A refractometer is a laboratory or field device for the measurement of an index of Points to remember in use:
refraction. The index of refraction is calculated from Snell's law and can be calculated
from the composition of the material using the Gladstone-Dale relation.
Hold the refractometer between thumb and forefinger of the left hand and
use the right hand for adjusting the eyepiece and manipulating the
Types of refractometers sample.
Do not hold the refractometer by enveloping the entire tube with the palm
There are four main types of refractometers: traditional handheld refractometers, of the left hand.
digital handheld refractometers, laboratory or Abbe refractometers, and inline process When the sample is severely turbid or coloured, the field of vision darkens
refractometers. There is also the Rayleigh Refractometer used (typically) for and the boundary line may become unclear or completely disappear. In
measuring the refractive indices of gases. such cases, it would be effective to use direct sunlight or bright light from
the lighting equipment for a microscope.
Since the refractometer is an optical instrument, do not drop it or handle
In veterinary medicine, a refractometer is used to measure the total plasma protein in roughly.
a blood sample and urine specific gravity. Since the prism has a relatively soft surface, be careful not to scratch it.
After use, clean the prism surface and daylight plate with a soft cloth
In gemmology, a refractometer is used to help identify gem materials by measuring soaked in water and wipe off the moisture with a dry cloth.
their refractive index. If the prism surface is smeared with oil or similar liquids it will repel the
sample and obstruct the measurement.
Wipe off the oil smear or contaminant with warm water.
A refractometer is an instrument that measures the refraction of light through a
substance. The refractive indix becomes higher in a substance of higher
concentration.
A refractometer has a wide variety of uses as measuring sugar concentrations and
Traditional handheld refractometer used to test light bending inside gemstones liquid concentrations. Refractometers are sometimes called “Sugar concentration
meters” and “Density meters” depending on the application.
PRINCIPLES OF REFRACTOMETERY
Refractometers are instruments used to measure substances dissolved in water and
certain oils. The refractometer works using the principle of light refraction through
liquids. As light passes from air into a liquid it slows down. This phenomenon is what
gives a "bent" look to objects that are partially submerged in water. To put it simply,
the more dissolved solids water contains, the slower light travels through it, and the
a wine grower with refractometer
more pronounced the "bending" effect on light. Refractometers use this principle to
determine the amount of dissolved solids in liquids by passing light through a sample
and showing the refracted angle on a scale. The scale most commonly used is
referred to as the Brix scale. The Brix scale is defined as: the number of grams of pure
cane sugar dissolved in 100 grams of pure water (grams sugar/100 grams H20). Other
scales have been developed to measure salt, serum proteins (albumen) and urine
specific gravity.
Degrees Brix (symbol °Bx) is a unit representative of the sugar content of an aqueous
density evaluation of abdominal fluid of a cat with FIP by a refractometer. solution. One degree Brix corresponds to 1 gram of sucrose in 100 grams of solution
and thus represents the strength of the solution as a percentage by weight (% w/w)
(strictly speaking, by mass). If the solution contains dissolved solids other than pure
Refractometer sucrose, such as other sugars, minerals etc., then the °Bx only approximate the
dissolved solid content. The °Bx has traditionally been used in the wine, sugar, fruit
The tektrak coolant Hand Held Refractometers (0-18) are optical instruments which juice, honey and other industries. It is intended to represent exactly the same thing as
can quickly measure the concentration of aqueous solutions using the principle of the the degree Plato (°P), widely used by the brewing industry, and the degree Balling
critical angle of refraction, and thus by a very simple operation determine the in-use which, while it is the oldest of the three, is still in use in some parts of the world and
concentration of the liquid or material under test. found in textbooks which are considered current today.[1]. While all three are intended
to represent the same thing (the number of grams of sucrose in 100 grams of solution)
Check a sample of water which has been left to stand for a period in the room (the in fact they do not though the differences are small. For example a particular sucrose
water temperature should be the same as the room temperature) regardless of the solution known to have an apparent specific gravity (20°/20°C) of 1.040 would have its
measuring temperature. Set the boundary line to zero by using the adjusting screw Brix value reported as 9.99325 °Bx and its Plato value as 9.99359 °P while the sugar
knob for calibration. Then measure the sample and note the scale reading which can
industry, whose representative body, the International Commission for Uniform
be taken as the true concentration value.
Methods of Sugar Analysis (ICUMSA), has obsoleted °Bx [2] in favor of "mass fraction",
would report the strength of this solution as 9.99249 %. The differences between these
Variations in room temperature may can an error, so it is recommended that the zero- three systems are clearly of little practical significance as their magnitudes are less
setting be checked at intervals of 20 minutes using the test water above.
than the precision of even relatively sophisticated instruments. Because of this and
because of the wide historical use of the Brix unit modern instruments may calculate
Other ranges available such as 0-18 please enquire. mass fraction using ICUMSA official formulas but report the result as °Bx.
Hemolysis (or haemolysis)—from the Greek αἷμα (aima, haema, hemo-) meaning
"blood" and λύσις (lusis, lysis, -lysis) meaning a "loosing", "setting free" or "releasing"[1]
—is the rupturing of erythrocytes (red blood cells) and the release of their contents
(hemoglobin) into surrounding fluid (e.g., blood plasma). Hemolysis may occur in vivo
or in vitro (inside or ou tside the body).
Turgor Pressure or turgidity is the main pressure of the cell contents against the cell
wall in plant cells and bacteria cells, determined by the water content of the vacuole,
resulting from osmotic pressure, i.e. the hydrostatic pressure produced by a solution in
a space divided by a semipermeable membrane due to a differential in the
concentration of solute.
Turgor Pressure is a force per unit area exerted outward on a plant cell wall by the
water contained in the cell vacuole. In terms of plant water potential, turgor pressure is
usually expressed as the pressure component (Ψp). This force gives the plant rigidity,
and keeps it erect.
[edit] Wilting
Main article: Wilting
Plants that lose turgidity (lose water from their cells) undergo plasmolysis. When this
happens, cells are no longer rigid and the plant loses structure, giving the "wilty"
appearance. Wilting might not always be caused by a lack of water, but might be an
expression of plants under salt (salinity) stress or can be caused by ethylene (a plant
hormone).
"Plants wilt, not only when they lose water through evaporation, but also when they are
surrounded by an aqueous solution of common salt, potassium chloride, magnesium
chloride, sugar or other substance, if the solution is of higher osmotic pressure,
whereas they do not wilt if the osmotic pressure is lower."[1]
[ed Edema (American English) or oedema (British English; both words
from the Greek οἴδημα, oídēma "swelling"), formerly known as dropsy or
hydropsy, is an abnormal accumulation of fluid beneath the skin or in one
or more cavities of the body. Generally, the amount of interstitial fluid is
determined by the balance of fluid homeostasis, and increased secretion
of fluid into the interstitium or impaired removal of this fluid may cause
[Link]
Edema occurs when blood vessels in your blood leak fluids. When your body senses
the capillaries are leaking, your kidneys begin to retain more sodium and water than
normal to compensate for the lost fluid from your blood vessels. This increases the
amount of fluid circulating through your body, which causes the capillaries to leak
more. The fluid from the capillaries leaks into the surrounding tissue, causing the
tissue to swell.
