Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

The study of various processes required to produce parts and to assemble them into machines
and mechanisms is known as manufacturing engineering or production engineering.
Classifications of Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing processes can be broadly classified into two groups, i.e.
 Primary manufacturing processes and
 Secondary manufacturing processes.
The primary manufacturing processes provide basic shape and size to the material as per
designer’s requirement. Casting, forming, powder metallurgy are examples of such processes.
Secondary manufacturing processes provide the final shape and size with tighter control on
dimension, surface characteristics etc. Material removal processes are mainly the secondary
manufacturing processes.
Material removal processes once again can be classified into two groups, i.e.
 Conventional Machining Processes and
 Non-Traditional Machining Processes.
Examples of conventional machining processes are turning, boring, milling, shaping, broaching,
slotting, grinding etc. Similarly, Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic Machining (USM),
Water Jet Machining (WJM) and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM), Electro-discharge
Machining (EDM) are some of the Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes.
Some examples of common conventional machining Process performed in lathe are illustrated in
figure-1.1
 Figure-1.1 Common conventional machining Process performed in lathe
Machine Tool
A machine tool is a power driven machine for making parts and components of given shape, size
and accuracy by removing metal from work piece in the form of chips.
Most machine tool performs the following jobs:
a. Holds the job
b. Holds the cutting tool
c. Move one or both of these
d. Provide feeding motion to one of these
Classification of Machine Tools
 1. General purpose or Universal machine tool: Perform a great verity of machining
operations on a wide range of work piece. Eg- Plane turning lathe, turret lathe, milling
machine, grinding machine, drilling machine etc.
2. Single purpose machine tool: Perform a single definite machining operation. Eg-
Broaching, thread cutting, gear shaping, hobbing machines etc.
3. Limited purpose machine tool: Perform narrow range of machining operations. Eg-
Automatic cutting off machines.
4. Production machine tools: Used in batch and mass production. Eg- Multi tool lathes,
planer type milling machines, rolling machines, NC machine tools etc.
5. Specialized machine tools: Used for machining articles similar in shape but different in
size. Allow machining of several surfaces in different planes. Used in large lot
production.
Manufacturing Cycle

Fig-1.2 Manufacturing Cycle

Chapter-2 BASIC SHAPE OF CUTTING TOOLS

1.1 The Wedge
Conventional Machining Processes remove material in the form of chips by applying forces on
the work material with a wedge shaped cutting tool that is harder than the work material under
machining condition. Such forces induce plastic deformation within the work piece leading to
shear deformation along the shear plane. Major characteristics of conventional machining are:
• Macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation
• Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces
 • Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature as well as under machining
conditions.
Figure-2 shows chip formation by shear deformation in conventional machining.

Figure-1.3 Shear deformation in conventional machining leading to chip formation.

When wedge of angle ‘β’ enters into a work material a normal reaction ‘N’ acts on both sides of
the wedge surface. Figure-1.4 shows penetration of the wedge into work material and figure-1.5
shows resolution of normal reaction along the axis of wedge.

Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5

Let P = Applied force, β = Wedge angle, N = Normal reaction of work material on wedge
surfaces.
Now resolving the forces along axis of wedge,
N Cos (90-β/2) + N Cos (90-β/2) = P
2N Sin β/2 = P
N/P = 1/2 Sin β/2 --------------- (1)
N/P is known as mechanical advantage, which depends upon the wedge angle.
If the wedge axis coincides with work axis, the work will simply parted up. So for chipping
operation the inclination angle should be provided between the wedge axis and work axis.
 Fig. 1.6 Fig. 1.7
In figure-1.6 wedge axis coincides with work axis, where as in figure-1.7 wedge axis is inclined
by an angle γ with work axis.
With reference to figure-1.7 let α = Clearance angle, β = Wedge angle, γ = Rake angle, δ =
Cutting angle. Now from geometry of the figure-1.7,
α+β+γ = 900 ------------- (2)
Also δ+γ = 900
γ = 900-δ -------------- (3)
If δ < 900, γ is positive and the tool is known as positive Rake tool. If δ > 900, γ is negative and
the tool is known as negative Rake tool.
1.2 Classifications of Cutting Tools
Cutting tools may be classified according to the number of major cutting edges (points) involved
as follows:
• Single point: e.g. turning, shaping, planning and slotting and boring tools
• Double (two) point: e.g. drills
• Multipoint (more than two): e.g. milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping
cutters etc.

1.3 Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool

- Geometry of single point cutting tool is concerned with basic tool angles, i.e. the angles
ground on the tool to make it efficient for cutting.
- Shape of the cutting tool affects tool life, surface finish of machined part, cutting force
etc.
- Single point cutting tools are available in two forms, i.e. solid tool (figure-7) and tipped
tool (figure-8). The tipped tools are either brazed or held mechanically with an alloyed
steel shank (tool holder).
Basic shape of a single point cutting tool is shown in figure-7.
Figure-7 Schematic of a right handed cutting tool for Turning Figure-8 Cutting insert with tool
holder
Different parts of a single point cutting tool are described below.
(a) Face or Rake Surface: It is the surface of the cutting tool along which chips flow out.
(b) Flank Surface: These are the surfaces facing towards the work piece.
(i) Principal Flank Surface: It is the surface bellow principal cutting edge.
(ii) Auxiliary Flank Surface: It is the surface bellow auxiliary cutting edge.
(c) Principal cutting edge: It performs major cutting action and it is formed by intersection
of Rake surface and principal flank surface.
(d) Auxiliary cutting edge: It is formed by intersection of Rake surface and auxiliary flank
surface.
(e) Nose: It is the arc which joins principal cutting edge and auxiliary cutting edge.
(f) Point: It is the part of the cutting tool which includes face, cutting edges and flank
surfaces.
Different angles of a single point cutting tool are described below.
(a) Rake angle
(i) Back Rake angle
(ii) Side Rake angle
(b) Clearance angle
(i) End Clearance angle
(ii) Side Clearance angle
(c) Cutting edge angle
(i) End Cutting edge angle
(ii) Side Cutting edge angle
(d) Lip angle
(e) Nose radius
Engagement of cutting tool with work during turning is shown in figure-9.
 Figure-9 Engagement of cutting tool with work during turning
Description of Tool Angles:
Rake angle (γ):
- It is the angle between rake surface and reference plane (ΠR). The plane perpendicular to
cutting velocity vector axis is known as principal plane or reference plane (ΠR).
- If the Rake angle is measured in the direction of tool shank it is known as Back Rake
angle, however if it is measured in a direction perpendicular to tool shank it is known as
Side Rake angle.
Figure-10 shows Rake and clearance angles of a single point cutting tool

Figure-10 Rake and clearance angles of a single point cutting tool

- Rake angle is the only angle on which strength of the tool depends.
- Purpose of providing Rake angle is to
 Control chip formation
 Allow chips to flow plastically over the Rake surface.
- Force on the tool reduces on increasing Rake angle, but the tool is weakened. So there
must be a compromise between the two factors while assigning Rake angle to a tool.
- Rake angle may be positive, or negative or even zero as shown in figure-11.
 Figure-11 Three possible types of Rake Angles
Relative advantages of such rake angles are:
Positive rake: It helps to reduce cutting force and thus cutting power requirement. It is provided
during machining of steel, cast iron, aluminiun and monel metals.
Negative rake: It increases edge-strength and tool life. It provides better surface finish and
decreases the temperature rise of tool-chip interface. It is provided during machining of tougher
materials like copper.
Zero rake: It simplifies design and manufacture of the tools. It is provided during machining of
brass.
Table-1 shows Rake angles during machining of some commonly used materials.
Sl. No. Materials Back Rake angle Side Rake angle
1 Hard steel 5 9
2 Medium and soft steels 8 14-20
3 Cast Iron 10 12
4 Aluminium 14 14
5 Monel metal 6-8 15-18
6 Brass 0 0

Clearance angle (α)

- It is the angle between flank surface and machined surface.
- Slope bellow the nose with a line tangent to the machined surface is known as end
clearance angle, while the slope made by principal flank surface with perpendicular to
principal cutting edge is known as side clearance angle. Clearance angle is always
positive.
- End clearance angle
 Prevents rubbing action of auxiliary flank with machined surface.
 Range is 3o-100. Too small end clearance angle will cause rubbing of auxiliary
flank with machined surface, while too large angle will weaken the tool.
- Side clearance angle promotes the side cutting edge to penetrate into the work, thus
allowing free cutting action.
Cutting edge angle (Φ)
- It is the angle between tool face and a line tangent to the machined surface.
 - The slope made by nose with auxiliary cutting edge is known as end cutting edge angle,
where as the slope made by principal cutting edge with tool shank is known as side
cutting edge angle.
- End cutting edge angle
 Prevents rubbing action of auxiliary cutting edge with machined surface.
 Range is 7o-300. Excessive end cutting edge angle will weaken the tool.
- Side cutting edge angle
 Influences the direction of chip flow. Range is 0-300. Increase of SCEA will
increase tool life, however more than 300 will cause tool chatter.
 For rough turning it is 150, while for general machining it is 200.
Lip angle
- It is the angle between the tool face and the ground end surface of the flank.
- It ranges between 600- 800.
Nose Radius (r)
- It is the radius of the arc formed by joining principal cutting edge and auxiliary cutting
edge.
- It improves tool life, surface finish and reduces cutting force. However large nose radius
results in chatter.
1.3 Systems of description of tool geometry
1. Tool-in-Hand System
2. Machine Reference System – ASA system
3. Tool Reference Systems
(i) Orthogonal Rake System – ORS
(ii) Normal Rake System – NRS
4. Work Reference System – WRS

1.3.1 Tool-in-Hand System

In this case only the salient features of the cutting tool point are visualized as shown in Figure-7
& Figure-12. There is no quantitative information related to Tool-in-Hand system.

Figure-12 Basic features of single point tool (turning) in Tool-in-hand system

1.3.2 Tool Geometry in Machine Reference System – ASA system
- This system is also called ASA system. ASA stands for American Standards Association.
- Basically geometry of a cutting tool refers to its several angles or slopes of its working
surfaces and cutting edges. Those angles are expressed with respect to some planes of
reference.
- In Machine Reference System (ASA), three planes of reference and three coordinates
have been chosen based on the configuration and axes of the machine tool concerned.
The planes and axes used for expressing tool geometry in ASA system for turning
operation are shown in Figure-13.

Figure-13 Planes and axes of reference in ASA system

- The planes of reference are ΠR, ΠX and ΠY, and the coordinates used in ASA system for
tool geometry are Xm, Ym and Zm, where,
The axes Xm, Ym and Zm are in the direction of longitudinal feed, cross feed and
cutting velocity vector respectively.
ΠR = Reference plane or principal plane, i.e. the plane perpendicular to the cutting
velocity vector.
ΠX = Machine longitudinal plane, i.e. the plane perpendicular to ΠR and taken in
the direction of longitudinal feed.
ΠY = Machine Transverse plane, i.e. the plane perpendicular to both ΠR and ΠX
and taken in the direction of cross feed.
- The geometrical features and angles of single point tools in ASA systems and their
definitions are illustrated in Figure-14.
 Figure-14 Tool angles in ASA system
Tool Signature in ASA: γy, γx, αy, αx, φe, φs, r (inch)

Definition of angles in ASA system

 Rake angles
γX = Side rake: angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane (ΠR) and
measured on machine longitudinal plane, ΠX.
γY = Back rake: angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane (ΠR) and
measured on machine transverse plane, ΠY.
 Clearance angles
αx = Side clearance: angle of inclination of the principal flank from the machined surface and
measured on ΠX plane.
αy = End clearance: same as αx but measured on ΠY plane.
 Cutting angles
φs = Side cutting edge or approach angle: angle between the principal cutting edge (its projection
on ΠR) and ΠY and measured on ΠR
φe = End cutting edge angle: angle between the end cutting edge (it projection on ΠR) from ΠX
and measured on ΠR
 Nose radius, r (in inch)
r = Nose radius: curvature of the tool tip. It provides strengthening of the tool nose and better
surface finish.
1.3.3 Tool Reference Systems
( i ) Orthogonal Rake System – ORS
- This system is also known as ISO (old)
The planes of reference and the co-ordinate axes used for expressing the tool angles in ORS are:
ΠR-ΠC-ΠO and Xo - Yo – Zo ,where
ΠR= Reference plane; plane perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector, Vc
ΠC= Cutting plane; plane perpendicular to ΠR and taken along the principal cutting edge
ΠO= Orthogonal plane; plane perpendicular to both ΠR and ΠC
Xo = Longitudinal feed axis; axis along the line of intersection of ΠR and ΠO
Yo = Cross feed axis; axis along the line of intersection of ΠR and ΠC
Zo = Cutting velocity vector axis; axis along the velocity vector, i.e., normal to both Xo and Yo
axes.
These are taken in respect of the tool configuration as indicated in Figure-15.

Figure-15 Planes and axes of reference in ORS

The geometrical angles used to express tool geometry in Orthogonal Rake System (ORS) and
their definitions are shown in Figure-16.
 Figure-16 Tool angles in ORS

Figure-17 Auxiliary orthogonal clearance angle

Tool Signature in ORS: λ, γo, αo, αo’, φ1, φ, r (mm)
Definition of angles in ORS
 Inclination angle
λ = Inclination angle; angle between ΠR from the direction of assumed longitudinal feed [ΠX]
and measured on ΠC
-The angle between the cutting edge and the normal to the direction of cutting velocity vector
is known as inclination angle (λ).
• Rake angle
γo = Orthogonal rake: angle of inclination of the rake surface from Reference plane, ΠR and
measured on the orthogonal plane, ΠO
• Clearance angles
αo = Orthogonal clearance of the principal flank: angle of inclination of the principal flank from
ΠC and measured on ΠO
αo’ = Auxiliary orthogonal clearance: angle of inclination of the auxiliary flank from auxiliary
cutting plane, ΠC’ and measured on auxiliary orthogonal plane, ΠO’
• Cutting angles
φ = Principal cutting edge angle: angle between ΠC and the direction of assumed longitudinal
feed or ΠX and measured on ΠR
φ1 = auxiliary cutting angle: angle between ΠC’ and ΠX and measured on ΠR
• Nose radius, r (mm)
r = radius of curvature of tool tip

( i i ) Normal Rake System – NRS

This system is also known as ISO (new).
-ORS is advantageously used for analysis and research in machining and tool
performance. But it does not reveal the true picture of the tool geometry when the cutting edges
are inclined from the reference plane, i.e., λ≠0.
-Besides, sharpening or resharpening, if necessary, of the tool by grinding in ORS
requires some additional calculations for correction of angles.
-The above two limitations of ORS are overcome by using NRS for description and use
of tool geometry.
-The basic difference between ORS and NRS is the fact that in ORS, rake and clearance
angles are visualized in the orthogonal plane, πo, whereas in NRS those angles are visualized in
another plane called Normal plane, πN.
-The orthogonal plane, πo is simply normal to π R and πC irrespective of the inclination of
the cutting edges, i.e. λ, but πN (and πN’ for auxiliary cutting edge) is always normal to the cutting
edge. The differences between ORS and NRS have been depicted in Fig-19.
-The planes of reference and the coordinates used in NRS are: πRN - πC - πN and Xn– Y n –
Z n, where, πRN = Normal Reference Plane, πC = Cutting Plane, πN = Normal Plane, i.e. the plane
normal to the cutting edge and X n = Axis along longitudinal feed ( X o), Yn = Axis along
principal cutting edge and Zn = Axis representing cutting velocity vector, which is normal to
both Xn and Yn.
 -It is to be noted that when λ = 0, NRS and ORS become same, i.e. πo ≅ πN, YN ≅ Yo

and Zn ≅ Zo.

Fig. 19 (a) Axes of reference & Panes of reference in NRS

Figure-19 (b) Differences of NRS from ORS w.r.t. cutting tool geometry.
 Figure-19 (c) Tool angles in NRS

Tool Signature in NRS: λ, γn, αn, αn’, φ1, φ, r (mm)

Definition of tool angles in NRS:

 Inclination angle
λ = Inclination angle; angle between ΠR from the direction of assumed longitudinal feed [ΠX]
and measured on ΠC
-The angle between the cutting edge and the normal to the direction of cutting velocity vector
is known as inclination angle (λ).
 Rake angle
γn = normal rake: angle of inclination angle of the rake surface from ΠR and measured on normal
plane, πN
 Clearance angles
αn = normal clearance: angle of inclination of the principal flank from πC and measured on πN
αn’= auxiliary normal clearance angle: normal clearance of the auxiliary flank (measured on πN’
– plane normal to the auxiliary cutting edge.

 Cutting angles
φ = Principal cutting edge angle: angle between ΠC and the direction of assumed longitudinal
feed or ΠX and measured on ΠR
φ1 = auxiliary cutting angle: angle between ΠC’ and ΠX and measured on ΠR
 Nose radius, r (mm)
r = radius of curvature of tool tip

1.4 Designation (signature) of tool geometry

The geometry of a single point tool is designated by a series of values of the salient angles and
nose radius arranged in a definite sequence as follows:
• ASA System –
γy, γx, αy, αx, φe, φs, r (inch)
• ORS –
λ, γo, αo, αo’, φ1, φ, r (mm)
• NRS –
λ, γn, αn, αn’, φ1, φ, r (mm)

1.5 Conversion of tool angles

1.5.1 Purposes of conversion of tool angles from one system to another

 To understand the actual tool geometry in any system of choice or convenience from the
geometry of a tool expressed in any other systems
 To derive the benefits of the various systems of tool designation as and when required
 Communication of the same tool geometry between people following different tool
designation systems.

1.5.2 Methods of conversion of tool angles from one system to another

 Analytical (geometrical) method: simple but tedious

 Graphical method – Master line principle: simple, quick and popular
 Transformation matrix method: suitable for complex tool geometry
 Vector method: very easy and quick but needs concept of vectors

1.5.3 Conversion of tool angles by Graphical method – Master Line principle

A. Conversions of angles from ASA to ORS

B. Conversion of angles from ORS to ASA:

C. Conversion of tool angles from ORS to NRS and vice-versa

D. Tool angles’ relations in some critical conditions

From the equations correlating the cutting tool angles, the following critical observations are
made:

• When φ = 90o; γx = γo for πX = πo

• When λ = 0 ; γn = γ o
αn = α o
• When λ=0 and φ = 900 (pure orthogonal cutting); γn=γo=γx πN=πo=πX
and

Twist Drills

Definition:
Drill can be defined as a rotary end cutting tool having one or more cutting lips, and having one
or more helical or straight flutes for the passage of chips and the admission of a cutting fluid.

Nomenclature and geometry of Twist Drills

Tongue: The flattened end of a taper shank, intended to fit into a driving slot in a socket.
Shank: The part of the drill by which it is held and driven.
Tool axis: The imaginary straight line which forms the longitudinal center line of the drill.
Body: The portion of the drill extending from the shank or neck to the outer corners of the
cutting lips.
Body Diameter Clearance: That portion of the land that has been cut away so it will not rub
against the walls of the hole.
Flutes: Helical or straight grooves cut or formed in the body of the drill to provide cutting lips,
to permit removal of chips, and to allow cutting fluid to reach the cutting lips.
Flute Length: The length from the outer corners of the cutting lips to the extreme back end of
the flutes.
Back Taper: A slight decrease in diameter from front to back in the body of the drill
Chisel Edge: The edge at the end of the web that connects the cutting lips
Clearance: The space provided to eliminate undesirable contact between the drill and the
workpiece.
Land: The peripheral portion of the body between adjacent flutes.
Land Width: The distance between the leading edge and the heel of the land measured at a right
angle to the leading edge.
Heel: The trailing edge of the land.
Lead: The axial advance of a leading edge of the land in one turn around the circumference
Lips: The cutting edges of a two flute drill extending from the chisel edge to the periphery
Lip Relief: The axial relief on the drill point
Margin: The cylindrical portion of the land which is not cut away to provide clearance.
Neck: The section of reduced diameter between the body and the shank of a drill.
Overall Length: The length from the extreme end of the shank to the outer corners of the cutting
lips; it does not include the conical shank end often used on straight shank drills, nor does it
include the conical cutting point used on both straight and taper shank drills
Pilot: A cylindrical portion of the drill body preceding the cutting lips; it may be solid, grooved,
or fluted
Point: The cutting end of a drill, made up of the ends of the lands and the web; in form it it
resembles a cone, but departs from a true cone to furnish clearance behind the cutting lips
Web: The central portion of the body that joins the lands; the extreme end of the web forms the
chisel edge on a two-flute drill
Web Thickness: The thickness of the web at the point, unless another specific location is
indicated

Angles of Twist Drill:

Point Angle: The angle included between the cutting lips projected upon a plane parallel to the
drill axis and parallel to the two cutting lips.
Peripheral Rake Angle: The angle between the leading edge of the land and an axial plane at
the drill point.
Lip Relief Angle: The axial relief angle at the outer corner of the lip; it is measured by
projection into a plane tangent to the periphery at the outer corner of the lip
Helix Angle: The angle made by the leading edge of the land with a plane containing the axis of
the drill.
Chisel Edge Angle: The angle included between the chisel edge and the cutting lip, as viewed
from the end of the drill

Milling Cutters
Definition: Milling cutters are multi point cutting tools used in milling machines for a wide
range of machining operations.
Types of Milling Cutters
(1) plain milling cutters of various widths and diameters, used principally for milling flat
surfaces which are parallel to the axis to the cutter.
(2) angular milling cutters designed for milling V-grooves and the grooves in reamers, taps, and
milling cutters.
(3) face milling cutters, used for milling flat surfaces at right angles to the axis of the cutter; and
(4) forming cutters, used for the production of surfaces with some form of irregular outline.
(5) End milling cutters

Fig- Various operations performed in end milling cutters

Milling Cutter Nomenclature
Figure shows two views of a common milling cutter with its parts and angles identified.
These parts and angles are common to all types of cutters in some form.
(1) Pitch: The pitch refers to the angular distance between like parts on the adjacent teeth. The
pitch is determined by the number of teeth.
(2) Face of Tooth: The tooth face is the forward facing surface of the tooth which forms the
cutting edge.
(3) Cutting Edge: The cutting edge is the angle on each tooth which performs the cutting.
(4) Land: The land is the narrow surface behind the cutting edge of each tooth.
(5) Rake Angle: The rake angle is the angle formed between the face of the tooth and the
centerline of the cutter. The rake angle defines the cutting edge and provides a path for chips that
are cut from the workpiece.
(6) Primary Clearance Angle: The primary clearance angle is the angle of the land of each
tooth, measured from a line tangent to the centerline of the cutter at the cutting edge. This
angle prevents each tooth from rubbing against the workpiece after it makes its cut.
(7) Secondary Clearance Angle: The secondary clearance angle defines the land of each tooth
and provides additional clearance for the passage of cutting oil and the chips.

Chapter-3 ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE CUTTING

There are two basic methods of metal cutting with a single point cutting tool: (i) Orthogonal
cutting (or two dimensional cutting) and (ii) Oblique cutting (or three dimensional cutting).

Orthogonal cutting:
It takes place when the cutting edge of the tool remains at right angles to the direction of cutting
velocity or work feed.

Oblique cutting:
It takes place when the cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an angle less than 900 with the
direction of tool feed or work feed, the chip being disposed off at a certain angle.

Fig-1 Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (Ref. Introduction to Manufacturing Processes

Second Edition By J.P. Kaushish)
In machining with same feed and depth of cut by the above two methods, the cutting force that
shears the metal acts on a larger area in case of oblique cutting. It results in smaller heat
developed per unit area due to friction along work-tool interface and consequently longer tool
life.
Orthogonal and Oblique cutting:
The cutting condition in which the chip will flow in orthogonal plane, irrespective of any other
geometry is known as orthogonal cutting. If the chip flow direction deviates from orthogonal
plane by certain angle, then the cutting condition is known as oblique cutting.
It is appears from the diagram in Fig-2 that while turning ductile material by a sharp tool, the
continuous chip would flow over the tool’s rake surface and in the direction apparently
perpendicular to the principal cutting edge, i.e., along orthogonal plane which is normal to the
cutting plane containing the principal cutting edge. But practically, the chip may not flow along
the orthogonal plane for several factors.
 Fig-2 Ideal direction of chip flow in turning
The angle between the cutting edge and the normal to the direction of cutting velocity vector is
known as inclination angle (λ).
The angle measured in the plane of cutting face between the chip flow direction and the normal
to the cutting edge (πo) is known as chip flow angle (c).
The role of inclination angle, λ on the direction of chip flow is schematically shown in Fig-3
which visualizes that,
• when λ =0, the chip flows along orthogonal plane, i.e, c = 0 (orthogonal cutting)

• when λ ≠0, the chip flow is deviated from π o and c = λ where c is chip flow deviation
(from πo) angle (oblique cutting)

Fig-3 Role of inclination angle, λ on chip flow direction

So in orthogonal cutting chip flows along orthogonal plane, πo, i.e., ρc = 0 and in oblique cutting
chip flow deviates from orthogonal plane, i.e. ρc≠0.
But practically ρc may be zero even if λ ≠ 0 and ρc may not be exactly equal to λ even if λ≠0.
Because there are also some other factors (other than λ) which may cause chip flow deviation.

Pure orthogonal cutting: This refers to chip flow along orthogonal plane πo and principal
cutting edge angle (φ) =90o as typically shown in Fig-4 where a pipe like job of uniform
thickness is turned (reduced in length) in a center lathe by a turning tool of geometry; λ=0 and
φ=90o resulting chip flow along πo which is also πx in this case.

Fig. 4 Pure orthogonal cutting (pipe turning)

Difference between Orthogonal Cutting and Oblique Cutting

Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at
the direction of tool feed or work feed. an acute angle to the direction of tool feed or
work feed.
The direction of the chip flow velocity is along The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an
the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. angle with the normal to the cutting edge of the
tool. The angle is known as chip flow angle.
It involves only two components of forces, i.e. It involves three components of forces, i.e.
cutting force and thrust force. So the metal cutting force, thrust force or feed force and
cutting may be considered as a two radial force. So the metal cutting may be
dimensional cutting. considered as a three dimensional cutting.
Decreased tool life. The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force
acts on a larger area and thus tool life is
increased.
The cutting edge is longer than width of cut. The cutting edge may or may not be longer
than width of cut.
Examples-Parting off, facing, knife turning, Examples- Bulk metal machining operations
broaching, slotting etc. such as simple and tapered turning, milling etc.

Causes of chip flow deviation

The deviation of chip flow in machining like turning by single point tool may deviate from the
orthogonal plane due to the following three factors:
 Restricted cutting effect (RCE)
 Tool-nose radius (r)
 Presence of inclination angle, λ ≠ 0.

Restricted cutting effect (RCE):

 -In machining like turning, shaping etc by single point turning tool, the metal removal is
accomplished mainly by the principal cutting edge.
-But the auxiliary cutting edge also takes part in machining to some extent depending
upon the auxiliary cutting edge angle, φ1 and the magnitude of feed, so, as indicated in Fig-5.
-A small volume of the job in the form of a helical rib of small triangular section remains
uncut. This causes surface roughness, in the form of fine threads called feed marks or scallop
marks as shown in Fig-5.
-The work material flows out in the form of chip at velocity VA when the auxiliary cutting
edge plays negligible role on chip formation. But when the auxiliary cutting edge keeps sizeable
contact with the workpiece, then the material that comes out from that edge at velocity say VB,
interferes with the main stream of the chip causing chip flow deviation from the direction of VA
by an angle say ψ from the direction of VA as shown in Fig. 5. This phenomenon is called
restricted contact cutting effect (RCE).

Fig-5 Chip flow deviation by Restricted Cutting Effect (RCE)

From Fig. 5,

Angle ∠APB = 180o – (φ + φ1) ----------(1)

And ∠AOB = (φ + φ1) --------------(2)

From properties of triangle, Δ OMN,

----------------(3)

Assuming [Rozeinberg and Evemein]

-------------(4)

Equation (4) can be rewritten as

------------(5)

On simplification, equation (5), ψ can be expressed as,

--------------------(6)

Equation (6) indicates that even in absence of λ the chip flow may deviate, and the angle of
deviation, ψ, depends upon the cutting angles and depth of cut to feed ratio (t/so).

Effect of tool nose radius, r :

Equation (6) indicates that chip flow deviation is significantly influenced by the principal cutting
edge angle, φ. In nose radiused tool, the value of φ continuously varies starting from zero over
the curved portion of the principal cutting edge. Such variation in φ reasonably influences the
chip flow deviation.
Therefore, to incorporate the effect of tool nose radiusing, the φ in equation (6) needs to be
replaced by the average value of φ i.e., φavg which can be determined with the help of the diagram
shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Variation of principal cutting edge angle in nose radiused tools.

From Fig. 6,

---------------------(7)

------------------------------(8)

It is to be noted in equation (8) that the difference between φ and φ avg is governed mainly by the
depth of cut to nose radius ratio, i.e., t/r.
Therefore to incorporate the effect of nose radiusing along with restricted contact cutting effect,
the φ in equation (6) has to be replaced by φavg to be determined by equation (8) resulting,
 ------------------------(9)

Effect of inclination angle, λ :

In absence of RCE and nose radius the chip flow deviation will be governed only by the value of
λ as indicated in Fig. 7.
Therefore the combined effects of RCE, tool nose radiused and presence of λ will cause chip
flow deviation angle, ρc as
ρc = ψ + λ -------------(10)
Generally, compared to λ, ψ is very small.
So approximately, ρc = λ (Stabler's Rule), where λ may be positive or negative.

Fig.7 Role of inclination angle on chip flow direction

Effective Rake, γe
-It has already been realized that the value of rake angle plays vital roles on both
mechanism and mechanics of machining. There are different rake angles but that rake angle
which is taken in the direction of actual chip flow is most significant. This rake is called
Effective Rake (γe)
Definition of γe: The angle of inclination of the rake surface from π R and is measured on that
plane which is perpendicular to the reference plane and is taken in the direction of actual chip
flow as shown in Fig. 8.
 Fig. 8 Effective rake angle, γe
In Fig. 8, OC is the deviation of apparent chip flow but OD represents the actual direction of chip
flow which is deviated from OC by the chip flow angle, ρ c. Zo, AB and DE are perpendicular to
πR. Yo' is parallel to Yo and Yn' is taken parallel to the axis Yn.

In this figure, angle ∠DOE represents effective rake angle, γe.

From Fig. 8,

---------------------(11)

Combining these equations,

 ---------------------(12)
Assuming [stabler] λ=ρc
sinγe = cos2λsinγn+ sin2λ ---------------------(13)

where, tanγn = tanγ[Link]λ

It is again to be noted that
if λ = 0; γe ≅ γn = γo
-------------------(14)

In case of oblique cutting, which is practically more common, the actual direction of chip flow
and the corresponding rake angle, i.e., effective rake should be used for more reasonably
accurate analysis and assessment of cutting forces, friction and tool wear.

Effects of oblique cutting

In contrary to simpler orthogonal cutting, oblique cutting causes the following effects on chip
formation and mechanics of machining:
• Chip does not flow along the orthogonal plane;
Positive λ causes
o Chip flow deviation away from the finished surface, which may result
⎯ lesser further damage to the finished surface
⎯ but more inconvenience to the operator
o reduction of mechanical strength of the tool tip
o increase in temperature at the tool tip
o more vibration in turning slender rods due to increase in PY (transverse force)

On the other hand, negative λ may enhance tool life by increasing mechanical strength and
reducing temperature at the tool tip but may impair the finished surface.
• The chip cross-section may change from rectangle (ideal) to skewed trapezium
• The ductile metals will produce more compact helical chips if not broken by chip breaker
• Analysis of cutting forces, chip-tool friction etc. becomes more complex.

Chip-Tool Contact Length

It is the length up to which chips slide over the rack surface during machining. It reduces with
increase of rack angle.
Reduction of chip-tool contact length will
1. Reduce friction between chip and tool
2. Reduce chip-tool interface temperature
3. Reduce the cutting force
Cp= a2{1+tan(βo-go)}, where Cp = chip tool contact length