| a moDERN APPROACH O/L PHYSICS = | nc neoneeeneantens ee MAGNETISM ‘ABLE TO: DBE AT THE D OF THIS CHAPTER, THib STUDENT SHOUT ® State differences between magnetic properties of iron and st D> Appreciate that magnetic poles exist in pairs ic substaney " i agnetic substance: ~% Recall that magnets repel and attract other magnets, and also attract MAB! ~~ List the uses of magnets ic dipole ZZ Describe experiments to identify the poles of a magnetic dipole netic flux XS Understand the terms: magnetic field line, or magnetic line of foree and mae! Patter > Draw magnetic flux pattern i Know how to use permanent magnets to produce desired mognetic Seis “% Understand how the earth’s magnetic field is used in navigation (1.e. using , ignctic compasses) % Identify that magnetic field are produced when current flows in a conduc Appreciate the magnetic effect of an electric current ; equity 7 Sketch and understand magnetic {lux patterns for a straight wire, a flat cirtular coil and a Sole cach carrying a current and for a strong permanent dipole magnet 7 : “> Appreciate that there is a force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic ficld as long; the conductor is not parallel to the field : Appreciate that there is a force on a charged particle when it moves in a magnetic field as long as; motion is not parallel to the field : ; Recall that the force on a current — carrying conductor in a magnetic field increases with the steng of the field and with the current : Understand that magnetism is induced in some materials when they are placed in a magnetic fiely Deseribe the construction of clectromagnets State the uses of clectromagnets Sketch and recognize the magnetic flux patterns for a straight wire, carrying a current perpendic to the plane of'a uniform field List the factors that affect induced current in conductor placed in a changing magnetic field Describe experiments to demonstrate that induced current increases when the rate of change; magnetic field lines increases Understand that a changing magnetic flux through a circuit causes an emf to be induced in the city Appreciate electromagnetic induction as an energy transfer process => Be familiar with the structure and functioning of the transformer “S> Appreciate the factors which affect the efficiency of a transformer “> Relate the tur ratio of an ideal transformer to the ratio of the input and output vo Differentiate between direct current and alternating current 7.1 MAGNETS Definition: Magnets are pieces of metals which attract or repel other piece of metals. Itage Not all metals are magnetic. When two magnets are brought together, even before they touch There is still no simple explanation for the phenomena of magnetism the force between them can bef 7.1.1 MAGNETIC POLES Ifa bar magnet is suspended at its center by a length of nylon thread, it will swing around until! magnetic axis lies roughly north-south. The pole at the end pointing north is called the north seekin i 8 Pole, or N pole ‘The pole at the end pointing south is called the south seekii ro ing pole, or § pole 220 | ALLIN ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FOR O-LEVEL| MODERN APPROACH 0/1. PHYSICS iments show that there is r xd a South Pole, Pulsion between two $ poles of two N, But attraction between a North pole the nv of magnet pence te magnetism which states that “ye poles repel, unlike poles q ike P PONS altract. The only test to know that a material is a magne i the repulsion we MAGNETIC AND Non MAGNETIC MATERIALS pai Dadicobaliteda ne Magnctized strongly all contain at least one of the metals iron, mremagnetic magnetic materiale and eee materials, These strong magnetic materials are iy fet masnetism when magne CASH as either hard or soft depending on how well they i \ctized, "Hard magnetic materials e.g stee, vey y Hard magt lals c.g. steel are dit i eir magneti: used fo make permanent magnets ow cult to magnetize but do not lose their magnetism and are is 1a tic materials e.g. j > Soft magnet S e.g. iron are ea ; ; i mporal. The} paused in ©leéttormagenn casy to magnetize but their magnetism is only temporal. They 44.3 INDUCED MAGNETISM Magnetic materials become attracted to magnets because they become magnetized in the presence of a magnet. The magnet is said to induce magnetism to the magnetic material. | 11.4 MAKING MAGNETS (MAGNETIZATION) ‘There are two main methods to make a magnet, 1) STROKING METHOD: o Apiece of steel becomes permanently magnetized when placed near a magnet, but its magnetism is wually very weak. The steel can be magnetized more strongly by stroking it with a bar magnet. The | magnet must be moved along the steel over and over again in one direction only, with wide sweep between strokes. The pole produced at the end of the stroke is always the opposite of the stroking pole. iron 2) ELECTRICAL METHOD: The most effective method of permanently magnetizing a magnet is the electrical method. A piece of steel becomes @ permanent magnet when placed inside a long coil or soletioid made up of several hundred turns of conducting wire, and then a large direct current passed through the coil for a second. The polarity of the magnet can be determined using the right hand grip rule, which states that If the right-hand grips the coil such that your first four fingers point to the same direction as the conventional current arrows, she thumb point to the direction of N-pole. GCE VERSIONMODERN APPROACH O/L PHYSIcs 7.1.5 DEMAGNETISATION * A magnet will become demagnetized if ‘molecules of the magnet eventually gain enough enerBY common direction. Demagnetization can occur by hammering the magnet TPE is -'19 slowly withdra The most effective method of demagnetization without ¢ Math Solenoid through which a large alternating current iS: a A bar magnet becomes demagnetized over @ long Pe demagnetization is is because the vibra i irongly. This i rat is heated st ve overcome the forces holding ‘em, 4 net or dropping it repeatedly. d of time if stored by isa 7.2 MAGNETIC FIELDS ic field, And it is made up of j The region witere a magnet exerts its force is ealled a magnet OA “ety A plotting compass can be used to find the direction of the field ata 7.2.1 MAGNETIC FIELD DIRECTION irecti By definition, the direction of a magnetic field at any point is aken 7 eae a ee force Would act on a free N-pole placed at that point. The magnetic Mel ni ig compass needle. i i ; The path taken by a moving north pole of a compass needle is the ee field Vine. tn di arrowheads are marked on field lines o show that they run from the N-pole of the magnet io thes ,9 7.2.2 PLOTTING MAGNETIC FIELD LINES : Field lines around a magnet-can be found casily using a small plotting compass. ‘ A compass needle is made up of a tiny magnet called the needle, supported by a spindle throyy center, so that it ean iwmn freely. When the needle is in a magnetic field, its N-pole is pulled on ong While its south pole is pulled on the other side. ; To plot the field lines, place the compass near one end of the magnet and a penciled dot made oq Paper to mark the position of the end of the needle, The compass is moved again so that its needle gg up with the previous dot made, and so on. By plotting different field lines, it is possible to build, pattern showing the ficld around the magnet as shown below. 7.2.3 MAGNETIC FLUX Magnetic field lines are sometimes called magnetic flux lines, Magnetic flux is a veetor quantiy kat has both magnitude and direction. The strength of the field is defined in terms of the flux density mais that the lines of force are close together 7.2.4 NEUTRAL POINTS. Between two like poles, where the field lines are bent away is a point where the magnetic field se is zero. This is called a neutral point denoted by X on the diagram below. 222 | ALLIN ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FORMODERN APPROACH O/L PHYSICS 5 THE FIELD AROUND p fea bar magnet is lett by itsetp, Monet s shown below, AR MAGNETS sBnetic Feld lines would run from the N-pole to the S-pole of the 12.6 MAGNETIC FIELD BE: yftwo magnets are placed near magnetic field as shown below ‘TWEEN MAGNENTS f cach other, their magnetic field lines combine to produce a single Magnetic Feta pattern sure Magnetic field patter ‘between like poles (N-N) ‘of two har magnets X ro) 7.2.1 THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD The earth itself possesses a magnetic field. No one knows the exact cause of this field. Whatever the cause, the earth behaves to some extend as if a huge bar magnet were buried through its center. Hence, a compass needle tries to align itself with the earth's magnetic field if there is no magnet around to affect it, 12.8 THE ANGLE OF DECLINATION AND THE ANGLE OF DIP > The angle between the true north and the compass needle direction (magnetic north) is called the angle of declination. : : ee | > The angle between the earth’s magnetic field at any point and the horizontal is called the angle of dip EVEL 223 | ALLIN ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FOR coe VERSIONMODERN APPROALH 07 Since the earth behaves like a magnet, it means that two magnetic field AE TNT eg roe eo a bar magnet, that due to the magnet itself and that due to the © th’s ad re magnetic field, and ay pattem of magnetic field for a magnet which is placed against the eo" for magnet placed with the earth’s magnetic field. Ton Magnan 0:8 Gree nen . north 88 Goagrante south KD + LAIN Key Magnet rourh On Grograetic south 7.2.10 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF A CURRENT Magnets are not the only source of magnetism, A wire carrying a magnetic field at right angle to the wire itself, signifying that 1 electricity and magnetism. 7.2.11 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT IN A STRAIGHT WIRE Ifa current ofa few amperes is passed through a wire, a weak magnetic field is produced. Increasing the current increases the strength of the field and if the current is around 20A, the field near the wire is strong enough to be detected by iron filings. The way the field pattem arrange themselves indicates that the field are circles, centered about the wire. The direction of the field around a straight conductor carrying a current can be determined using Maxwell’s screw rule. Which states that? Imagine a right-handed screw being turned so that it bores its way along the wir n electric current is surrounded by a there is a close connection between the same 7.2.12 FIELD DUE TO CURRENT IN A COIL Ina single circular coil, the magnetic field lines all enter the coil at one sid a meer" r le side. The direction of the field can be found from the corkscrew rule, and leave at the other 1 224 | ALLIN ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FOR O-LEVEL GCE VERSIONr 1 ee MODERN APPROACH O/L PHYSICS | ———___Noverwaperoscnoprmsics| FIELD DUE TO CURRENT IN 4 SOLENOID 10" id is a long coil made en le up man ; A aves its Own Magnetic field "pws Of wires. When a current flows through a solenoid, each al Mined for a bar magnet. One oy nbined effect of all the coil produces a pattern similar to solenoid now behaves like a north pole, while the other dl pos like a south pole. The right h u roht hand grip rule states that: Tule can be used to determine the polarity of the solenoid. (nefine your Fight hand gy I nentional current arrows, The com nd of the and grip a ping o Pvter Gan ip Such that your fingers point the same direction as the mb then points towards the N-pole i AN | . eas, f iy Increasing the current of a solenoid, increases the magnetic field > Increasing the Fae of tums of the solenoid increases the magnetic field [> Inserting a ferromagnetic material inside the coil increases the magnetic “ield strength 12.14 ELECTROMAGNETS AND PERMANENT MAGNETS. Magnets which do not lose their magnetism are called permanent magnets. |Meenetism can also be produced by winding a coil of insulated wire around an iron rod, and passing ar |dectric current through the coil, A magnet made in this way is called an electromagnet. As long as there ‘scurrent through the coil, the rod is a magnet. The rod is called the core of the magnet and the turns 0 ite are called the coil. When the current is turned off, the effect is lost. >» Acore made of pure iron loses all its electromagnetism when the current is turned off. Iron is said t magnetically soft. > Acore made of steel keeps its magnetism even when the current is turned off. This is often disadvantage. Hence the cores of commercial electromagnets are usually made of iron. Without the iron core, the electromagnet would be much weaker. This is because the core concentrat: te magnetic field in to a smaller volume of space. Electromagnets are made in a variety of shapes and concentrated magnetic field in the gap between its pieces. sizes. A u-shaped electromagnet produces a ve AGNETS 12.15 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROM RUS. TI .1 THE ELECTRIC BELL if i . E An electric bell contains an electromagnet that switches itself on and off rapidly, Moving the hamm. ‘does 50. When someone pushes the button, current flows and the armature is attracted to the ma armature which is moving causes the hammer to strike the bell. At some time, the circuit bi Pen and the arent cutoff, the armature returns to its normal position and so closes the circuit a ® repetition of the process rings the bell many times: EVEL GCE VERSIC R O-L. 225 | ALLIN ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FopeRWA ppROACH O/L PHYSICS { mol oft ron armature Sehr ama ag screw sowra\ ene vec 7 ¢ phragm is attracted by a pe P When the varying curren the diaphragm moves to and h 7.2.15,2 THE TELEPHONE EARPIECE The earpiece of a telephone conta magnet. The current varies according to the sound prod through the coil, the magnetic foree on the diaphragm also vi in step with the current, producing sound. ee ‘an electromagnet. The di jucing. it aries. Thus, 7.3 CURRENT IN A MAGNETIC FIELD pee We know that when a current is passed through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced. When g magnetic field, a force is produced. It is very important to nye current carrying conductor is placed that the conductor should be at right angle to the field. The direction of the force on the wire depends on the direction of current in the wire, and can be determined by Fleming's left-hand rule. Fleming’s left-hand rule state that Knowing the direction of current in a wire and the direction of the magnetic field, if the thumb and the first two fingers of the left hand are held at right angles to one another, the thumb gives the direction of the force if the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the second finger points in the direction of current. force F ‘magnetic field 8 < ‘curent letthand The rule is shown in the figure above In applying this rule, remember the following points 2, The direction of the field is from the N pole to the § pole ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FOR O-LEVEL a ‘GCE VERSION 226 | AbbPositive (4) terminal of the battery to the negative (-) I, i.e. conventional curre, 5 inal, ‘urrent directi a rule applies only where the md 4 Ment and Field directions are CurTent and field directions are at right angles. A force still acts ifthe Some other angle, but its directions more difficult to predict sriments show that, ia curr i FE , ita current sHiE Pon the eonductor depends on the mane jeestrength of the magnetic 7 Mace on the conductor + f the current: creasiy pe size 0 \ereasing the i incre 7 Torce on the 7 The length of the conductor: a nee in the conductor, increases the force on the Ce 7 cqnductor rease in the length of the conductor increases the fo 8 conductor is placed at right angles to a magnetic field, on the following Field: Increasing the strength of the magnet’s magnetic Field increases 3! FORCE BETWEEN CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS ‘0 sare erry ened Current and lying alongside cach other experience a force between them peouse eves CaTTY 2 Current which produces a magnetic field which can be determined by the screw “eine the direetion of the may netic field of one wit in another wire, the left hand argnbe used 0 determine he ‘one wire and the current in anot direction of the force on the second wire. Currentin opposite direction L 1 ea ae ‘Catapult eld produced 2 straight curetn caying conductors Curent nthesame dietion 732 THE ELECTRIC MOTOR A motor is a device into which energy is transferred by clectrical transmission while energy is iensferred out as work. A motor is essentially a generator working in reverse. ifacurrent is passed through a coil while itis in a magnetic field, a turning effect is produced. ‘he diagram below shows a single coil between the poles of the magnet. “Amici ups The motor contains a coil which is free to rotate between the poles of a permanent magnet. The coil is comected to the battery leads by two carbon contacts known as brushes. These are pushed against the tno halves of the copper split ring or commutator by two small springs. The commutator is fixed to the «oil and turns round with it. : see ‘The current through the left hand side of the coil flows in the opposite direction to the current through tie right hand side. From Fleming’s left hand rule, an upward force acts on one side of the coil, and a ‘ovnward force acts on the other end, And since the forces are equal and opposite, they form a couple “hose turning effect makes the coil to rotate in a clockwise direction. The turning effect on a coil is greatest when the coil lies with its face parallel to the magnetic field as shown below 227 | ALLIN ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FOR O-LEVEL GCE VERSIONi int 4. it entering at the point 4. int 2 and have no turning effect becayc. by In the coil, current is leaving out of the page at poit an When the face of the col [Link] eight angles tothe fied, the Forces ‘When the face of the co in the same line a am Nie = yd following should be done To increase the tuning effect of the coil, th Increase the current in the coil Increase the number of turns in the coil Increase the strength of the magnetic field Increase the area of the coil v > > 7.3.3 APPLICATIONS OF CURRENT IN A MAGNETIC FIELD Several devices make use of the fact that a force acts on a current carrying conductor when it isi magnetic field. These include the d.c electric motor, the moving coil ammeter and voltmeter and moving coil loudspeaker. [Link] THE MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER A galvanometer is any electrical instrument that can detect a small current. When a current is pas through the coil, the coil tums in the magnetic field and moves the pointer across the scale. The rotat of the coil is resisted by two spiral springs and the coil comes to rest when the couple turning i! ther the pointer moves along balanced by an opposite couple from the spring. The higher the current, the greater the deflection of the coil and the fu scale. 228 | ALLIN ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FOR O-LEVEL 228 | ALIN On S TEXTBOOK FOR OLE Se GCE VERSIONeee MODERN APPROACH O/L. PHYSICS 332 THE MOVING Con, Loy 12 udaneakensuns ge D SPEAKER st lou! OF the moving ¢, oe Me" cylindrical permanent Magnet a tPE Shown in the figure below. Ithas three main parts. 7 acoil which is free to move g on ae Produces a strong radial (‘spoke — like") magnetic fiel 7 still paper cone atta coi] Nees backwards and forward in the magnetic field 7 iched to the coit Paper cone. exible suspension central pole from amples ® fo the magnetic field, If a current is passed through the coil. a t, this follows fr rom Fleming's left hand rule, If an alternating Pushed alternately backwards and forwards. This makes the B8iven out as rockwards oF forward force acts eas curent is passed through the coil he a coil per cone vibrate, and sound w. aves are : ced depends o E i result. The nature of the sound produced . onthe Fsauency and amplitude ofthe altemating cae flowing through the coil. The current could be supplied by a signal generator. Altemmt ed by an poke gua ly, it could be supplied by an amplitier connected to, say, the ick — Ul ar. pick a 7.4 ELECTROMAGNTIC INDUCTION 14.1 FARADAY’S LAW. (INDUCED emt and CURRENT) When a wire is moved across a ma noved : tznctic field, a small emf is produced in the wire. This effect is called electromagnetic induction; an emf has been indus d that a magnet moving through a coil of wi the underlying principle of the electric gens ire causes an electric current to flow through the erator > When the north pole of the magnet is inserted into the coil of the wire, the needle of the > When the i ii ed to the right 7 ae > priser F ae stationary, the needle returns to its zero position 5 When the bar macnet ig moved out of the coil, the needle is deflected to the left : i When the bar magne t when the bar magnet is moved in or out of the coil, a current is produced in us it is noticed that i - is induced in the coil. H ype Z pict col ence an fie eae result can be obtained by moving the coil of wire over a stationary is important to note that, Magnet, . GCE VERSION 229 | ALL IN ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FOR O-LEVE!Galvanometer Induced emt The induced cmf is present only while the wire is moving, and culting abou manne Feld ln, There is no induced emf if the wire is held still, nor if it is moved parallel to . . The size of the induced current is increased by * Moving the coil or magnet faster > Increasing the strength of the magnet F » Increasing the number of tums of wire in the coil saer : : All the abe ral can be summed up to the faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction which Slates that nal to the rate at which The emf induced in a conductor is directly propor the conductor cuts through the magnetic field lines. A current can also be induced in a wire when the wire moves in a magnetic field. As shown in the diagram above, part of the wire AB is in a magnetic field. If AB moves so that iteug the magnetic field lines a current is indueed in the wire which is detected by the galvanometer A movement inside produces a current direction different from the current direction of a movemey > outside > No current is produced if the wire is stationary or moves parallel to the field. > The faster the movement of the wire, the greater the level of EMF which id produced. > The greater the length L of the wire, the greater the EMF > The stronger the magnetic field, the stronger the current produced. Alll the above points can be summed up to the equation below emf = BLVsin0 7.4.2 FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE (direction of Induced Current) Fleming's right hand rule can be used to determine the direction of the induced current produced by the motion of a conductor in a magnetic field. This rule is completely different from Fleming’s left hand rule, which is used to determine the direction of the force on a current carrying conductor. Ia straight wire is moving at right angles to a magnetic field, the direction of the induced current can be found using Fleming’s left hand rule Fleming’s right hand rule states that If the thumb and the first two fingers of the Fight hand are held at right angles o one another, the second finger gives the direction of the induced current ifthe frst Finger points to the same direction ag the eld ued the thumb points to the same direction as the motion of the conductor.Induced current irection is used, and that that the conventional current direction is used. @ Magnet to the $ pole, + Temember of the y The left hand rule is used : sed Ww] " > The right hand rute is use, hen a current causes m ‘used When motion causes curre a nt Z’S LAW sje ene of pulling a magnet in neral law for the di and out ofa coil has been described already. ge ion of the jj Ct + se Sun ane Me '¢ induced current was formulated in 1834 by Heinrich Lenz nt induced in a cond cae he cure & Conductor due to electri ie i ist direction as to Mose the change producin electromagnetic induction is in such a hens map cone oe Wiertemgerinds Monae Sorrtwreniee bans akenee atc er Sree tmnce ‘ened otiteidmcdeenet = Coneennion te ppt tanto mapeein imide the lop. ety @ ioe md x z= 3 5 8 4) In figure a, the motion of the magnet is opposed because the induced current tums the coil in to a weak electromagnet with its N-pole repelling the approaching N-pole the magnet. 4) In figure b, no current is produced beeause the magnet is held stationary ¢) In figure c, the motion of the magnet is opposed because the coil’s N-pole is now reversed; the S- pole attracts the N-pole of the permanent magnet making it difficult to withdraw the permanent magnet. NBs Fleming’s right-hand rule gives you the result of applying Lenz's law without you having to work rough every stage. The direction of the induced current can be worked out usi Fleming’s right hand grip rule. 144 MUTUAL INDUCTION lisn’t necessary to move a coil or a magnet in order to induce an emf in a coil. Changing the current through another coil can have exactly the same effect. 1 ‘method commonly used to produce an emf is to use two coils placed side by side so that the magnetic feld produced by one of the coils passes through the other. Inthe figure below, two coils are placed side by side en a current flows through the first coil, a magnetic field exist around it. If this field changes, (by Puling the switch on and oft) an emf is induced in the second coil, This effect is called mutual "duction, A change in the field in onc coil induces a field in the other coil. a IN ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FOR O-LEVEL GCE VERSIONmovERN APPROACH O/L PHYSICS yy way to produce a changin : anges. An as Mutual induction only occurs when the current in the coil chan’ 7 current is to use an a.c current. cot overenet 7 ISFORMER 7.45... MUTUAL INDUCTION: THE TRANSFORMED, nso I 58 muta A ory practical example ofa device which uses mutual induction te ane primary induction to change voltage. A transformer consists of {WO secondary coils) : ‘The coil connected to the a.c input is called the primary coil w! called the secondary coil : imary coil The iron core makes sure that all the flux generated in the primary tums of the secondary coil, providing a low resistance path to flux. hile the coil that provides the a.¢ output jg is made to pass through all the ‘Transformer ‘symbol If the current through the primary coil is switched on and off repeatedly, induced current flows alternatively backwards and forwards through the secondary coil. Much the same effect can be can be produced by simply using an alternating current (a.c.) through the primary coil. As the current flow back and forth through the primary coil, it sets up an alternating magnetic field in the core. This induces an alternating emf and current of the same frequency in the secondary coil. The primary and secondary coils and the core together form a transformer. When a transformer is connected to an a.c. supply, electrical energy is continuously transferred from the primary to the secondary circuit. NB: A transformer only operates on a.c. Ia de voltage is conneeted to the primary it will nat produce any change in the magnetic field. Hence, no current will be induced in the secondary coil, 7.4.6 STEP-DOWN and STEP-UP TRANSFORMERS By choosing suitable numbers of tums for the coils of a transformer, it is possible to’ make the alternating emf in the secondary coil different from the voltage across the Primary. In other words, 2 transformer can be used to change or transform an a.c. voltage from one vali to another. A simple equation Tinks the a.c. voltage across the primary and secondary ee ‘i tums on each is given below ndary coils and the number of ALL IN ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FO} 232 eee “ace VERSIONMODERN APPROACH O/L. PHYSICS Verimany PRIMARY v, Nenimany SECONDARY N, SECONDARY fe e eit iT ee Is i ea in the primary coil Ht 1 the voltage in the secondary eo 04 Is number Of Wums in the primey eo oI the number of tums inthe secondary oil speaking, the equation applies only whens : penRREEE lines Ne by the primary coil through is en a coils have negligible resistances and oe cous ce on for Ost practical pores SEEONUALY coil, However, the equation #5 2 st practical purposes. jeare wo main kinds of transformers; the step up transformer and the step down transformer. step up transformer has secondary turns i ite ta sep up transform y turns more than primary turns and causes the voltag geconaty greater than that in the Primary turns. aster down transformer has primary turns more than secondary turns and causes the voltage in she secondary turns to be smaller than that Inthe primary turns Fae eee, CURRENTS IN A TRANSFORMER . gro energy IS waste a transformer, all the power (energ: second) supplied to the primary coil me delivered to the secondary coil. bitte iat 2 cetera jhough the output voltage may be bigger than the input voltage or vice versa, the power output can er be greater than the power input because of energy losses. “nergy losses are neglected, then Power output = power input but Power = current x voltage = primary voltage x primary current = secondary voltage x secondary current Vplp = Vel: pip = Vsls Where {isthe primary current {isthe secondary current isthe primary voltage isthe secondary voltage : : / iheefficiency of a transformer can be calculated using the ratio of the output power to the input power ower output Efficiency = e — P= x 100% . power input Efficiency = ie x 100% \\1 EDDY CURRENTS oo : - We have seen, an emf and current is induced in a circuit by a changing magnetic flux. In the same fan I : ed eddy currents arc induced in bulk pieces of metal moving through a fects rating oe om San be demonstrated by allowing a flat copper or aluminum plate ted) i end of a rigid bar to swing back and forth through a magnetic field. As the plates enter field, the changing magnetic flux induces an emf in the plate, which in tum causes the free electrons ‘he plate to aa prodkicing the swirling eddy currents. According to Len2’s law, the direction of the 'Y currents is auch that they create magnetic ficlds that oppose the change causing the current. For this N, the eddy currents must produce effective magnetic poles on the plates, which are repelled by the Hes of the aig mat this situation gives Tise 10 @ repulsive force that opposes the motion of the plate. (Ii EVEL GCE 233 | ALLIN ONE PHYSICS TEXTBOOK FOR O-U KeonemopERN APPROACH O/L PHYSICS increase after y would i each Wi its eneré the opposite were true, the plate would accelerate and its © He a transformer, tiny circulating violation of the law of conservation of energy) it of i When an alternating current passes through the Primary 1" energy is lost because of hey called eddy currents are induced in the iron core. Part of being dissipated by these eddy currents. : Heat is also produced in the primary coil because it input energy. Transformer cores often have lamination to reduce & Majority of transformers have an energy efficiency oF asa resistance. This Heat results in the fos 55 .ddy currents. f about 90% 7.4.8 FACTORS THAT CAUSE ENERGY LOSS IN A TRANSFORMER 1. THE RESISTANCE OF THE COILS: As the coils have resistance, they give of heat When a curey flows through them. Coil resistance is kept as low as possible by making the coils from thick copp., wire 2. MAGNETIZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION OF THE CORE: Work has to be done to alter sizes and directions of domains and heat is released in the process. These energy losses are reduced jy making the core from soft magnetic material such as iron which magnetizes and demagnetizes casi 3. EDDY CURRENTS IN THE CORE: These occur because the core is itself a conductor in a changiy magnetic field. They are reduced by making the core from thin shects of soft iron which ay insulated from each other so that their totaf resistance is high. A core made in this way is said tole laminated (layered) 7.4.9 POWER GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION FOR THE MAINS Electric power is transmitted by power lines from power stations to factories and homes. Altemating current is easily stepped up or down and transformers are inexpensive and reliable so powe transmission is almost always done using a.c. Because of the distance the current has to travel, the resistance of a power line cannot be neglected When a current passes through the power line, power is lost because of the heating effect of the current From P = /?R, the power lost is proportional to the square of the current. For the same amount of power delivered by a power line, the current is smaller with a higher voltage. Se for this reason, a high vollage is used in power lines to reduce power loss. It is common to transi power at 500K V or more. However, the high voltagc in a power line is extremely dangerous. Hence for safety purposes, cletii) ig power transmission, there is the need !0 received by consumers should be at a lower voltage. So durin; lormers can be used. vary voltages hence power is transmitted by a.c. so that transfc Practically, electricity is generated by a.c. generators at power stations at high v - “ : a ‘oltages of belw 11KV and 33KV. It is then stepped up to a higher voltage by transformers, and then transmited byt grid (a network of power lines) to various cities and towns, : The power lines consist of cables supported by tower-like pylons. Subs is steppe! . A ati ty a quent is stef down in successive stages. Electricity is often delivered to consumers 7 240V, Coo ie came This voltage is much safer but still dangerous to deal with, HYSICS TEXTBOOK Ft 234 | ALLINONEPI OR O-LEVEL Coe VERSIONr ee ae ee MODERN APPROACH O/L PHYSICS yt a nie peal oF eehitionwide supply network ealled the Grid. Using Grids, power asi aterm Grids is distrib PONT IS low can be used to supply any area where the demand is Poet rane in stages to ota a BY & Series of substations, Transformers in these substations i ie vl ie SEES 10 240V for home consumers, though industry usually takes its power at a per volinee: oADVANTAGES OF HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION dvantage of transmitting power throu: ecalculation below: aiestation ae Kenergy Le second) is calculated by multiplying voltage by current. If 2000W of js to be tran: hrough a cable of resistanc m tag OW of iat 200V, ora current of 1A at2000V, 20, it could be carried for example by a cur zpower dissipated as heat in the cables can be calculated in each case using the equation P=PR igh a cable at the highest possible voltage can be demonstrated the first case, power dissipated is . P= (10? x 2)W = 200w ispower is 10% of the power of the power fed into the cable. thesecond case, power dissipated is P=(1?x2)=2W jsis only 0.1% of the power fed into the cable. ecalculations show that transmitting power at an increased voltage gives a greatly reduced power loss. the cable. Il ADVANTAGE OF a.c over d.c FOR POWER TRANSMISSION vrather than d.c, is normally used for long distance power transmission because transformers make it sible to step up or step down a voltage with very litle loss of power. d.c voltages can be changed, but ‘process is relatively difficult and expensive if high powers are involved. Transformers of course will twork with dc SUMMARY iron, steel, cobalt, nickel and some alloys are strongly magnetic. These materials are called ferromagnetic materials ; Some metal oxides, especially magnetite are also magnetic. They are called ferrites Permanent magnets are made from magnetically hard materials. Other magnets are made from Magnetically soft materials : : ; An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire (solenoid) around an iron core Magnets have north-secking and south-seeking poles Poles can exist at the ends of a magnet or in its center The law of magnetism is that like poles repel, unlike poles attract. ¢ magnetic field around a magnet is referred to as magnetic flux Current carrying conductor has an associated magnetic field he direction of the field lines around a current-carrying conductor can be found using the Kscrew rule aoe : lagnetic field lines around a magnet show the direction of the magnetic field at any point 235 [ ALIN ONE PIIVSiCS TEXTBOOK FOR O-LEVEL cE VERSION .