UNIT – V – ECONOMIC BOTANY

Single Cell Protein:

Single-cell protein refers to the crude, a refined or edible protein extracted from pure microbial
cultures, dead, or dried cell biomass. They can be used as a protein supplement for both humans or
animals.
Microorganisms like algae, fungi, yeast, and bacteria have very high protein content in their biomass.
These microbes can be grown using inexpensive substrates like agricultural waste viz. wood
shavings, sawdust, corn cobs etc. and even human and animal waste.

The microorganisms utilize the carbon and nitrogen present in these materials and convert them
into high-quality proteins which can be used as a supplement in both human and animal feed. The
single-cell proteins can be readily used as fodder for achieving fattening of calves, pigs, in breeding
fish and even in Animal Husbandry – Poultry and Cattle Farming.

Single Cell Protein (SCP) offers an unconventional but plausible solution to this problem of protein
deficiency being faced by the entire humanity.
Sources of Single Cell Protein
A list of the microorganisms used for the production of Single Cell Protein is as follows:
Fungi
 Aspergillus fumigatus
 Aspergillus niger
 Rhizopus cyclopean
Yeast
 Saccharomyces cerevisiae
 Candida tropicalis
 Candida utilis
Algae
 Spirulina (spa)
 Chlorella pyrenoidosa
 Chondrus crispus
Bacteria
 Pseudomonas fluorescens
 Lactobacillus
 Bacillus megaterium
Here are the average compositions of the different microorganisms present in the % dry weight of
Single-cell protein.
Composition Fungi Algae Yeast Bacteria

Protein 30-45 40-60 45-55 50-65

Fat 2-8 7-20 2-6 1-3

Ash 9-14 8-10 5-10 3-7

Nucleic Acid 7-10 3-8 6-12 8-12

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Production of Single-Cell Protein
The production is carried out in the following steps:
1. Selection of suitable strain.
2. Fermentation.
3. Harvesting.
4. Post-harvest treatment.
5. SCP processing for food.
Like any other microbial culture, production of pure microbial cultures for desired protein products
requires a nitrogen source, sources of carbohydrates and other nutrients like phosphorus to support
optimal growth of the culture. Contamination is prevented by maintaining strict sterile conditions
throughout the process. The components of the culture media are either heat sterilized or filtered
through microporous membranes. The selected microorganism is then inoculated in pure conditions.
Most of the processes are highly aerobic, except algal fermentation; hence a good supply of oxygen
is an indispensable requirement. After the multiplication of the biomass, it is recovered from the
medium and purified further for enhanced usefulness and or storability.
Advantages of Single-Cell Protein
Large-scale Single-Cell Protein production has multiple advantages over conventional food
production practices such as:
 Microorganisms have a high rate of multiplication, which means a large quantity of biomass
can be produced in a comparatively shorter duration.
 The microbes can be easily genetically modified to vary the amino acid composition.
 A broad variety of raw materials, including waste materials, can be used as a substrate. This
also helps in decreasing the number of pollutants.
 Production is independent of climatic conditions.
Disadvantages of Single-Cell Protein
In spite of many advantages, there are few drawbacks. Single-Cell Protein has not been widely
accepted for human consumption owing to certain problems as follows:
 High level of nucleic acid in biomass makes it difficult for consumption as it may lead to
gastrointestinal problems.
 The biomass may trigger an allergic reaction if the digestive system recognizes it as a foreign
product.
 The presence of nucleic acids in high content leads to elevated levels of uric acid.
 In certain cases, the development of kidney stone and gout if consumed in high quality.
 Possibility of the presence of secondary toxic metabolites which results in Hypersensitivity
and other skin reactions.
 The capital cost of production is high as sophisticated machinery is required.
Applications of Single-Cell Protein
1. Provides instant energy.
2. It is extremely good for healthy eyes and skin.
3. Provides the best protein supplemented food for undernourished children.
4. Serves as a good source of vitamins, amino acids, minerals, crude fibres, etc.
 Used in therapeutic and natural medicines for:
1. Controlling obesity.
2. Lowers blood sugar level in diabetic patients.
3. Reducing body weight, cholesterol and stress.
4. Prevents accumulation of cholesterol in the body.
 Used in Cosmetics products for:
1. Maintaining healthy hair.
2. Production of different herbal beauty products, like- Biolipstics, herbal face cream, etc.
Used in Poultry: As it serves as an excellent and convenient source of proteins and other
nutrients, it is widely used for feeding cattle, birds, fishes etc.

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Mushroom Cultivation
Mushroom cultivation is a technology of growing mushrooms using plant, animal and industrial
waste. In short it is wealth out of waste technology. This technology has gained importance
worldwide because of its dietary fibres and proteins value. Mushroom is a fungi belonging to
basidiomycetes. It is rich in proteins, fibres, vitamins and minerals. There are more than 3000 types
of mushrooms. e.g. Button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sps.), Paddy
straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea). The cultivation takes one to three months. Major stages of
mushroom cultivation are explained below.
Composting
Compost is prepared by mixing paddy straw with number of organic materials like cow dung and
inorganic fertilizers. It is kept at about 50oC for one week.
Spawning
Spawn is the mushroom seed. It is prepared by growing fungal mycelium in grains under sterile
conditions. Spawn is sown on compost.
Casing
Compost is covered with a thin layer of soil. It gives support to the growing mushroom, provides
humidity and helps regulate the temperature.
Pinning
Mycelium starts to form little bud, which will develop into mushroom. Those little white buds are
called pins.
Harvesting
Mushroom grow better in 15oC - 23oC. They grow 3 cm in a week which is the normal size for
harvesting. In the third week the first flush mushroom can be harvested.

Preservation
Discolouration, weight, and flavourloss are the main problems of harvesting stage of mushrooms.
The following methods are used to increase their life.
(i) Freezing
(ii) Drying
(iii) Canning
(iv) Vacuum Cooling
Gamma radiation and storing at 15°C.

Biofertilizers:

Biofertilizers are substance that contains microbes, which helps in promoting the growth of plants
and trees by increasing the supply of essential nutrients to the plants. It comprises living organisms
which include mycorrhizal fungi, blue-green algae, and bacteria. Mycorrhizal fungi preferentially
withdraw minerals from organic matter for the plant whereas cyanobacteria are characterized by
the property of nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen fixation is defined as a process of converting di-nitrogen molecules into ammonia. For
instance, some bacteria convert nitrogen to ammonia. As a result, nitrogen becomes available for
plants.

Types of Biofertilizers
Following are the important types of biofertilizers:
Symbiotic Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria
Rhizobium is one of the vital symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Here bacteria seek shelter and
obtain food from plants. In return, they help by providing fixed nitrogen to the plants.
Loose Association of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria

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Azospirillum is a nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live around the roots of higher plants but do not
develop an intimate relationship with plants. It is often termed as rhizosphere association as these
bacteria collect plant exudate and the same is used as food by them. This process is termed
associative mutualism.
Symbiotic Nitrogen-Fixing Cyanobacteria
Blue-Green algae or Cyanobacteria from the symbiotic association with several plants. Liverworts,
cycad roots, fern, and lichens are some of the Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. Anabaena is found at
the leaf cavities of the fern. It is responsible for nitrogen fixation. The fern plants decay and release
the same for utilization of the rice plants. Azolla pinnate is a fern that resides in rice fields but they
do not regulate the growth of the plant.
Free-Living Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria
They are free-living soil bacteria that perform nitrogen fixation. They are saprotrophic anaerobes
such as Clostridium beijerinckii, Azotobacter, etc.
Among all the types of biofertilizers, Rhizobium and Azospirillum are most widely used.

Components of Biofertilizers
The components of biofertilizers include:
Bio Compost
It is one of the eco-friendly product composed of waste material released from sugar industries
which are decomposed. It is magnified with human-friendly bacteria, fungi, and various plants.
Tricho-Card
It is an eco-friendly and nonpathogenic product used in a variety of crops as well as in horticultural
and ornamental plants, such as paddy apple, sugar cane, brinjal, corn, cotton, vegetables, citrus, etc.
It acts as a productive destroyer and antagonistic hyper parasitic against eggs of several bores,
shoot, fruit, leaves, flower eaters and other pathogens in the field.
Azotobacter
It protects the roots from pathogens present in the soil and plays a crucial role in fixing atmospheric
nitrogen. Nitrogen is a very important nutrient for the plant and about 78% of the total atmosphere
comprises nitrogen.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is one of the essential nutrients for plants growth and development. Phosphate
solubilizing microorganisms, hydrolyze insoluble phosphorus compounds to the soluble form for
uptake by plants. Many fungi and bacteria are used for the purpose such
as Penicillium, Aspergillus, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, etc.
Vermicompost
It is an Eco-friendly organic fertilizer that comprises vitamins, hormones, organic carbon, sulfur,
antibiotics that help to increase the quantity and quality of yield. Vermicompost is one of the quick
fixes to improve the fertility of the soil.

Importance of Biofertilizers
Biofertilizers are important for the following reasons:
 Biofertilizers improve the soil texture and yield of plants.
 They do not allow pathogens to flourish.
 They are eco-friendly and cost-effective.
 Biofertilizers protect the environment from pollutants since they are natural fertilizers.
 They destroy many harmful substances present in the soil that can cause plant diseases.
 Biofertilizers are proved to be effective even under semi-arid conditions.

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Applications of Biofertilizers
Following are the important applications of biofertilizers:
Seedling root dip
This method is applicable to rice crops. The seedlings are planted in the bed of water for 8-10 hours.
Seed Treatment
The seeds are dipped in a mixture of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers. These seeds are then dried
and sown as soon as possible.
Soil Treatment
The biofertilizers along with the compost fertilizers are mixed and kept for one night. This mixture is
then spread on the soil where the seeds have to be sown.

Coir Production:

Coir:

The thickest and most resistant of all commercial natural fibres, coir is a coarse, short fibre
extracted from the outer shell of coconuts. Its low decomposition rate means is a key advantage
for making durable geo-textiles.
The plant
Coir is extracted from the tissues surrounding the seed of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), which
is grown on 10 million ha of land throughout the tropics.
The fibre
Coir fibres measure up to 35 cm in length with a diameter of 12-25 microns. A coconut harvest
occurs once in 45 days. From 1000 coconuts it would be possible to extract 10 kgs of coir. Among
vegetable fibres, coir has one of the highest concentrations of lignin, making it stronger but less
flexible than cotton and unsuitable for dyeing. The tensile strength of coir is low compared to abaca,
but it has good resistance to microbial action and salt water damage and needs no chemical
treatment.
There are two types of coir: the more commonly used brown fibre, which is obtained from mature
coconuts, and finer white fibre, which is extracted from immature green coconuts after soaking for
up to 10 months. Mature coir fibres contain more lignin, a complex woody chemical, and less
cellulose than fibres such as flax or cotton.

Environmental benefits
Coir is a material which is widely used to overcome the problem of erosion. When woven into
geotextiles and placed on areas in need of erosion control it promotes new vegetation by absorbing
water and preventing top soil from drying out. Coir geotextiles have a natural ability to retain
moisture and protect from the suns radiation just like natural soil, and unlike geo-synthetic
materials, it provides good soil support for up to three years, allowing natural vegetation to become
established.

Uses of coir

Traditionally the coconuts were left to cure in water for several months (or in brine for a longer
period for white fibres) then the coir was extracted. However with technology there is an increased
use of coconut husk defibering machines.
Typically, white coir spun into yarn is used in the manufacture of rope and, thanks to its strong
resistance to salt water, in fishing nets. Brown coir is stronger and more widely used than white coir.
Applications include sacking, brushes, doormats, rugs, mattresses, insulation panels and packaging.

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Geotextiles
Recognition of coir for sustainable vegetation and erosion control arises from the fact that it is an
abundant, renewable natural resource with an extremely low decomposition rate and a high
strength compared to other natural fibers. Coir is woven into thick textiles which are applied like
blankets on the ground in erosion prone areas. Geotextiles made from coir are durable, absorb
water, resist sunlight, facilitate seed germination, and are 100% biodegradable. These blankets have
high strength retention and a slow rate of degradation meaning they last for several years in field
applications.

Coir is widely used in the upholstery industry, and it is a healthy substitute for processed synthetic
rubber. It is also used as a combination with natural rubber and is used for filling up mattresses,
automobile seats, sofas, settees, and seating systems. European automobile producers upholster
cars with pads of brown coir bonded with rubber latex. Coir is used for insulation and finds
application in panels, cold storages, food industry, etc.

Coir Ply

A substitute to plywood, coir ply is an innovative product that when is added together with resin and
limited pre-treated timber veneers. In India the product has been well accepted by the market as an
alternative to plywood. Substituting coir for other timber products could also save a substantial
amount of tropical trees being logged for this purpose.
Coir ply has all the properties of phenol-bonded ply with the added strength of fibre reinforced
phenol bonding. It has high degrees of surface abrasion resistance and resists contraction/
expansion due to variations in temperatures.

By products

The waste product from milling the coir is peat or pith which makes for high quality mulch and
fertilizer. Coir peat compost developed from coir waste is an
excellent organic manure and soil conditioner applicable to agricultural crops.

Production and trade

The coir industry is fully developed only in India and Sri Lanka, but economically important in Brazil,
Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam. Coconuts are typically grown by small-scale farmers, who
use local mills for fibre extraction.

Globally around 650 000 tonnes of coir are produced annually, mainly in India and Sri Lanka. India
and Sri Lanka are also the main exporters, followed by Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, and
the Philippines. Around 80 percent of the coir produced is exported in the form of raw fibre. Smaller
quantities are exported as yarn, mats, matting and rugs.

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Fibres and Timber From plants:

1) Plant fibres
Plant fibre is the undigestible part of the plant. It is a slender, elongated, solid substance forming
a‘bulk’ or ‘roughage’in the food. Plant fibres were classified into six principal groups by Hill in 1952
based on the way they were used.
The six groups were textile fibres, brush fibres, rough weaving and plaiting fibres, filling fibres,
natural fibres and paper-making fibres.

a) Textile fibres: These fibres are the most important as they are used to make fabrics, cordage and
netting. The fibres are twisted together into thread or yarn and then either spun, knitted or woven
to make fabrics and netting.
 Fabrics include cloth for dressing and domestic use. They can also be coarser material such
as gunny used to pack food material.
 Netting fibres are used to make hammocks, lace and all forms of nets and the individual
fibres are twisted together instead of being woven to make cordage.

b) Brush fibres: These fibres are stiff and tough including small stems and twigs. They are utilized to
make brooms and brushes.

c) Rough weaving and plaiting fibres: These are fibrous, flat and pliable strands which are interlaced
to make straw hats, baskets, sandals and chair seats.

d) Filling fibres: These fibres are used to stuff mattresses, cushions, quilts etc.

e) Natural fibres: These fibres are obtained from tree basts extracted from bark in layers or sheets
and pounded into rough substitutes for lace or cloth. They are directly used to cover the human
body.

f) Paper-making fibres: These includes textile fibres and wood fibres used in either the raw or
manufactured state. These are used to make paper and cardboard.

Plants producing fibres

Some plants that produce fibre are aloe, hemp, coconut and semal. The main fibre-producing plants
are cotton and jute.
a) Cotton is a soft, fluffy fibre that grows in a boll around the seed of the cotton plant. Commonly
cultivated species of cotton are Gossypium herbecium and Gossypium barbedense.
 Cotton shrubs can grow up to 3.0 m high. They have broad, three to five lobed leaves.
 The seeds are surrounded by fibres, which are removed by a process called ginning.
 At the first ginning, the longer fibres called staples are [Link] are twisted together
to form yarn to make thread. This is used to make into high-quality textiles.
 At the second ginning, the shorter fibres, called linters are [Link] are woven into
lower-quality [Link] fibre is then converted into clothes, strings, mats and bedsheets.
 The seed of cotton that is left without fibre is known as ‘binolla’.This is used to make oil and
oil cakes.
 Vegetable ghee can also be made by hydrogenating cotton oil.
 The main producers of cotton in India are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

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2) Wood/Timber
Wood is another important part of the plant which is used for construction purposes. It also
commonly known as ‘timber’.It is used to make furniture, plywood, paper, toys, wood alcohol and
fuel among other things.

Types of wood
Wood is of two types, namely soft wood and hard wood. Hard wood is obtained from trees like teak,
sal, acacia and shisham. Roheda and teak are commonly used on a large scale for manufacturing
purposes.
 Roheda, a deciduous or nearly evergreen tree of desert or dry regions, is found in Rajasthan,
Haryana and Gujarat. The trade name of Roheda is ‘Desert Teak’ or ‘Marwar Teak’. It is also
called Wave-Leaved Bignonia as its leaves are narrow, somewhat lance-shaped, with wavy
margins, 5-12 cm long. Its wood is strong, tough and durable and takes a fine finish.
 Teak is a tall evergreen tree found in abundance in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Bihar, Southern
Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. Very dense teak forests are also found in Banswara,
Chittorgarh, Dungarpur, Udaipur and Jhalawar districts in [Link] has a lifespan of
200 years and can grow up to 35 m [Link] wood is yellowish to reddish-brown with a
whitish grey bark. It grows straight with an uneven texture, medium lusture and an oily feel.

In this manner, plants materials to satisfy the three essential needs of human beings: food, clothing
and shelter.

Value-Added Plants for Profit

One of the best ways for small specialty crop growers to increase their profits is by adding value to
their plants by taking an extra step beyond just selling their unprocessed harvest. Using simple
value-added techniques can increase your profits by 100 to 1,000 percent!

Bamboo – This popular plant brings a good price when potted and sold for landscaping. Several
small-scale bamboo farmers have found success and profits by producing traditional products from
the harvested bamboo canes as well. One North Carolina grower weaves the small bamboo canes
into a traditional Japanese “Otsugaki” style fence, selling them in panels to local homeowners for as
much as $100 each.
Another enterprising ba
mboo growers turns short pieces of bamboo cane into garden art, such as a rocking fountain based
on an ancient Asian design used to scare deer out of the garden with a gentle clacking sound.
Materials cost under $10, mainly for a small aquarium water pump, and the completed fountains sell
for about $100 by mail and in specialty catalogs and at local nurseries.

Food products – Turning your specialty crop into a food products can bring far greater profits for
growers. From the more traditional jams and jellies to the more exotic specialty foods, your
imagination is the only real limit to what can be created. One garlic grower has found success with a
garlic-cherry chutney based on a traditional recipe from Cremona, Italy called mustarda.

Others have re-invented that kitchen staple, vinegar, with new flavors and varieties using plants
harvested from their market gardens, such as rose hips and other flavorful flowers. Here are a few of
the most popular value-added food products being sold right now at farmer’s markets and specialty
food stores:
 Chutneys and salsas
 Dried herbs

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  Garlic braids
 Herbal salad dressings
 Jams and jellies
 Pickles
 Sauces

Garlic is a crop that can provide several profitable ways to add value. Garlic farmers can sell the
scapes – the young greens – early in the season for salads and stir-frys, and garlic braids and wreaths
at harvest time, as well as seed garlic of exotic varieties for customers who want to grow their own
garlic. The next level is garlic-based food products, from garlic vinegars and jellies to chutney and
sauces.

Herbs – A herb business offers almost unlimited opportunity to add value. Growers have found
success selling “window sill gardens” with 4 to 6 different culinary herbs in a window sill-sized
planter box. Another variation is a window sill tea garden, with several herbs used in popular teas,
such as lemon verbena, chamomile, lemongrass and mints.

Herb products – Many herb growers have expanded their herbal business by producing essential oils
for aromatherapy from their herb harvest. Simple steam distillation is used to extract plant oils from
the flowers, leaves, roots and bark of herb plants. These essential oils can be used to create bath and
body products, pet care products, even medicinal products used in holistic healing.
Imaginative herb growers have created hundreds of useful herbal products that add value to raw
herbs, often by a factor of 10 or 20 to 1. Most growers start small with proven sellers, like herbal
hand creams, salves and bath products. Finding customers is easier at farmer’s markets, where you
can offer samples, then finding retail stores to stock your product after you’ve established a local
following. That’s how Burt’s Bees went from $200 in sales at a craft fair to annual sales of over $250
million!

One herb grower had a surplus of unsold catnip one year, and used her sewing machine to produce
cute catnip-filled cat toys for sale at local pet stores and vet’s offices. The toys proved so successful,
she devoted an entire half-acre to catnip, selling enough toys to put her two children through
college.

Another simple, but profitable, herbal product that is a stead seller for many herb businesses is
dream pillows. Dream pillows are herb-filled mini-pillows that are used for relaxation, stress
reduction, even to inspire romance. Because the scent fades over time, customers tend to re-order
every 4-6 months, so pillow makers have a built-in repeat market.

Lavender is a primary ingredient in many dream pillows, as well as dozens of other herbal products.
In fact, lavender is the number one herbal fragrance worldwide. Although lavender is a popular and
aromatic fresh-picked plant, value-added products such as soaps, sachets, dried bouquets, and
seedlings for sale can boost profits dramatically. In addition, the essential lavender oil, produced
with steam distillation, is used with even more value-added products.

There are almost no limits to what can be created from a variety of common and not-so-common
plants.