Dr.

Shakil Ahmad
NUST Institute of Civil Engineering (NICE)
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering (SCEE)
National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
Islamabad, Pakistan

Outline
Measurement of Precipitation: Introduction?

Measurement of Precipitation: Raingauge, RADAR, Satellite

Sources of Error: Measured Gauge Accuracy

Raingauge Network

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Measurement of Precipitation
magnitude, intensity, location, patterns
of precipitation
quantity of precipitation as well as, the
spatial and temporal distributions of
the precipitation have considerable
effects on the hydrologic response.

Measurement of Precipitation
Amount of Precipitation
The amount of precipitation means the vertical depth
of water that would accumulate on a level surface, if
the precipitation remains where it falls. The amount of
precipitation is measured in length units (inches, ft.,
cm., mm., etc).
Intensity or Rate of Precipitation
Amount of precipitation per unit time is called the
intensity or rate of precipitation (mm/hour, etc.)

Both the amount and rate of precipitation are

important in hydrologic studies.

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Measurement of Precipitation
Precipitation is measured by:
Raingauge
Radar
Satellite

Rain Gauges
The purpose of a rain gauge is to measure
the amount of rainfall at a single point
Measure What?
Depth of water on a flat surface
Depth is assumed to be same as
surroundings

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 Types of Rain Gauges
There are two types of rain gauges:
a. Non-recording rain gauge (Standard rain gauge)
A non-recording rain gauge is typically a
catchment device calibrated to provide visual
observation of rainfall amounts.
b. Recording rain gauge
Recording gauges are equipped with paper charts
and/or data logger equipment / Telemetry.

Non-recording Rain Gauge

Container of varying dimensions and heights e.g.
- Symon’s Rain Gauge (127 mm diameter)
- U. S. Weather Bureau Rain Gauge (200 mm
diameter)
Requirements
- Sharp edge
- Rim falls away vertically
- Prevent splashing
- Narrow neck prevents evaporation

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Image here

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 U. S. Weather Bureau Rain Gauge
The standard gauge of U. S. Weather Bureau has a
collector of 200 mm diameter and 600 mm height.
Rain passes from a collector into a cylindrical
measuring tube inside the overflow can. The
measuring tube has a cross-sectional area 1/10th of the
collector, so that 2.5 mm rainfall will fill the tube to 25
mm depth. A measuring stick is marked in such a way
that 1/10th of a cm depth can be measured. In this way
net rainfall can be measured to the nearest 1 mm. The
collector and tube are removed when snow is expected.
The snow collected in the outer container or overflow
can is melted, poured into the measuring tube and
then measured.

Non-recording Gauges

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 Two types of standard storage raingauge

Recording Rain Gauges

Analogue Devices
Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
Float Type Rain Gauge
Digital Devices
Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
Optical Rain Gauge

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Analogue Recording Rain Gauges
Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
Standard instrument used to quantify rainfall.
Spring scale beneath the collecting bucket
platform that is calibrated to mark the rainfall
depth on a paper chart.
The chart is rotated by a spring-driven or
electric clock at speeds of 1 revolution in 6, 9, 12,
24, or 192 hours.
The rain gauge chart is a record of the
accumulated of rainfall for the selected time
interval.

Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge

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 Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
The weighing rain gauge consists of a metal canister that
houses a funnel, a pail that sits atop a scale, and an analog
recorder (a rotating drum with paper). Once 0.01 inches of
rain falls through the funnel into the pail, the weight of the
water on the scale triggers the pen on the recorder to move
upwards. As more rain falls, the pen continues to move
upwards creating a time series of rainfall amount on the
chart paper of the rotating drum, which is turned by a
clock mechanism. Although precipitation is measured by
its weight, it is converted to inches on the chart. The chart
paper is replaced weekly, but the pail is emptied only when
it becomes too full, every two months or so.

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Analogue Recording Rain Gauges
Float Type Rain Gauge
Standard instrument used to quantify rainfall.
Float within collecting bucket rises with level
Vertical movement marked by pen and shows rainfall
depth on a paper chart.
The chart is rotated by a spring-driven or electric
clock at speeds of 1 revolution in 6, 9, 12, 24, or 192
hours.
The rain gauge chart is a record of the accumulated
of rainfall for the selected time interval.

Analogue Recording Rain Gauges

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Analogue Recording Rain Gauges
Float Type Rain Gauge with Siphon
Standard instrument used to quantify rainfall.
Usually with Float Type Rain Gauges
System siphons itself at a certain level (typically 25mm)
Empties container completely
Stores siphoned water in separate (total) container
Total container as check
Pen returns to bottom line
Problems
15 seconds to siphon
Cannot record snow
Susceptible to freezing

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Digital Recording Rain Gauges
Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
Two containers on balance beam form a “tipping bucket”
Rain fills one container until it threshold weight reached
Bucket then tips over, emptying collected water into total
container and continues to collect rainfall in other container
Magnet generates electric pulse which is recorded
Problems
Cannot record snow
Evaporation from buckets
Discontinuous record in light rain
Susceptible to freezing

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Digital Recording Rain Gauges
Optical Rain Gauge (ORG)
The ORG is mounted on a small pole
The ORG sends a beam of light (which can’t be seen)
from one of its ends to a detector at the other end.
When raindrops fall, they break the beam. The rain
rate is measured by the ORG by measuring how
often the beam is broken.
The rain rate can be used to calculate the total
amount of rain that has fallen in any given period
ORG measures the rate of rainfall in millimeters per
hour (mm/hr).

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 Sources of Error
Mistakes in reading the scale of gauge
Dents in collector rim and measuring tube may
change its receiving area
Instrumental error in gauge or in their
recording or measuring arrangements
Some rainwater may get lost due to splash from
the collector
Some initial rainwater may get lost in
moistening gauge funnel and inside surfaces i.e.
wetting the surface of the instrument

Sources of Error
Blowing wind may tilt the rains from vertical which
thus brings less rain catch in the gauge
Vertical upward air currents may impact upward
acceleration to precipitation thus brings less rain
catch in the gauge
Gauge inclined 10° from vertical will cater 1.5% less
rainfall than it should or sometime gauge receive
more rain
No rainfall recorded during tipping of bucket /
siphoning of water colleting cylinder
Tipping of bucket may be affected due to rusting or
accumulation of dust on pivot

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 Measured Gauge Accuracy
(Un)avoidable Errors
Equipment failure
Observer error

Avoidable Errors
Site
Obstructions
Splashing
Surrounds
Wind

• Ideally, the gauge should be sited

with some shelter, but not over-
sheltered.

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• Windshields (i.e. splash guards) may
reduce the loss due to turbulence
(eddies) around the gauge

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Measured Gauge Accuracy
Common Errors
Evaporation - 1%
Adhesion - 0.5%
Inclination - 0.5%
Splash in +1%
Wind -5 to 80%

Measured Gauge Accuracy

Two problems arise in quantifying precipitation
input to a given land area:
how to measure precipitation at one or more
points in space
how to interpolate/extrapolate these point
measurements to determine the total amount
of water delivered to a particular land area.

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 EXAMPLE
Example 3.1
A rain gauge recorded 125 mm of precipitation. It was
found later that the gauge was inclined at an angle of
20 degree with the vertical. Find the actual
precipitation.

Solution:
P (measured) = 125 mm
Angle of inclination (θ) = 200 with the vertical
P(actual) = P(measured)/cos (θ) = 125/cos 200 = 133 mm

Advantages of Recording Rain Gauges

Rainfall is recorded automatically, therefore no
need of attendant
Recording rain gauge also gives intensity of
rainfall at any time, while non-recording gauge
gives only total rainfall for time interval
Recording rain gauges can be installed far off
places as no need of attendant
Possibility of human error is obviated

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Disadvantages of Recording Rain Gauges
Costly in comparison to non-recording gauges
Error in recording rainfall due to fault in
electrical or mechanical mechanism

Recording of Data
Paper Charts
Data Loggers
Telemetry

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 Recording of Data
Paper Charts
Simplest method
Chart moved by spring or electronically driven clock
past pen
Pen moves with weight/float etc
Two Types
Drum - rotates
Strip - moves past pen

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 Recording of Data
Data Loggers
A data logger is a computer that records and stores
data from sensors both analog (voltage) and
digital(counts).
The data logger requires a program to tell it what to
do.
Preloaded computer chip that already has the program in it
or create the program
Data can then be accessed by a computer to monitor
current conditions or download stored data.

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 Recording of Data
Data Loggers
Problems
Vandalism due to desirability of batteries

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 Recording of Data
Telemetry
Data stored by logger can transferred directly to a
base station via some form of telecommunication
Telemetry is the highly automated communications
process by which measurements are made and other
data collected at remote or inaccessible points and
transmitted to receiving equipment for monitoring

Rain Gauge Network

Design of Precipitation Network depends upon
the purpose:
Developing & managing water resources
Operational purposes like flood forecasting,
operation of reservoirs, research, etc
Factors Affecting Density
Physiographical and hydrological factors like terrain
and rainfall regimes
Flat regions of temperate and tropical zones
Mountain regions
Arid and Polar regions
Stream network
Population density and economic activity

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 RAINGAUGE NETWORK
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommendation:

1. In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones:

ideal – 1 station for 600 – 900 km2
acceptable – 1 station for 900 – 3000 km2
2. In mountainous regions of temperate, Mediterranean and
topical zones:
ideal - 1 station for 100—250 km2
acceptable - 1 station for 250—1000 km2
3. In arid and polar zones: I station for 1500—10,000 km2
depending on the feasibility.
• 10 % of the raingauges should be self recording to know the intensity of
the rainfall

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Rain Gauge Network

Network density of rain gauges depends upon
Uses for which the rainfall data intended
Represent picture of the aerial distribution of rainfall
Area (Sq Km) Rain Gauge Stations
0 - 80 1
80 – 160 2
160 – 320 3
320 – 560 4
560 – 800 5
800 – 1000 6

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 Measurement of Precipitation by Radar
Modern technique for measurement of rainfall rate  can also
detect local movement of areas of precipitation
The electromagnetic energy released & received back by radar is
a measure of rainfall intensity
The measurement is appreciably affected by trees & buildings.
However extent of rainfall can be estimated with reasonable
accuracy
Use of radar is useful where number of rain gauges installed in
an area is not sufficient

Measurement of Precipitation by Satellite

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission, TRMM (NASA)

Globally the average annual rainfall depth is 1 m

Rainfall data serves as input for models. More accurate
rainfall information can lead to improved water level
forecasts.

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 Weather Forecasting System of PMD
DATA
Weather Stations/Observatories Network

80 Rain Gauge Stations

50 AWS
Data Bank of PMD (CDPC)

Weather Forecasting System of PMD

DATA
Radar Network of PMD
10-cm Doppler Radars
1- Lahore
2- Mangla

QPM Radar

1- Sialkot

5-cm Wx. Surveillance Radars

1- Islamabad
2- [Link]
3- Rahim Yar Khan
4- Karachi

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 Weather Forecasting System of PMD
DATA
Satellite Ground Stations of PMD

HRPT
1- Islamabad
2- Quetta

FY-2 E/D
1- Islamabad

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