an overbar. It is also called as
inverter. A 𝐘=𝐀
The output Y is high (1), when input is low (0) 0 1
and vice versa. 1 0
16. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table of NAND gate.
NAND Gate
Circuit Symbol Boolean Expression
 Let A and B are the inputs and Y be the output,
then
𝐘 = 𝐀.𝐁

Logical Operation Truth Table

 The output Y equals the complement of AND
Inputs Output Output
operation.
 The circuit is an AND gate followed by a NOT 𝐘=𝐙
A B 𝐙 = 𝐀.𝐁
gate. Therefore, it is summarized as NAND. 𝐘 = 𝐀.𝐁
 The output is at low (0) only when all the 0 0 0 1
inputs are high (1). 0 1 0 1
The rest of the cases, the output is high (1) 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 235 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
9. Semiconductor Electronics

17. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table of NOR gate.
NOR Gate
Circuit Symbol Boolean Expression
 Let A and B are the inputs and Y be the output,
then
𝐘=𝐀+𝐁
Logical Operation Truth Table
 The output Y equals the complement of OR
Inputs Output Output
operation
 The circuit is an OR gate followed by a NOT 𝐘=𝐙
A B 𝐙 = 𝐀+𝐁
gate and is summarized as NOR 𝐘 = 𝐀+𝐁
 The output is high (1) when all the inputs are 0 0 0 1
low (0). 0 1 1 0
 The rest of the cases, the output is low (0) 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
18. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table of Ex-OR gate.
EX-OR Gate
Circuit Symbol Boolean Expression
 Let A and B are the inputs and Y be the output,
then
𝐘 = 𝐀. 𝐁 + 𝐀. 𝐁
𝐘 = 𝐀⨁𝐁
Logical Operation Truth Table
 The output Y is high (1) only when either of
Inputs Output
the two inputs is high (1).
A B 𝐘 = 𝐀 ⨁𝐁
 In the case of an Ex-OR gate with more than
two inputs, the output will be high (1) when 0 0 0
odd number of inputs are high (1) 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
19. State Demorgan’s theorems.
Theorem - 1:
 The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is equal to the product of its complements.
𝐀 + 𝐁 = 𝐀 .𝐁
Theorem - 2:
 The complement of the product of two logical inputs is equal to the sum of its complements.
𝐀 .𝐁 = 𝐀 + 𝐁
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (CONCEPTUAL)
20. What is called electronics?
 Electronics is the branch of physics incorporated with technology towards the design of circuits
using transistors and microchips.
 It depicts the behaviour and movement of electrons in a semiconductor, vacuum, or gas.
21. What are passive components and active components?
 Components that cannot generate power in a circuit are called passive components (e.g.) Resistors,
inductors, capacitors
 Components that can generate power in a circuit are called active components. (e.g.) transistors

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 236 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
9. Semiconductor Electronics

22. What is energy band?

 When millions of atoms are brought close to each other, the valence orbital and the unoccupied
orbital are split according to the number of atoms.
 Their energy levels will be closely spaced and will be difficult to differentiate the orbital of one atom
from the other and they look like a band
 This band of very large number of closely spaced energy levels in a very small energy range is
known as energy band.
23. What is valance band, conduction band and forbidden energy gap?
 The energy band formed due to the valence orbital is called
valence band.
 The energy band that formed due to the unoccupied orbital is
called the conduction band
 The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction
band is called forbidden energy gap.

24. Define hole.

 When an electron is excited, covalent bond is broken.
 Now octet rule will not be satisfied.
 Thus each excited electron leaves a vacancy to complete bonding.
 This ‘deficiency’ of electron is termed as a ‘hole’
25. What is called P-type semiconductor?
 The P - type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure Germanium (or Silicon) crystal with a
dopant of trivalent elements (acceptor impurity) like Boron, Aluminium, Gallium and Indium
 In P-type semiconductors, Holes are majority charge carriers and Electrons are minority charge carriers
26. What is N-type semiconductor?
 The N - type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure Germanium (or Silicon) crystal with a
dopant of pentavalent elements (donor impurity) like Phosphorus, Arsenic and Antimony
 In N-type semiconductors, Electrons are majority charge carriers and Holes are minority charge carriers
27. Define junction potential or barrier potential.
 When P - type and N - type semiconductors combine to form PN junction, due to diffusion of
majority charge carriers a depletion region is formed near the junction.
 It prevents the charge carriers to further diffusion across the junction. Because a potential difference
is set up by the immobile ions in this depletion region.
 This difference in potential across the depletion layer is called the barrier potential or junction
potential.
 This barrier potential approximately equals 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium.
28. What is P-N junction diode? Give its symbol.
 A P-N junction diode is formed when a P is fused
with a N-type semiconductor.
 It is a device with single P-N junction
 The Schematic representation and circuit symbol
is given below.
29. What is called biasing? Give its types.
 Biasing is the process of giving external energy to charge carriers to overcome the barrier potential
and make them move in a particular direction.
 The external voltage applied to the p-n junction is called bias voltage.
 Depending on the polarity of the external source to the P-N junction we have two types of biasing
1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias

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9. Semiconductor Electronics

30. What is meant by rectification?

 The process of converting alternating current into direct current is called rectification.
 The device used for rectification is called rectifier.
 The P-N junction diode is used as rectifier.
31. Differentiate forward bias and reverse bias.
Forward bias Reverse bias
 If the positive terminal of the external voltage  If the positive terminal of the battery is
source is connected to the P-side and the connected to the N-side and the negative
negative terminal to the N-side, it is called potential to the P- side, the junction is said to
forward biased be reverse biased
 It reduces width of the depletion region.  It increases width of the depletion region.
32. What is mean by break down voltage?
 The reverse saturation current due to the minority charge carriers is small.
 If the reverse bias applied to a P-N junction is increased beyond a point, the junction breaks down
and the reverse current rises sharply.
 The voltage at which this breakdown happens is called the breakdown voltage
 It depends on the width of the depletion region, which in turn depends on the doping level.
33. What is called Zener diode? Give its circuit symbol.
 Zener diode is a reverse based heavily doped Silicon diode which is specially
designed to be operated in the breakdown region.
 The circuit symbol of Zener diode is given below.
34. Give the applications of Zener diode.
 Voltage regulators
 Peak clippers
 Calibrating voltages
 Provide fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing
 Meter protection against damage from accidental application of excessive voltage.
35. What is opto electronic devices?
 The devices which convert electrical energy into light and light into electrical energy through
semiconductors are called opto electronic devices.
 Optoelectronic device is an electronic device which utilizes light for useful applications. (e.g.)
LEDs, photo diodes and solar cells.
36. What is light emitting diode (LED)?
 LED is a P-N junction diode which emits visible or invisible light whit is
forward biased.
 Here electrical energy is converted into light energy, this process is also called
electroluminescence.
 The circuit symbol of LED is given below.
37. Give the applications of LEDs.
 Indicator lamps on the front panel of the scientific and laboratory equipments.
 Seven-segment displays.
 Traffic signals, exit signs, emergency vehicle lighting etc.
 Industrial process control, position encoders, bar graph readers.
38. What is photo diode? Give its circuit symbol.
 A P-N junction diode which converts an optical signal into electric current is
known as photodiode
 Its operation exactly opposite to that of an LED.
 Photo diode works in reverse bias.
 The circuit symbol of photo diode is given below.

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9. Semiconductor Electronics

39. Give the applications of photo diode.

 Alarm system
 Count items on a conveyer belt
 Photoconductors
 Compact disc players, smoke detectors
 Medical applications such as detectors for computed tomography etc.
40. What are called solar cells?
 A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, converts light energy directly into electricity or electric
potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
 It is basically a P-N junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls on the P-N junction.
41. Write a note on bipolar junction transistor (BJT).
 The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) consists of a semiconductor
(Silicon or Germanium) crystal.
 In which an N-type material is sandwiched between two P-type
materials called PNP transistor or a P -type material sandwiched
between two N-type materials called NPN transistor.
 The three regions formed are called emitter (E), base (B) and collector
(C)
 The schematic symbol and circuit symbol of PNP and NPN transistors
are given below.
42. Discuss the different modes of transistor biasing.
(1) Forward Active:
 In this bias the emitter-base junction (JEB) is forward biased and the collector-base junction (JCB) is
reverse biased.
 The transistor is in the active mode and in this mode, the transistor functions as an amplifier.
(2) Saturation:
 Here, both the emitter-base junction (JEB) an collector-base junction (JCB) are forward biased.
 The transistor has a very large flow of currents across the junctions.
 In this mode, transistor is used as a closed switch.
(3) Cut-off:
 In this bias, both the emitter-base junction (JEB) and collector-base junction (JCB) are reverse biased.
 Transistor in this mode is an open switch.
43. Give the applications of solar cells.
 Solar cells are widely used in calculators, watches, toys, portable power supplies, etc.
 Solar cells are used in satellites and space application
Solar panels are used to generate electricity.
44. What is called transistor amplifier?
 A transistor operating in the active region has the capability to amplify weak signals.
Amplification is the process of increasing the signal strength (increase in the amplitude).
45. Draw the circuit diagram of common base configurations of NPN transistor.
Common base configuration:
 Input terminal - Emitter
 Output terminal - Collector
 Common terminal - Base
 Input current - IE
 Output current - IC
 The input signal (VBE) is applied across emitter - base junction
 The output signal (VCB) is measured across collector - base junction.

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9. Semiconductor Electronics

46. Draw the circuit diagram of common emitter configurations of NPN transistor.
Common emitter configuration:
 Input terminal - Base
 Output terminal - Collector
 Common terminal - Emitter
 Input current - IB
 Output current - IC
 The input signal (VBE) is applied across base - emitter junction
 The output signal (VCE) is measured across collector - emitter junction.
47. Draw the circuit diagram of common emitter configurations of NPN transistor.
Common collector configuration:
 Input terminal - Base
 Output terminal - Emitter
 Common terminal - Collector
 Input current - IB
 Output current - IE
 The input signal (VBC) is applied across base - collector junction
 The output signal (V EC) is measured across emitter - collector junction.
48. Define input resistance of transistor.
 The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at a
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called the input resistance (ri).
∆𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑟𝑖 =
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸
 The input resistance is high for a transistor in common emitter configuration.
49. Define output resistance of transistor.
 The ratio of the change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the change in collector current (ΔI C) at
a constant base current (IB) is called the output resistance (ro).
∆𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝑟𝑜 =
∆𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐵
 The output resistance is very low for a transistor in common emitter configuration.
50. Define forward current gain.
 The ratio of the change in collector current (ΔI C) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called forward current gain (β).
∆𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸
 Its value is very high and it generally ranges from 50 to 200.
51. What is called transistor oscillator?
 An electronic oscillator basically converts DC energy into AC energy of high frequency ranging
from a few Hz to several MHz. Hence, it is a source of alternating current or voltage.
Unlike an amplifier, oscillator does not require any external signal source.
52. Give the types of an oscillator.
 There are two types of oscillators:
1. Sinusoidal and
2. Non-sinusoidal
 Sinusoidal oscillators generate oscillations in the form of sine waves at constant amplitude and
frequency
 Non-sinusoidal oscillators generate complex non-sinusoidal waveforms like square wave, triangular
wave or saw-toothed wave

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9. Semiconductor Electronics

53. Give the relation between α and β

 Forward current gain in common base mode,
∆𝐼𝐶
𝛼=
∆𝐼𝐸 𝑉 𝐶𝐸
 Forward current gain in common emitter mode,
∆𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉 𝐶𝐸
 From the above two equations, we have
𝛽 𝛼
𝛼 = 1+𝛽 (or) 𝛽 = 1−𝛼
54. Give the applications of oscillator.
 To generate a periodic sinusoidal or non sinusoidal wave forms.
 To generate RF carriers.
 To generate audio tones
 To generate clock signal in digital circuits.
As sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.
55. Draw the block diagram of an oscillator
Block diagram of oscillator:
 Oscillator essentially consists three main parts,
(1) Tank circuit:
 The tank circuit generates electrical oscillations and acts as the AC
input source to the transistor amplifier.
(2) Amplifier:
 Amplifier amplifies the input ac signal.
(3) Feed back network:
 The feedback circuit provides a portion of the output to the tank circuit to sustain the oscillations
without energy loss.
 Hence, an oscillator does not require an external input signal.
 The output is said to be self-sustained.
56. Give the Barkhausen conditions for sustained oscillations.
 The loop phase shift must be 0° or integral multiples of 2π.
 The loop gain must be unity. |Aβ| = 1
 Here, A → Voltage gain of the amplifier,
β → Feedback ratio
57. Distinguish between analog and digital signal.
Analog signal Digital signal
 It is continuously varying voltage or current  It contains only two discrete values of voltages
with respect to time (i.e.) low (OFF) and high (ON)
 These signals are employed in rectifying  These signals are employed in signal
circuits and transistor amplifier circuits processing, communication etc.,
58. Distinguish between positive and negative logic.
Positive logic Negative logic
 Binary 1 stands for +5 V  Binary 1 stands for 0 V
 Binary 0 stands for 0V  Binary 0 stands for +5 V

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59. What are called logic gates?

 A logic gate is an electronic circuit which functions based on digital signals.
 They are considered as the basic building blocks of most of the digital systems.
 It has one output with one or more inputs.
60. What is an integrated circuit?
 An integrated circuit (IC) or a chip or a microchip is an electronic circuit, which consists of
thousands to millions of transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc. integrated on a small flat piece of
Silicon.
61. What are the application of integrated circuits (ICs)
 Low cost
 Great performance.
 Very small in size
 High reliability
 They can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, microprocessor and computer memory.
62. Distinguish between digital IC and analog IC
Digital IC Analog IC
 Digital ICs uses digital signals  Analog (or) linear ICs work with continuous
(logical 0 and 1). values.
 They usually find their applications in  Linear ICs are typically used in audio and radio
computers, networking equipment, and most frequency amplification.
consumer electronics.
63. Why digital signals are preferred than analog signals?
 Because of their better performance, accuracy, speed, flexibility and immunity to noise.
[

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 Marks)

1. Explain the classification of solids on the basis of energy band theory.
Classification of solids:
 Based on the energy band theory, solids are classified in to three types, namely
(1) Insulators
(2) Metals (Conductors)
(3) Semiconductors

Insulators:
 In insulator the valence band (VB) and th conduction band (CB) are separated by a large energy gap.
 The forbidden energy gap (Eg) is approximately 6 eV in insulators.
 The gap is very large that electrons from valence band cannot move into conduction band even on
application of strong external electric field or the increase in temperature.
 Therefore, the electrical conduction is not possible as the free electrons are almost nil and hence
these materials are called insulators.
 Its resistivity is in the range of 1011 – 1019 Ωm

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9. Semiconductor Electronics

Metals (Conductors):
 In metals, the valence band and conduction band overlap
 Hence, electrons can move freely into the conduction band which results in a large number of free
electrons in the conduction band.
 Therefore, conduction becomes possible even at low temperatures.
 The application of electric field provides sufficient energy to the electrons to drift in a particular
direction to constitute a current.
 For metals, the resistivity value lies between 10-2 – 10-8 Ωm
Semiconductors:
 In semiconductors, there exists a narrow forbidden energy gap (Eg < 3 eV) between the valence band
and the conduction band.
 At a finite temperature, thermal agitations i solid can break the covalent bond between the atoms.
 This releases some electrons from valence band to conduction band.
 Since free electrons are small in number, the conductivity of the semiconductors is not as high as
that of the conductors.
 The resistivity value of semiconductors is from 10-5 – 106 Ωm
 When the temperature is increased further, more number of electrons is promoted to the conduction
band and increases the conduction.
 Thus, the electrical conduction increases with the increase in temperature. (i.e.) resistance decreases
with increase in temperature.
 Hence, semiconductors are said to have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
 The most important elemental semiconductor materials are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge).
 At room temperature,
o Forbidden energy gap for Si, Eg = 1.1 eV
Forbidden energy gap for Ge, Eg = 0.7 eV
2. Explain in detail the intrinsic semiconductor.
Intrinsic semiconductor:
 A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity is
called an intrinsic semiconductor. (e.g.) silicon,
germanium
 Consider Silicon lattice. Each Silicon atom is covalently
bonded with the neighbouring four
 atoms to form the lattice.
 At absolute zero (0 K), this will behaves as insulator,
because there is no free charges.
 But at room temperature, some of the covalent bonds
are brakes and releases the electrons free from the
lattice.
 As a result, some states in the valence band become
empty and the same number of states in the conduction
band will be occupied.
 The vacancies produced in the valence band are called
holes which are treated as positive charges.
 Hence, electrons and holes are the two charge carriers
in semiconductors.
 In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the number of
holes in the valence band.
 The conduction is due to the electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band
 The total current (I) is always the sum of the electron current (Ie) and the hole current (Ih), I = Ie + Ih
 The increase in temperature increase the number of charge carriers (electrons and holes).

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3. Elucidate the formation of a N-type and P-type semiconductors.

N - type semiconductor:
 A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure Silicon (or
Germanium) crystal with a dopant from pentavalent elements like
Phosphorus, Arsenic, and Antimony
 The dopant five valence electrons while the Silicon atom has four
valence electrons.
 During the process of doping, four of the five valence electrons of the
impurity atom are bound with the 4 valence electrons of the
neighbouring replaced Silicon atom.
 The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom will be loosely
attached with the nucleus as it has not formed the covalent bond.
 The energy level of the loosely attached fifth electron is found just
below the conduction band edge and is called the donor energy level
 The energy required to set free a donor electron is only 0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.
 At room temperature, these electrons can easily move to the conduction band with the absorption of
thermal energy.
 The pentavalent impurity atoms donate electrons to the conduction band and are called donor
impurities. Therefore, each impurity atom provides one extra electron to the conduction band in
addition to the thermally generated electrons.
 Hence, in an N - type semiconductor,
o the majority carriers – Electrons
o the minority carriers - Holes
P - type semiconductor:
 A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure Silicon (or
Germanium) crystal with a dopant from trivalent elements like Boron,
Aluminium, Gallium d Indium
 The dopant has three valence electrons while the Silicon atom has
four valence electrons.
 During the process of doping, the dopant with three valence electrons
are bound with the neighbouring three Silicon atoms.
 As Silicon atom has four valence electrons, on electron position of
the dopant in the crystal lattice will remain vacant.
 The missing electron position in the covalent bond is denoted as a
hole.
 To make complete covalent, the dopant is in need of one more
electron.
 These dopants can accept electrons from the neighbouring atoms. Therefore, this impurity is called
an acceptor impurity.
 The energy level of the hole created by each impurity atom is just above the valence band and is
called the acceptor energy level.
 For each acceptor atom, there will be a hole in the valence band in addition to the thermally
generated holes.
 Hence, in an P - type semiconductor,
o the majority carriers – Holes
o the minority carriers – Electrons

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9. Semiconductor Electronics

4. Explain the formation of PN junction diode. Discuss its V–I characteristics.

Formation of PN junction diode:
 A P-N junction is formed by joining N -type and P-type
semiconductor materials.
 Here the N-region has a high electron concentration and the P-
region a high hole concentration.
 So the electrons diffuse from the N-side to the P-side.
 Simillarly holes also diffuse from P - side to the N- side. This
causes diffusion current.
 In a P-N junction, when the electrons and holes move to the other
side of the junction, they leave behind exposed charges on dopant
atom sites, which are fixed in the crystal lattice and are unable to
move.
 On the n-side, position cores are exposed and on the p- side,
negative ion cores are exposed
 An electric field E forms between the positive ion cores in the n-
type material and negative ion cores in the p-type material.
 The electric field sweeps free carriers out of this region and hence
it is called depletion region as it is depleted of free carriers.
 A barrier potential (Vb) due to the electric field E is formed at the junction.
 As this diffusion of charge carriers from both sides continues, the negative ions form a layer of
negative space charge region along the p-side.
 Similarly, a positive space charge region is formed by positive ions on the n-side.
 The positive space charge region attracts electrons from P-side to n-side and the negative space
charge region attracts holes from N-side to P -side.
 This moment of carriers happen in this region due to the formed electric field and it constitutes a
current called drift current.
 The diffusion current and drift current flow in the opposite direction and at one instant they both
become equal. Thus, a P-N junction is formed.

V -I characteristics:
 It is the study of the variation in current through in the respect to the applied voltage across the diode
when it is forward or reverse biased.

Forward bias characteristics:

 If the positive terminal of the external voltage source is
connected to the P-side and the negative terminal to the N-
side, it is called forward biased.
 A graph is plotted by taking the forward bias voltage (V)
along the x-axis and the current (I) through the diode
along the y-axis. This graph is called the forward V-I
characteristics.
 From the graph, at room temperature, a potential difference equal to the barrier potential is required
before a reasonable forward current starts flowing across the diode. This voltage is known as
threshold voltage or cut-in voltage or knee voltage (Vth).
o For Silicon Vth = 0.7 V
o For Germanium Vth = 0.3 V

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 The graph clearly infers that the current flow is not linear and is exponential. Hence it does not obey
Ohm’s law.
 The forward resistance (rf) of the diode is ratio of the small change in voltage (ΔV) to the small
∆𝑉
change in current (ΔI), 𝑟𝑓 = ∆𝐼
 Thus the diode behaves as a conductor when it is forward biased.
Reverse bias characteristics:
 If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-
side and the negative potential to the p- side, the junction
is said to be reverse biased.
 A graph is drawn between the reverse bias voltage and the
current across the junction, which is called the reverse V -
I characteristics.
 Under this bias, a very small current in μA, flows across the junction. This is due to the flow of the
minority charge carriers called the leakage current or reverse saturation current.
o For Silicon Ileakage = 20 μA
o For Germanium Ileakage = 50 μA
 Besides, the current is almost independent of the voltage.
 The reverse bias voltage can be increased only up to the rated value otherwise the diode will enter
into the breakdown region.
5. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier and explain its working.
Half wave rectifier:
 In a half wave rectifier circuit, either a positive half or the
negative half of the AC input is passed through while the other
half is blocked.
 Only one half of the input wave reaches the output. Therefore,
it is called half wave rectifier.
 This circuit consists of a transformer, a P-N junction diode and
a resistor (RL)
 Here, a P-N junction diode acts as a rectifying diode.
During positive half cycle of input AC:
 Terminal A becomes positive with respect to terminal B.
 The diode is forward biased and hence it conducts
 The current flows through load resistor RL and the AC voltage
developed across RL constitutes the output voltage Vo
During negative half cycle of input AC:
 Terminal B becomes positive with respect to terminal A.
 The diode is reverse biased and hence it does not conduct.
 No current passes through RL and there is no voltage drop across RL (The reverse saturation current
in a diode is negligible)
Input and Output waveform:
 The output waveform is shown below.
 The output of the half wave rectifier is not a steady dc voltage but a pulsating wave.
 A constant or a steady voltage is required which can be obtained with the help of filter circuits and
voltage regulator circuits.
Efficiency (η) is the ratio of the output dc power to the ac input power supplied to the circuit. Its
value for half wave rectifier is η = 40.6 %
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9. Semiconductor Electronics

6. Explain the construction and working of a full wave rectifier.

Full wave rectifier:
 The positive and negative half cycles of the AC input signal
pass through this circuit and hence it is called the full wave
rectifier.
 It consists of two P-N junction diodes, a center tapped
transformer, and a load resistor (RL).
 The centre (C) is usually taken as the ground or zero voltage
reference point.
 Due to the centre tap transformer, the output voltage rectified
by each diode is only one half of the total secondary voltage.
During positive half cycle of input AC:
 Terminal M is positive, G at zero potential and N is at negative
potential
 Diode D1 is forward biased Diode D2 is reverse biased
 D1 conducts and current flows along the path MD1AGC
 The voltage appears across RL in the direction G to C
During negative half cycle of input AC:
 Terminal M is negative, G is at zero potential and N is at positive potential
 Diode D1 is reverse biased Diode D2 is forward biased
 D2 conducts and current flows along the path ND2BGC
 The voltage appears across RL in the same direction G to C
Input and Output waveform:
 Hence in a full wave rectifier both positive and negative half cycles of the input signal pass through
the circuit in the same direction
 The output waveform is shown below.
 Though both positive and negative half cycles of ac input are rectified, the output is still pulsating in
nature.
 The efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier is twice that of a half wave rectifier and is found to be
η = 81.2 %.
7. Write a note on Zener diode. Explain the V – I characteristics of Zener diode.
Zener diode:
 Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped Silicon
diode, designed to be operated in the breakdown region.
 Zener breakdown occurs due to the breaking of covalent
bonds by the strong electric field set up in the depletion
region by the reverse voltage.
 It produces an extremely large number of electrons and
holes which constitute the reverse saturation current.
 The circuit symbol of Zener diode is given below.
V-I Characteristics of Zener diode:
 The circuit to study the forward and reverse characteristic s
of a Zener diode is shown below.
 The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode is shown below.
 The forward characteristic of a Zener diode is similar to
that of an ordinary P-N junction diode.

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 It starts conducting approximately around 0.7 V.

 However, the reverse characteristic is highly significant in
Zener diode.
 The increase in reverse voltage normally generates very
small reverse current.
 While in Zener diode, when the reverse voltage is d to the
breakdown voltage (VZ), the increase in current is very
sharp.
 The voltage remains almost constant throughout the
breakdown region.
 Here, IZ (max) represents the maximum reverse current.
 If the reverse current is increased further, the diode will be
damaged.
 The important parameters on the reverse characteristics are
o VZ → Zener breakdown voltage
o IZ (min) → minimum current to sustain breakdown
o IZ (max) → maximum current limited by maximum power dissipation.
 The Zener diode is operated in the reverse bias having the voltage greater than V Z and current less
than IZ (max).
 The reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical which means that the diode possesses some small
resistance called Zener dynamic impedance.
 Zener resistance is the inverse of the slope is breakdown region. It means an increase in the Zener
current produces only a very small increase in the reverse voltage which can be neglected.
 Thus the voltage of an ideal Zener diode does not change once it goes into breakdown.
 It means that VZ remains almost constant even when IZ increases considerably.
8. Explain the working of Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
Zener diode as a voltage regulator:
 A Zener diode working in the breakdown region can serve
as a voltage regulator.
 It maintains a constant output voltage even when input
voltage (Vi) or load current (IL) varies.
 Here, in this circuit the input voltage Vi is regulated at a
constant voltage Vz (Zener voltage) at the output
represented as Vo using a Zener diode.
 The output voltage is maintained constant as long as the input voltage does not fall below V z.
 When the potential developed across the diode is greater than VZ, the diode moves into the Zener
breakdown region.
 It conducts and draws relatively large current through the series resistance R S.
 The total current I passing through RS equals the sum of diode current IZ and load current IL (i.e.)
I = I Z + IL
 It is to be noted that the total current is always less than the maximum Zener diode current.
 Under all conditions
VO = VZ
 Thus, output voltage is regulated.

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9. Semiconductor Electronics

9. What is meant by light emitting diode? Explain its working principle with diagram.
Light Emitting Diode (LED):
 LED is a p-n junction diode which emits visible or
invisible light when it is forward biased.
 Since, electrical energy is converted into light energy; this
process is also called electroluminescence.
Construction:
 It consists of a P-layer, N-layer and a substrate.
 A transparent window is used to allow light to travel in the
desired direction.
 In addition, it has two leads; anode and cathode.
 When the P-N junction is forward biased, the conduction
band electrons on N-side and valence band holes on P-side
diffuse across the junction.
 When they cross the junction, they become excess minority
carriers (electrons in P-side and holes in N-side).
 These excess minority carriers recombine with oppositely
charged majority carriers respective regions, i.e. the
electrons in conduction band recombine with holes in the
valence band
 During recombination process, energy is released in the
form of light (radiative) or heat (non-radiative).
 For radiative recombination, a photon of energy hv is emitted. For non-radiative recombination,
energy is liberated in the form of heat.
 The colour of the light is determined by the energy band gap of the material.
 Therefore, LEDs are available in a wide range of colours such as
o Blue (SiC)
o Green (AlGaP)
o Red (AsP).
 Now a day, LED which emits white light (GaInN) is also available.
10. Explain in detail about the photo diode.
Photo diode:
 A P-N junction diode which converts an optical signal into
electric current is known as photodiode.
 Thus, the operation of photodiode is exactly opposite to
that of an LED.
 Photo diode works in reverse bias. Its circuit symbol is shown below.
 The direction of arrows indicates that the light is incident on the photo diode.
 The device consists of a P-N junction semiconductor made of photosensitive material kept safely
inside a plastic case
 It has a small transparent window that allows light to be incident on the P-N junction.
 Photodiodes can generate current when the P-N junction is exposed to light and hence are called as
light sensors.
 When a photon of sufficient energy (hv) strikes the depletion region of the diode, some of the
valence band electrons are elevated into conduction band, in turn holes are developed in the valence
band. This creates electron-hole pairs.
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9. Semiconductor Electronics

 The amount of electron - hole pairs generated depends on the intensity of light incident on the P-N
junction.
 These electrons and holes are swept across the P-N junction by the electric field created by reverse
voltage before recombination takes place.
 Thus, holes move towards the N-side and electrons towards the P-side.
 When the external circuit is made, the electrons flow through the external circuit and constitute the
photocurrent.
 When the incident light is zero, there exists a reverse current which is negligible.
 This reverse current in the absence of any incident light is called dark current and is due to the
thermally generated minority carriers.
11. Explain the working principle of Solar cell. Mention its applications.
Solar cell:
 A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, converts
light energy directly into electricity or electric potential
difference by photovoltaic effect.
 It is basically a P-N junction which generates emf when
solar radiation falls on the P-N junction.
 A solar cell is of two types: P-type and N-type.
 Both types use a combination of P-type and N-type Silicon which together forms the P-N junction of
the solar cell.
 The difference is that P-type solar cells use P as the base with an ultra-thin layer of N-type Silicon,
while N-type solar cell uses the opposite combination.
 The other side of the P-Silicon is coated with metal which forms the back electrical contact.
 On top of the N-type Silicon, metal grid is deposited which acts as the front electrical contact.
 The top of the solar cell is coated with anti-reflection coating and toughened glass.
 In a solar cell, electron–hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of light near the junction.
 Then the charge carriers are separated due to the electric field of the depletion region.
 Electrons move towards N–type Silicon and holes move towards P-type Silicon layer.
 The electrons reaching the N-side are collected by the front contact and holes reaching P-side are
collected by the back electrical contact.
 Thus a potential difference is developed across solar cell.
 When an external load is connected to the solar cell, photocurrent flows through the load.
 Many solar cells are connected together either in series or in parallel combination to form solar panel
or module.
 Many panels are connected with each other to form solar arrays. For high power applications, solar
panels and solar arrays are used.
Applications:
(1) Solar cells are widely used in calculators, watches, toys, portable power supplies, etc.
(2) Solar cells are used in satellites and space application
(3) Solar panels are used to generate electricity.

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12. Explain transistor action in Common Base Configuration.

Working of NPN transistor in CB mode:
 Basically, a BJT can be considered as two P-N
junction diodes connected back to- back.
 In the forward active bias of the transistor, the
emitter-base junction is forward biased by VEB and
the collector-base junction is reverse biased by VCB.
 The forward bias decreases the depletion region
across the emitter-base junction and the reverse bias
increases the depletion region across the collector-
base junction.
 Hence, the barrier potential across the emitter-base junction is decreased and the collector-base
junction is increased.
 In an NPN transistor, the majority charge carriers in the emitter are electrons. As it is heavily doped,
it has a large number of electrons.
 The forward bias across the emitter-base junction causes the electrons in the emitter region to flow
towards the base region and constitutes the emitter current (IE).
 The electrons after reaching the base region recombine with the holes in the base region.
 Since the base region is very narrow and lightly doped, all the electrons will not have sufficient holes
to recombine and hence most of the electrons reach the collector region.
 Eventually, the electrons that reach the collector region will be attracted by the collector terminal as
it has positive potential and flows through the external circuit.
 This constitutes the collector current (IC).
 The holes that are lost due to recombination in the base region are replaced by the positive potential
of the bias voltage VEB and constitute the base current (IB).
 The magnitude of the base current will be in microamperes as against milliamperes for emitter and
collector currents.
 It is to be noted that if the emitter current is zero, then the collector current is almost zero.
 It is therefore imperative that a BJT is called a current controlled device.
 Applying Kirchhoff’s law, we can write the emitter current as the sum of the collector current and
the base current. IE = IB + IC.
 Since the base current is very small, we can write, IE ≈ IC
 There is another component of collector current due to the thermally generated electrons called
reverse saturation current, denoted as ICO.
 This factor is temperature sensitive.
 The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is called the forward current gain (𝜶𝒅𝒄 ) of a
transistor.
𝑰𝑪
𝜶𝒅𝒄 =
𝑰𝑩
 The ‘α’ of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a transistor. Higher the value of α, the transistor
is better.
 The value of α is less than unity and ranges from 0.95 to 0.99.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 251 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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9. Semiconductor Electronics

13. Sketch the static characteristics of a common emitter transistor and bring out the essence of
input and output characteristics.
Static characteristics of NPN transistor in CE mode:
 VBE - Base - emitter voltage
 VCE − Collector - emitter
voltage
 IB - Base current
 IC − Collector current
 VBB & VCC −Biasing voltages
 R1 & R2 − Variable resistors

(1) Input characteristics:

 Input Characteristics curves give the relationship between the
base current (IB) and base to emitter voltage (VBE) at constant
collector to emitter voltage (VCE)
 The curve looks like the forward characteristics of an ordinary
P-N junction diode.
 There exists a threshold voltage or knee voltage (Vk) below
which the base current is very small.
 Beyond the knee voltage, the base current increases with the
increase in base-emitter voltage.
 It is also noted that the increase in the collector-emitter voltage
decreases the base current. This shifts the curve outward.
 This is because the increase in collector-emitter voltage creases the width of the depletion region in
turn, reduces the effective base width and thereby the base current.
 The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at a
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called the input resistance (𝑟𝑖 ).
∆𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑟𝑖 =
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸
 The input resistance 𝑟𝑖 is high for a transistor in common emitter configuration.
(2) Output characteristics:
 The output characteristics give relationship between the
variation in collector current (ΔIC) with respect to the variation
in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) at constant input current (IB)
 There are four important regions in the curve
(i) Saturation region
(ii) Cut-off region
(iii) Active region
(iv) Break down region
 The ratio of the change in the collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the corresponding change in the
collector current (ΔIC) at constant base current (IB) is called output resistance (𝑟𝑜 ).
∆𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝑟𝑜 =
∆𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐵
 The output resistance 𝑟𝑜 for transistor in common emitter configuration is very low.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 252 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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9. Semiconductor Electronics

(3) Current transfer characteristics:

 This gives the variation of collector current (I C) with changes
in base current (IB) at constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE)
 It is seen that a small IC flows even when IB is zero.
 This current is called the common emitter leakage current
(ICEO), which is due to the flow of minority charge carriers.

 The ratio of the change in collector current (ΔI C) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called forward current gain (β).
∆𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉 𝐶𝐸

 Its value is very high and it generally ranges from 50 to 200.

14. Transistor functions as a switch. Explain.

Transistor as a switch:
 The transistor in saturation and
cut-off regions functions like an
electronic switch.
 That helps to turn ON or OFF a
given circuit by a small control
signal.

Presence of dc source at the input (saturation region):

 When a high input voltage (Vin = +5 V) is applied, the base current (I B) increases and in turn
increases the collector current.
 The transistor will move into the saturation region (turned ON).
 The increase in collector current (IC) increases voltage drop across RC, thereby lowering the output
voltage, close to zero.
 The transistor acts like a closed switch and is equivalent to ON condition.
Absence of dc source at the input (cut-off region):
 A low input voltage (Vin=0V), decreases the base (IB) and in turn decreases the collector current (I C).
 The transistor will move into the cut-off region (turned OFF).
 The decrease in collector current (IC) decreases the drop across R C, thereby increasing the output
voltage, close to +5 V.
 The transistor acts as an open switch which is considered as the OFF condition.
 It is manifested that, a high input gives a low output and a low input gives a high output.
Therefore, a transistor can be used as an inverter in computer logic circuitry.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 253 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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9. Semiconductor Electronics

15. Explain the action transistor as an oscillator.

Transistor as an Oscillator:
 An electronic oscillator basically converts dc energy
into ac energy of high frequency ranging from a few
Hz to several MHz.
 Hence, it is a source of alternating current or voltage.
 Unlike an amplifier, oscillator does not require any
external signal source.
 Basically, there are two types of oscillators:
o Sinusoidal and
o Non-sinusoidal.
 An oscillator circuit consists of
o Amplifier Circuit
o Feedback Circuit
o Tank Circuit
Amplifier Circuit:
 Amplification is the process of increasing amplitude of weak signals (i.e.) Amplifier amplifies the
input ac signal
Feedback Circuit:
 The circuit used to feedback a portion of the output to the input is called the feedback network.
 If the portion of the output fed to the input is in phase with the input, then the magnitude of the input
signal increases.
 It is necessary for sustained oscillations.
Tank Circuit:
 The LC tank circuit consists of an inductance and a
capacitor connected in parallel
 Whenever energy is supplied to the tank circuit from
a DC source, the energy is stored in inductor and
capacitor alternatively.
 This produces electrical oscillations of definite
frequency.
 But in practical oscillator circuits there will be loss of energy across resistors, inductor coils and
capacitors.
 Due to this, the amplitude of the oscillations decreases gradually.
 Hence, the tank circuit produces damped electrical oscillations.
 Therefore, in order to produce undamped oscillations, a positive feedback is provided from the
output circuit to the input circuit.
 The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of L and C using the equation.
1
𝑓=
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 254 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
9. Semiconductor Electronics

16. Describe the function of a transistor as an amplifier with the neat circuit diagram. Sketch the
input and output wave form.
Transistor as an amplifier:
 Amplification is the process of
increasing the signal strength
(increase in the amplitude).
 If a large amplification is required,
multistage amplifier is used.
 Here, the amplification of an
electrical signal is explained with a
single stage transistor amplifier
 Single stage indicates that the circuit
consists of one transistor with the
allied components.
 An NPN transistor is connected in
the common emitter configuration.
 A load resistance, RC is connected in
series with the collector circuit to
measure the output voltage.
 The capacitor C1 allows only the ac signal to pass through.
 The emitter bypass capacitor CE provides a low reactance path to the amplified ac signal.
 The coupling capacitor CC is used to couple on stage of the amplifier with the next stage while
constructing multistage amplifiers.
 VS is the sinusoidal input signal source applied across the base-emitter.
 The output is taken across the collector-emitter.
 The phase relationship between the AC input and output voltages in a common emitter amplifier is 180°
𝐼𝐶
 Collector current is 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐵 𝛽 [∵ 𝛽 = ]
𝐼𝐵

 Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law, the collector-emitter voltage is 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶

Working of the amplifier:
(1) During the positive half cycle:
 Input signal (Vs) increases the forward voltage across the emitter-base.
 As a result, the base current (IB) increases.
 Consequently, the collector current (IC) increases β times.
 This increases the voltage drop across RC which in turn decreases the collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
 Therefore, the input signal in the positive direction produces an amplified signal in negative
direction at the output. Hence, the output signal is reversed by 180°
(2) During the negative half cycle:
 Input signal (Vs) decreases the forward voltage across the emitter-base.
 As a result, base current (IB) decreases and in turn increases the collector current (I C).
 The increase in collector current (IC) decreases the potential drop across RC and increases the
collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
 Thus, the input signal in the negative direction produces an amplified signal in the positive direction
at the output.
 Therefore, 180° phase reversal is observed during the negative half cycle of the input signal

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 255 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

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9. Semiconductor Electronics

17. State and prove De Morgan’s First and Second theorems.

De Morgan’s First Theorem:
 The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is
equal to the product of its complements.
𝐀 + 𝐁 = 𝐀 .𝐁
Proof:
 The Boolean equation for NOR gate is 𝑌 = 𝐀 + 𝐁
 The Boolean equation for a bubbled AND gate is
𝑌 = 𝐀.𝐁
 From the above truth table, 𝐀 + 𝐁 = 𝐀 . 𝐁
 Thus De Morgan’s First Theorem is proved.
 It also says that a NOR gate is equal to a bubbled
AND gate. The corresponding logic circuit diagram
De Morgan’s Second Theorem:
 The complement of the products of two logical inputs
is equal to the sum of its complements.
𝐀 .𝐁 = 𝐀 + 𝐁
Proof:
 The Boolean equation for NAND gate is 𝑌 = 𝐀 . 𝐁
 The Boolean equation for a bubbled OR gate is
𝒀 =𝐀+𝐁
 From the above truth table, 𝐀 . 𝐁 = 𝐀 + 𝐁
 Thus De Morgan’s second Theorem is proved.
 It also says that a NAND gate is equal to a bubbled
OR gate. The corresponding logic circuit diagram
18. State Boolean laws. Elucidate how they are used to simplify Boolean expressions with suitable
example.

Boolean laws:
Complement law: Commutative Laws:
𝐴+𝐵 =𝐵+𝐴
𝐴=𝐴
𝐴.𝐵 = 𝐵 .𝐴
OR -Laws: AND -Laws:
𝐴+0= 𝐴 𝐴 .0 = 0
𝐴+1 =1 𝐴.1 = 𝐴
𝐴+𝐴=𝐴 𝐴.𝐴 = 𝐴
𝐴+𝐴=1 𝐴.𝐴 = 0
Associative Laws: Distributive Laws:
𝐴+ 𝐵+𝐶 = 𝐴+𝐵 +𝐶 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
𝐴 . 𝐵 .𝐶 = 𝐴 .𝐵 .𝐶 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝐴 + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐶
Example: Circuit description:
Simplify the following Boolean expression.
𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶
Solution:
𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶(1 + 𝐵)
𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 . 1 [OR- Law (2)]
𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 [AND- Law (2)]

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 256 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
10. Communication Systems

10. Communication Systems

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (BOOK BACK)
1. Give the factors that are responsible for transmission impairments.
Increasing distance :
 The attenuation of the signal depends on
1. power of the transmitter
2. frequency of the transmitter, and
3. condition of the earth surface.
Absorption of energy by the Earth :
 When the transmitted signal in the form of EM wave is in contact with the Earth, it induces charges
in the Earth and constitutes a current.
 Due to this, the earth behaves like a leaky capacitor which leads to the attenuation of the wave.
Tilting of the wave: As the wave :
 As the wave progresses, the wave front starts gradually tilting according to the curvature of the
Earth.
 This increase in the tilt decreases the electric field strength of the wave.
 Finally, at some distance, the surface wave dies out due to energy loss.
2. Distinguish between wireline and wireless communication? Specify the range of
electromagnetic waves in which it is used.
Wireline communication Wireless communication
 It is a point-point communication uses mediums  It uses free space as a communication
like wires, cables and optical fibers. medium.
 These systems cannot be used for long distance  The signals are transmitted in the form of
transmission as they are connected physically. electromagnetic waves with the help of a
transmitting antenna. Hence wireless
communication is used for long distance
transmission.
 Examples are telephone, intercom and cable TV. Examples are mobile, radio or TV
broadcasting, and satellite communication.
3. What is called centre frequency or resting frequency?
 When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero (no input signal), there is no change in the
frequency of the carrier wave.
 It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre frequency or resting frequency.
Practically 75 kHz is the allotted frequency of the FM transmitter.
4. What is mean by RADAR?
 RADAR basically stands for RAdio Detection And Ranging System.
 It is one of the important applications of communication systems and is mainly used to sense, detect,
and locate distant objects like aircraft, ships, spacecraft, etc.
5. What do you mean by Internet of Things?
 Using Internet of Things (IoT), it is made possible to control various devices from a single device.
 (e.g.) Home automation using a mobile phone.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (CONCEPTUAL)
6. What is called modulation? Give its types.
 For long distance transmission, the low frequency base band signal (input signal) is superimposed on
to a high frequency carrier signal (radio signal) by a process called modulation.
1. Amplitude (AM)
2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
3. Phase Modulation (PM)

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10. Communication Systems

7. What is the necessity of modulation?

 When the information signal of low frequency is transmitted over a long distances, there will be
information loss occurs.
 As the frequency of the carrier signal is very high, it can be transmitted to long distances with less
attenuation.
 Thus in the modulation process, carrier signal of very high frequency signal (radio signal) is used to
carry the baseband signal(information)
8. Define amplitude modulation (AM)
 If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
baseband signal, then it is called amplitude modulation (AM)
9. Give the advantages and limitations of amplitude modulation (AM)
Advantages of AM :
 Easy transmission and reception
 Lesser bandwidth requirements
 Low cost
Limitations of AM :
 Noise level is high
 Low efficiency
 Small operating range
10. Define frequency modulation (FM)
 If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
baseband signal then it is called frequency modulation (FM)
 Here amplitude and phase does not modified for carrier wave.
11. Give the advantages and limitations of frequency modulation (FM)
Advantages of FM :
 Large decrease in noise. This leads to an increase in signal-noise ratio.
 The operating range is quite large.
 The transmission efficiency is very high as all the transmitted power is useful.
 FM bandwidth covers the entire frequency range which humans can hear. Due to this, FM radio has
better quality compared to AM radio.
Limitations of FM :
 FM requires a much wider channel.
 FM transmitters and receivers are more complex and costly.
 In FM reception, less area is covered compared to AM.
12. Define phase modulation (PM)
 The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal modifies the phase of the carrier signal keeping
the amplitude and frequency constant is called phase modulation

13. Give the advantages of phase modulation (PM)

Advantages of PM :
 FM signal produced from PM signal is very stable.
 The centre frequency called resting frequency is extremely stable.

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10. Communication Systems

14. Compare FM and PM ?

Comparison between FM and PM :
 PM wave is similar to FM wave.
 PM generally uses a smaller bandwidth than FM.
 In other words, in PM, more information can be sent in a given bandwidth.
 Hence, phase modulation provides high transmission speed on a given bandwidth.
15. What is called base band signals?
 Information can be in the form of a sound signal like speech, music, pictures, or computer data.
 The electrical equivalent of the original information is called the baseband signal.
16. Define band width.
 The frequency range over which the baseband signals or the information signals such as voice,
music, picture, etc. is transmitted is known as band width.
 Bandwidth gives the difference between the upper and lower frequency limits of the signal.
 If ν1 and ν2 are lower and upper-frequency limits of a signal, then the bandwidth,
BW = ν2 - ν1
17. Define the size of the antenna.
 Antenna is used at both transmitter and receiver end.
 Antenna height is an important parameter to be discussed. The height of the antenna must be a
𝜆
multiple of 4 . i.e.
𝜆 𝑐
ℎ= =
4 4𝑣
18. What are the three modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves through space.
 Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave propagation (nearly 2 kHz to 2 MHz)
 Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric propagation (nearly 3 MHz to 30 MHz)
 Space wave propagation (nearly 30MHz to 400GHz)
19. Write a note on Ground Wave Propagation.
 If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the transmitter glide over the surface of the earth to
reach the receiver, then the propagation is called ground wave propagation.
 The corresponding waves are called ground waves or surface waves.
 It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio navigation, for ship-to-ship, ship to-shore
communication and mobile communication.
20. Define Sky Wave Propagation.
 The mode of propagation in which the electromagnetic waves radiated from an antenna, directed
upwards at large angle gets reflected by the ionosphere back to earth is called sky wave propagation
or ionospheric propagation.
 The corresponding waves are called sky waves
21. Define skip distance.
 The shortest distance between the transmitter and the point of reception of the sky wave along the
surface is called as the skip distance

22. Define skip zone.

 There is a zone in between where there is no reception of electromagnetic waves neither ground nor
sky, called as skip zone or skip area.

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10. Communication Systems

23. What is Space Wave Propagation?

 The process of sending and receiving information signal through space is called space wave
communication
 The electromagnetic waves of very high frequencies above 30 MHz are called as space waves.
24. Define Fibre Optical Communication.
 The method of transmitting information from one place to another in terms of light pulses through an
optical fiber is called fiber optic communication.
 It works on the principle of total internal reflection.
25. Write a note on Mobile Communication and give its applications.
Mobile Communication:
 Mobile communication is used to communicate with others in different locations without the use of
any physical connection like wires or cables
 It enables the people to communicate with each other regardless of a particular location like office,
house, etc.
 It also provides communication access to remote areas.
Applications :
 It is used for personal communication and cellular phones offer voice and data connectivity with
high speed.
 Transmission of news across the globe is done within a few seconds.
 Using Internet of Things (IoT), it is made possible to control various devices from a single device.
 Example: home automation using a mobile phone.
 It enables smart classrooms, online availability of notes, monitoring student activities etc. in the field
of education.
26. Write a note on Internet and give its applications.
Internet:
 Internet is a fast growing technology in the field of communication system with multifaceted tools.
 Internet is the largest computer network recognized globally that connects millions of people
through computers.
 It finds extensive applications in all walks of life.
Applications :
1. Search engine :
 The search engine is basically a web-based service tool used to search for information on World
Wide Web.
2. Communication :
 It helps millions of people to connect with the use of social networking: emails, instant
messaging services and social networking tools.
3. E-Commerce :
 Buying and selling of goods and services, transfer of funds are done over an electronic network.
27. What are called noises?
 It is the undesirable electrical signal that interfaces with the transmitted signal.
 Noise attenuates or reduces the quality of the transmitted signal.
It may be man-made (automobiles, welding machines, electric motors etc.) or natural (lightning,
radiation from sun and stars and environmental effects).

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10. Communication Systems

28. Write a note on Global Positioning System.

Global positioning system :
 GPS stands for Global Positioning System.
 It is a global navigation satellite system that offers geo location and time information to a GPS
receiver anywhere on or near the Earth.
 GPS system works with the assistance of a satellite network. Each of these satellites broadcasts a
precise signal like an ordinary radio signal.
 These signals that convey the location data are received by a low-cost aerial which is then translated
by the GPS software.
 The software is able to recognize the satellite, its location, and the time taken by the signals to travel
from each satellite.
 The software then processes the data it accepts from each satellite to estimate the location of the
receiver.
Applications :
 Global positioning system is highly useful many fields such as
(1) fleet vehicle management (for tracking cars, trucks and buses),
(2) wildlife management (for counting of wild animals) and
(3) engineering (for making tunnels, bridges etc).
29. Define Range.
 It is the maximum distance between the source and the destination up to which the signal is received
with sufficient strength.

30. What are repeaters?

 Repeaters are used to increase the range or distance through which the signals are sent. It is a
combination of transmitter and receiver.
 The signals are received, amplified, and retransmitted with a carrier signal of different frequency to
the destination.
 The best example is the communication satellite in space.

31. Define attenuation.

 The loss of strength of a signal while propagating through a medium is known as attenuation.

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10. Communication Systems

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 Marks)

1. What is called modulation? Explain the types of modulation with help of necessary diagrams.
Modulation :
 For long distance transmission, the low frequency baseband signal (input signal) is superimposed
onto a high frequency radio signal by a process called modulation.
 In the modulation process, a very high frequency signal called carrier signal (radio signal) is used to
carry the baseband signal.
Types of modulation :
(1) Amplitude modulation (AM)
(2) Frequency modulation (FM)
(3) Phase modulation (PM)
1. Amplitude modulation (AM) :
 If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
baseband signal, then it is called amplitude modulation.
 Here the frequency and the phase of the carrier signal
remain constant.
 We can see clearly that the carrier wave is modified in
proportion to the amplitude of the baseband signal.
 Amplitude modulation is used in radio and TV
broadcasting.
Advantages of AM : Limitations of AM :
 Easy transmission and  Noise level is high
reception  Low efficiency
 lesser bandwidth  Small operating range
requirements
 Low cost
2. Frequency modulation (FM) :
 If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
baseband signal, then it is called frequency modulation.
 Here the amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal
remain constant.
 When the amplitude of the baseband signal is zero, the
frequency of the modulated signal is the same as the
carrier signal.
 The frequency of the modulated wave increases when
the amplitude of the baseband signal increases in the
positive direction (A, C).
 The increase in amplitude in the negative half cycle (B,
D) reduces the frequency of the modulated wave
 When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero (no
input signal), there is no change in the frequency of the
carrier wave.
 It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre
frequency or resting frequency.
 Practically 75 kHz is the allotted frequency of the FM transmitter.

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Advantages of FM :
 Large decrease in noise. This leads to an increase in signal-noise ratio.
 The operating range is quite large.
 The transmission efficiency is very high as all the transmitted power is useful.
 FM bandwidth covers the entire frequency range which humans can hear. Due to this, FM radio has
better quality compared to AM radio.
Limitations of FM :
 FM requires a much wider channel.
 FM transmitters and receivers are more complex and costly.
 In FM reception, less area is covered compared to AM.
3. Phase modulation (PM) :
 The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband
signal modifies the phase of the carrier signal
keeping the amplitude and frequency constant
is called phase modulation
 This modulation is used to generate frequency
modulated signals.
 When the modulating signal goes positive,
amount of phase lead increase with the
amplitude of the modulating signal.

 Due to this, the carrier signal is compressed or its frequency is increased.

 On the other hand, the negative half cycle of baseband signal produces a phase lag in the carrier
signal.
 Hence similar to frequency modulated wave, phase modulated wave also comprises of compressions
and rarefactions.
 When the signal voltage is zero (A, C and E) the carrier frequency is unchanged.
 The frequency shift in carrier wave frequency exists in phase modulation as well.
 The frequency shift depends on
o amplitude of the modulating signal and
o the frequency of the signal.
Advantages of PM :
 FM signal produced from PM signal is very stable.
 The centre frequency called resting frequency is extremely stable.

2. Elaborate on the basic elements of communication system with the necessary block diagram.
Communication system :
 Electronic communication is nothing but the transmission of sound, text, pictures, or data through a
medium.
Basic elements of communication system :

1. Input transducer :
 A transducer is a device that converts variations in a physical quantity (pressure, temperature, sound)
into an equivalent electrical signal or vice versa.
 In communication system, the transducer converts the information which is in the form of sound,
music, pictures or computer data into corresponding electrical signals.
 The electrical equivalent of the original information is called the baseband signal. (e.g.) microphone

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 263 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
10. Communication Systems

2. Transmitter :
 It feeds the electrical signal from the
transducer to the communication
channel.
 The transmitter is located at the
broadcasting station.
 Transmitter consists,
o Amplifier :
 The transducer output is very weak and is amplified by the amplifier.
o Oscillator :
 It generates high-frequency carrier wave (a sinusoidal wave) for long distance
transmission into space.
o Modulator :
 It superimposes the baseband signal onto the carrier signal and generates the
modulated signal.
o Power amplifier :
 It increases the power level of the electrical signal in order to cover a large distance.
3. Transmitting antenna :
 It radiates the radio signal into space in all directions.
 It travels in the form of electromagnetic waves with the velocity of light (3 × 108 m s–1)
4. Communication channel :
 Communication channel is used to carry the electrical signal from transmitter to receiver with less
noise or distortion.
 The communication medium is basically of two types:
o wireline communication
o wireless communication.
5. Receiver :
 The signals that are transmitted
through communication medium are
received with help of a receiving
antenna and are fed into the receiver.
 The receiver consists of electronic
circuits like demodulator, amplifier,
detector etc
o Demodulator:
 The demodulator extracts the baseband signal from the carrier signal.
o Amplifier:
 Then the baseband signal is detected and amplified using amplifiers. Finally, it is fed
to the output transducer.
6. Output transducer :
 It converts the electrical signal back to its original form such as sound, music, pictures or data.
 (e.g.) loudspeakers, picture tubes, computer monitor, etc.,

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 264 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
10. Communication Systems

3. Explain the three modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves through space.

Modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves :
 The electromagnetic wave transmitted by :
a. Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave propagation
(2 kHz to 2 MHz)
b. Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric propagation
(3 MHz to 30 MHz)
c. Space wave propagation
(30 MHz to 400 GHz)

Ground wave propagation :

 If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the transmitter glide over the surface of the earth to
reach the receiver, then the propagation is called ground wave propagation.
 The corresponding waves are called ground waves or surface waves.
 Both transmitting and receiving antennas must be close to the earth.
 The size of the antenna plays a major role in deciding the efficiency of the radiation of signals.
 During transmission, the electrical signals are attenuated over a distance.
 Some reasons for attenuation are as follows:
a. Increasing distance
b. Absorption of energy by the Earth
c. Tilting of the wave
 It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio navigation, for ship-to-ship, ship-to-shore
communication and mobile communication.
Sky wave propagation :
 The mode of propagation in which the electromagnetic waves radiated from an antenna, directed
upwards at large angle gets reflected by the ionosphere back to earth is called sky wave propagation
or ionospheric propagation.
 Extremely long distance communication is possible as the radio waves can undergo multiple
reflections between the earth and the ionosphere.
 The phenomenon of bending the radio waves back to earth is due to the total internal reflection.
 This is the reason why the EM waves are transmitted at a critical angle to ensure that waves undergo
total reflection and reaches the ground without escaping into space.
 The shortest distance between the transmitter and the point of reception of the sky wave along the
surface is called as the skip distance
 There is a zone in between where there is no reception of electromagnetic waves neither ground nor
sky, called as skip zone or skip area.
Space wave propagation :
 The process of sending and receiving information signal through space is called space wave
communication
 The electromagnetic waves of very high frequencies above 30 MHz are called as space waves.
 These waves travel in a straight line from the transmitter to the receiver. Hence, it is used for a line
of sight communication (LOS).
 For high frequencies, the transmission towers must be high enough so that the transmitted and
received signals (direct waves) will not encounter the curvature of the earth and hence travel with
less attenuation and loss of signal strength.
 Certain waves reach the receiver after getting reflected from the ground.
 The communication systems like television broadcast, satellite communication, and RADAR are
based on space wave propagation.
 The range or distance (d) of coverage propagation depends on the height (h) of the antenna given by
the equation, ℎ = 2𝑅ℎ where, R → Radius of earth (6400 km)

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
10. Communication Systems

4. Explain satellite communication.

Satellite communication :
 The satellite communication is a mode of
communication of signal between transmitter and
receiver via satellite.
 The message signal from the Earth station is
transmitted to the satellite on board via an uplink
(frequency band 6 GHz), amplified by a transponder
and then retransmitted to another earth station via a
downlink (frequency band 4 GHz)
 The high-frequency radio wave signals travel in a straight line (line of sight) may come across tall
buildings or mountains or even encounter the curvature of the earth.
 A communication satellite relays and amplifies such radio signals via transponder to reach distant
and far off places using uplinks and downlinks.
 It is also called as a radio repeater in sky.
Applications :
1. Weather Satellites:
 They are used to monitor the weather and climate of Earth.
 By measuring cloud mass, these satellite enable us to predict rain and dangerous storms like
hurricanes, cyclones etc.
2. Communication satellites:
 They are used to transmit television, radio, internet signals etc. Multiple satellites are used for long
distances.
3. Navigation satellites:
 These are employed to determine the geographic location of ships, aircrafts or any other object.
5. Explain the function of RADAR. Give its applications.
RADAR :
 RADAR basically stands for RAdio Detection And Ranging System.
 It is one of the important applications of communication systems and is mainly used to sense, detect,
and locate distant objects like aircraft, ships, spacecraft, etc.
 The angle, range, or velocity of the objects that are invisible to the human eye can be determined.
 Radar uses electromagnetic waves for communication.
 The electromagnetic signal is initially radiated into space by an antenna in all directions.
 When this signal strikes the targeted object, it gets reflected or reradiated in many directions.
 This reflected (echo) signal is received by radar antenna which in turn is delivered to the receiver.
 Then, it is processed and amplified to determine the geographical statistics of the object.
 The range is determined by calculating the time taken by the signal to travel from RADAR to the
target and back.
Applications :
 In military, it is used for locating and detecting the targets.
 It is used in navigation systems such as ship born surface search, air search and weapons guidance
systems.
 To measure precipitation rate and wind speed in meteorological observations, Radars are used.
 It is employed to locate and rescue people in emergency situations.

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
10. Communication Systems

6. Give the applications of ICT in fisheries, mining and agriculture sectors.

1. Agriculture :
 ICT is widely used in increasing food productivity and farm management.
 It helps to optimize the use of water, seeds and fertilizers etc.
 Sophisticated technologies that include robots, temperature and moisture sensors, aerial images, and
GPS technology can be used.
 Geographic information systems are extensively used in farming to decide the suitable place for the
species to be planted.
2. Fisheries :
 Satellite vessel monitoring system helps to identify fishing zones.
 Use of barcodes helps to identify time and date of catch, species name, quality of fish.
3. Mining :
 ICT in mining improves operational efficiency, remote monitoring and disaster locating system.
 Information and communication technology provides audio-visual warning to the trapped
underground miners.
 It helps to connect remote sites.
7. Fiber optic communication is gaining popularity among the various transmission media-Justify.
Fiber optic communication :
 The method of transmitting information from one place to another in terms of light pulses through an
optical fiber is called fiber optic communication.
 It is in the process of replacing wire transmission in communication systems.
 Light has very high frequency (400THz –790 THz) than microwave radio systems.
 The fibers are made up of silica glass or silicon dioxide which is highly abundant on Earth.
 Now it has been replaced with materials such as chalcogenide glasses, fluoroaluminate crystalline
materials because they provide larger infrared wavelength and better transmission capability.
 As fibers are not electrically conductive, it is preferred in places where multiple channels are to be
laid and isolation is required from electrical and electromagnetic interference.
Applications :
 Optical fiber system has a number of applications namely, international communication, inter-city
communication, data links, plant and traffic control and defense applications.
Merits :
 Fiber cables are very thin and weigh lesser than copper cables.
 This system has much larger band width. That means that its information carrying capacity is larger.
 Fiber optic system is immune to electrical interferences.
 Fiber optic cables are cheaper than copper cables.
Demerits :
 Fiber optic cables are more fragile when compared to copper wires.
 It is an expensive technology.
Importance :
 Fiber optic cables provide the fastest transmission rate compared to any other form of transmission.
 It can provide data speed of 1 Gbps for homes and business.
 Multimode fibers operate at the speed of 10 Mbps.
 Recent developments in optical communication provide the data speed at the rate of 25 Gbps

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12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
10. Communication Systems

8. Modulation helps to reduce the antenna size in wireless communication – Explain.

Antenna :
 Antenna is used at both transmitter and receiver end. Antenna height is an important parameter to be
discussed.
𝜆
 The height of the antenna must be a multiple of 4 , i.e.
𝜆 𝑐
ℎ= =
4 4𝑣
 where, λ → wavelength
v → frequency of the signal.
c → velocity of light
 Let us consider two baseband signals. One signal is modulated and other is not modulated.
 The frequency of the original baseband signal (unmodulated) is taken as ν = 10 kHz while the
modulated signal is ν = 1 MHz.
 The height of the antenna required to transmit the original baseband signal of frequency ν = 10 kHz
is
𝜆 𝑐 3 × 108
ℎ1 = = = = 7500𝑚
4 4𝑣 4 × 10 × 103
 The height of the antenna required to transmit the modulated signal of frequency ν = 1 MHz is
𝜆 𝑐 3 × 108
ℎ2 = = = = 75𝑚
4 4𝑣 4 × 1 × 106
 We can infer that it is practically feasible to construct an antenna of height 75 m while the one with
7.5 km is not possible.
 It clearly manifests that modulated signals reduce the antenna height and are required for long
distance transmission.

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 12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
11. Recent Developments in Physics
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11. Recent Developments in Physics

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (BOOK BACK)
1. Distinguish between Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.
Nanoscience Nanotechnology
 It is the science of objects with typical size 1 - It is a technology involving the design,
100 nm. Nano means one - billionth of a meter. production, characterization and application
−9
(i.e.) 10 m of nano structured materials
2. What is the difference between Nanomaterials and Bulk materials?
 If the particle of a solid is of size less than 100 nm, it is said to be a ‘nano solid’. When the particle
size exceeds 100 nm, it is a ‘bulk solid’
 Though nano and bulk solids have same chemical composition, nano form of the material shows
strikingly different properties when compared to its bulk counterpart.
3. Give any two examples for “Nano” in nature.
Nano in nature :
1. Single strand DNA :
 It is the basic building block of all living things.
 It is about 3 nm wide
2. Morpho butterfly :
 The scales of the wings of this butterfly contain nano structures.
 When light wave interact with this giving the wings brilliant metallic blue and green hues.
4. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of Robotics.
Advantages of robotics :
 The robots are much cheaper than humans.
 Robots never get tired like humans. Hence absenteeism in work place can be reduced.
 Robots are more precise and error free in performing the task.
 Stronger and faster than humans.
 Robots can work in extreme environmental conditions: extreme hot or cold, space or underwater,
dangerous situations like bomb detection and bomb deactivation.
 In warfare, robots can save human lives.
 Robots are significantly used in handling material in chemical industries especially in nuclear plants
which can lead to health hazards in humans.
Disadvantages of robotics :
 Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience.
 They lack empathy and hence create an emotionless workplace.
 If ultimately robots would do all the work, and the human will just sit and monitor them, health
hazards will increase rapidly.
 Unemployment problem will increase.
 Robots can perform defined tasks and cannot handle unexpected situations
 The robots are well programmed to do a job and if a small thing goes wrong it end up in a big loss to
the company.
 If a robot malfunctions it takes time to identify the problem, rectify it, and even reprogram if
necessary. This process requires significant time.
 Humans cannot be replaced by robots in decision making.
 Till the robot reaches the level of human intelligence, the humans in work place will exit.
5. Why steels are preferred to make robots?
 For robots, aluminum and steel are the most common metals.
 Aluminum is a softer metal and is therefore easier to work with it.
 But steel is several times stronger and because of the inherent strength of steel, robot bodies are
made using sheet, bar, rod, channel and other shapes.
J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 269 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
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6. Write a note on black holes.

Black holes :
 Black holes are end stage of stars which are highly dense massive object.
 Its mass ranges 20 times mass of the sun to 1 million times mass of the sun.
 It has very strong gravitational force such that no particle or even light can escape from it.
 The existence of black hole is studied when the stars orbiting the black hole behave differently from
the other stars.
 Every galaxy has black hole at its centre.
 Sagittarius A* is the black hole at the centre of the Milky Way galaxy.
7. What are sub atomic particles?
 Sub atomic particles are smaller than an atom.
 It consist some particle which is building block of atoms.
 Some sub atomic particles are larger than Hydrogen atom.
 There two types of sub atomic particles
o Fundamental particles
o Compound particles
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (CONCEPTUAL)
8. Give the interdisciplinary nature of nano technology.
 Nano science and technology is the interdisciplinary area covering its applications in various fields.
They are,
1. Physics
2. Chemistry
3. Electrical & Mechanical Engineering
4. Material science
5. Molecular Biology
6. Applied Mathematics & Computer science
9. What is robotics?
 Robotics is an integrated study of mechanical, electronic engineering, computer engineering and
science.
Robot is a mechanical device designed with electronic circuitry and programmed to perform a
specific task.
10. Explain how nano structures are made in the laboratory?
Nano in laboratories :
 The nano structures made in the laboratory mimic some of the nature’s amazing nano structures.
 There are two ways of preparing the Nanomaterials. They are.
1. Top - Down approach 2. Bottom - Up approach
1. Top - Down approach :
 Nano materials are synthesized by breaking down bulk solids in to nano sizes. (e.g.) Ball milling,
sol-gel, lithography
2. Bottom - up approach :
 Nano materials are synthesized by assembling the atoms or molecules together. Selectively atoms
are added to create structures. (e.g.) plasma etching and chemical vapour deposition
11. List the applications of Nano technology.
Applications of Nano technology.
 Energy storage  Biomedical and drug delivery
 Defense and security  Agriculture and food
 Metallurgy and materials  Cosmetics and paints
 Electronics  Bio-technology
 Optical engineering and communication  Textiles

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 12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
11. Recent Developments in Physics
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12. What are the components of robotics?

 The robotic system mainly consists of
1. Sensors
2. Power supplies
3. Control systems
4. Manipulators
5. Necessary software
13. Give the types of robots.
1. Human robot :
 Certain robots are made to resemble humans in appearance and replicate the human activities like
walking, lifting and sensing etc
2. Industrial robots :
 Six main types of industrial robots are Cartesian, SCARA, Cylindrical, Delta, Polar and vertically
articulated.
 They are ideal for Arc welding, Spot welding, Material handling, machine tending and other
applications.
14. What is artificial intelligence? What is its work?
Artificial Intelligence:
 The aim of artificial intelligence is to bring in human like behaviour in robots.
Artificial Intelligence works on:
1. Face recognition
2. Providing response to player’s actions is computer game
3. Taking decisions based on previous actions
4. To regulate the traffic by analyzing the density of traffic on roads
5. Translate words from one language to another
15. Give the applications of robot in various fields.
Applications of robot :
 Weaponry, packing, Lawn mowing, cutting, under water, agriculture, pool cleaning
 Welding, cutting, assembling, litter robot, transport.
 Vacuum cleaners, hospitals, surgery, laboratory
 Exploring stars, planets etc., investigation of the mineralogy of the rocks and soils on Mars, analysis
of elements found in rocks and soils
16. Write a note on nano robots.
Nano robots :
 The size of the nano robots is reduced to microscopic level to perform a task in very small spaces.
 In future nano robots are used in the medical fields.
 Nano robots in blood stream to perform small surgical procedures, to fight against bacteria, repairing
individual cell in the body.
 It can travel into the body and once after the job is performed it can find its way out.
17. What is particle physics? Write down its recent development.
Particle physics :
 The study of the theory of fundamental particles of nature is called particle physics.
Particle physics development :
 Initially it was thought that atom is the fundamental entity of matter. But in 1930, it was established
that atoms are made up of electrons, protons and neutrons
 In 1960, it was discovered that protons and neutrons were made up of quarks.
 Later it was found that quarks interact through gluons.
 Recently in 2013, famous Higgs particles also known as God particles were discovered which gives
mass to many particles like protons, neutrons etc .,

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11. Recent Developments in Physics
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18. Write a note on Cosmology.

Cosmology:
 Cosmology is the branch that involves the origin and evolution of the universe.
 It deals with the formation of stars, galaxy etc.
19. What are called gravitational waves?
Gravitational Waves:
 The disturbances in the curvature of space-time are called gravitational waves. Its travels with speed of light.
 Any accelerated charge emits electromagnetic waves. Similarly any accelerated mass emits
gravitational waves.
 But the gravitational waves are very weak even for masses like earth.
 The strongest sources of gravitational waves are black holes.
 The recent discoveries of gravitational waves are emitted by two black holes when they merge to a
single black hole.
 In 1915, Albert Einstein theoretically proposed the existence of gravitational waves. After 100 years,
it is experimentally proved that his predictions are correct.
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 Marks)
1. Explain Nano structure in nature with examples.
Nano in nature :
(1) Single strand DNA :
 It is the basic building block of all living things.
 It is about 3 nm wide
(2) Morpho butterfly :
 The scales of the wings of this butterfly contain nano structures.
 When light wave interact with this giving the wings brilliant metallic blue and green hues.
(3) Peacock feathers :
 They get their iridescent coloration from light interacting with 2 dimensional photonic crystal
structures just tens of nanometers thick
 Similar nano structures are made in lab to glow in different colors
(4) Parrot fish :
 It crunches up coral all day.
 The source of powerful bite is the interwoven fiber nanostructure.
 Crystals of a mineral called fluorapatite are woven together in a chain mail-like arrangement. This
structure gives parrot fish teeth incredible durability.
 It provides a blue print for creating ultra-durable synthetic materials that could be useful for
mechanical components in electronics and in other devices that undergo repetitive movement,
abrasion and contact stress
(5) Lotus Leaf surface :
 Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) gives the nano structures on the surface of a leaf from a lotus plant.
 This is the reason for self cleaning process on lotus leaf.
2. Comment on the recent advancement in medical diagnosis and therapy.
1. Virtual reality:
 Medical virtual reality is effectively used to stop the brain from processing pain and cure soreness in
the hospitalized patients.
 It helps in the treatment of Autism, Memory loss, and Mental illness.
2. Precision medicine:
 Precision medicine is an emerging approach for disease treatment and prevention that takes into
account individual variability in genes, environment, and lifestyle for each person.
3. Health wearables:
 A health wearable is a device used for tracking a wearer's vital signs or health and fitness related
data, location, etc.

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11. Recent Developments in Physics
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 Medical wearables with artificial intelligence and big data provide an added value to healthcare with
a focus on diagnosis, treatment, patient monitoring and prevention.
4. Artificial organs:
 An artificial organ is an engineered device or tissue that is implanted or integrated into a human.
 It is possible to interface it with living tissue or to replace a natural organ. It duplicates or augments
a specific function or functions of human organs so that the patient may return to a normal life as
soon as possible.
5. 3D printing:
 Advanced 3D printer systems and materials assist physicians in a range of operations in the medical
field from audiology, dentistry, orthopedics and other applications.
6. Wireless brain sensors:
 Wireless brain sensors monitor intracranial pressure and temperature and then are absorbed by the
body. Hence there is no need for surgery to remove these devices.
7. Robotic surgery:
 Robotic surgery is a type of surgical procedure that is done using robotic systems.
 Robotically-assisted surgery helps to overcome the limitations of pre-existing minimally-invasive
surgical procedures and to enhance the capabilities of surgeons performing open surgery.
8. Smart inhalers:
 Inhalers are the main treatment option for asthma. Smart inhalers are designed with health systems
and patients in mind so that they can offer maximum benefit.
 Smart inhalers use Bluetooth technology detect inhaler use, remind patients when to take their
medication and gather data to help guide care.
3. Discuss the functions of key components in Robots?
Functions of key components of Robots :
 Most robots are composed of 3 main parts:
1. Controller
2. Mechanical parts
3. Sensors
Controller :
 It is also known as the "brain" which is run by a computer program.
 It gives commands for the moving parts to perform the job.
Mechanical parts :
 It consist motors, pistons, grippers, wheels gears that make the robot move, grab, turn, and lift.
Sensors :
 It tells the robot about its surroundings. It helps to determine the sizes and shapes of the objects
around, distance between the objects, and directions as well.
4. What are the possible harmful effects of usage of Nanoparticles? Why?
Possible harmful effects of nano particles :
 The major concern here is that the nanoparticles have the dimensions same as that of the biological
molecules such as proteins. They may easily get absorbed on to the surface of living organisms and
they might enter the tissues and fluids of the body.
 The adsorbing nature depends on the surface of the nanoparticle. Indeed, it is possible to deliver a
drug directly to a specific cell in the body by designing the surface of a nanoparticle so that i adsorbs
specifically on to the surface of the target cell.
 The interaction with living systems is also affected by the dimensions of the nanoparticles.
 Nanoparticles can also cross cell membranes. It is also possible for the inhaled nanoparticles to reach
the blood, to reach other sites such as the liver, heart or blood cells.
 Researchers are trying to understand the response of living organisms to the presence of
nanoparticles of varying size, shape, chemical composition and surface characteristics.

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5. Discuss the applications of Nanomaterials in various fields.

Automotive industry: Construction:
 Lightweight construction  Construction materials
 Painting (fillers, base coat, clear coat)  Thermal insulation
 Catalysts  Flame retardants
 Tires (fillers)  Surface-functionalised building materials for
 Sensors wood, floors, stone, facades, tiles, roof tiles,
 Coatings for windscreen and car bodies etc.
Chemical industry:  Facade coatings
 Fillers for paint systems  Groove mortar
 Coating systems based on nano composites Medicine:
 Impregnation of papers  Drug delivery systems
 Switchable adhesives  Active agents
 Magnetic fluids  Contrast medium
Engineering:  Medical rapid tests
 Wear protection for tools and machines  Prostheses and implants
 Lubricant-free bearings  Antimicrobial agents and coatings
Electronic industry:  Agents in cancer therapy
 Data memory Food and drinks:
 Displays  Package materials
 Laser diodes  Storage life sensors
 Glass fibres  Additives
 Optical switches  Clarification of fruit juices
 Filters (IR-blocking) Household:
 Conductive, antistatic coatings  Ceramic coatings for irons
Energy:  Odors catalyst
 Fuel cells  Cleaner for glass,
 Solar cells  Ceramic, floor, windows
 Batteries Sports/ outdoor:
 Capacitors  Ski wax
Cosmetics:  Antifogging of glasses/goggles
 Sun protection  Antifouling coatings for ships/boats
 Lipsticks  Reinforced tennis rackets and balls
 Skin creams Textile/fabrics/non-woven:
 Tooth paste  Surface-processed textiles
 Smart clothes
6. Explain the various components of robotics.
Power conversion unit:
 Robots are powered by batteries, solar power, and hydraulics.
Actuators:
 Actuator converts energy into movement. The majority of the actuators produce rotational or linear
motion.
Electric motors:
 They are used to actuate the parts of the robots like wheels, arms, fingers, legs, sensors, camera,
weapon systems etc.

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 274 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed

 12 - Standard www.nammakalvi.in Physics 2, 3, 5 marks
11. Recent Developments in Physics
,a,

 Different types of electric motors are used. The most often used ones are AC motor, Brushed DC
motor, Brushless DC motor, Geared DC motor, etc.
Pneumatic Air Muscles:
 They are devices that can contract and expand when air is pumped inside.
 It can replicate the function of a human muscle. They contract almost 40% when the air is sucked
inside them.
Muscle wires:
 They are thin strands of wire made of shape memory alloys. ey can contract by 5% when electric
current is passed through them.
Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors:
 Basically, we use it for industrial robots.
Sensors:
 Generally used in task environments as it provides information of real-time knowledge.
Robot locomotion:
 Robot locomotion provides the types of movements to a robot.
 The different types are
o Legged
o Wheeled
o Combination of Legged and Wheeled Locomotion
o Tracked slip/skid

All The Best

J. Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed
K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed
PG Assistants in Physics
Govt. Boys Hr. Sec. School
Vennandur, Rasipuram Tk
Namakkal District

J.Sisubaladhanasekar M.Sc., M.Phil, B.Ed 275 K.Gomathi M.Sc., B.Ed