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Unit – 1 The Solid State

1. Give any two differences between Crystalline and Amorphous solids.

Crystalline solids Amorphous solids
Definite geometrical shape Irregular shape
Sharp melting points Range of melting points
Anisotropic in nature Isotropic in nature

2. Calculate the number of particles present per unit cell in a simple cubic (SC) unit cell.
1
From corner particles, contribution per unit cell is x8=1
8

∴ number of particles per unit cell = 1

3. Calculate number of particles present per unit cell in a body-centred cubic (BCC) unit cell.
1
From corner particles, contribution per unit cell is x8=1
8

Particle present at body centre = 1

∴ number of particles per unit cell = 1 + 1 = 2

4. Calculate number of particles present per unit cell in a face-centred cubic (FCC) unit cell.
1
From corner particles, contribution per unit cell is x8=1
8
1
From face centred particles, contribution per unit cell is x6=3
2

∴ number of particles per unit cell = 1 + 3 = 4

5. What is meant by the term coordination number in solids?

What is the coordination number in (a) simple cube (b) bcc (c) fcc close packing structure?
The number of nearest neighbours of a particle is called coordination number.
(a) 6 (b) 8 (c) 12

6. In a close packed array of ‘N’ spheres, how many octahedral and tetrahedral voids are
present?
Number of octahedral voids are ‘N’
Number of tetrahedral voids are ‘2N’

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 7. What is packing efficiency in a crystal?
Calculate the packing efficiency in simple cubic (sc) lattice.
The percentage of total space filled by the particles in a crystal is called packing efficiency.

Let ‘a’ be the edge length of the unit cell and ‘r’ is the radius of sphere
Then, a = 2r
4
Volume of sphere = 𝜋𝑟 3
3

Volume of the unit cell = a3 = (2r) 3 = 8r3

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
Packing efficiency = x 100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
4
𝜋 𝑟3
3
= x 100
8 𝑟3

Packing efficiency = 52 %

8. Calculate the packing efficiency in cubic close packed (ccp )/face-centred cubic (fcc)/
hexagonal close packed (hcp) cubic lattice.
Let ‘a’ be the edge length of the unit cell and ‘r’ is the radius of sphere.
From Δ ABC
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
AC2 = a2 + a2 = 2a2
AC = √2𝑎 But, AC = 4r
Therefore, 4r = √2 𝑎
4𝑟
a= = 2√2𝑟
√2

Volume of the unit cell = a3 = (2√2𝑟) 3

4 16
Volume of spheres = 4 x 𝜋𝑟 3 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3 3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
Packing efficiency = x 100 %
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
16
𝜋 𝑟3
3
= x 100 %
( 2√2 𝑟)3

Packing efficiency = 74 %

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 9. Calculate the packing efficiency in body-centred cubic (bcc) lattice.
Let ‘a’ be the edge length of the unit cell and ‘r’ is the radius of sphere.
From Δ EFD
FD2 = EF2 + ED2
FD2 = a2 + a2 = 2a2
Now in Δ AFD
AF2 = AD2 + FD2
AF2 = a2 + 2a2 = 3a2
AF = √3 a , But AF = 4r
4𝑟
Therefore, 4r = √3𝑎 then a =
√3

Volume of the unit cell = a3 = (4r /√3)3

4 8
Volume of spheres = 2 x 𝜋𝑟 3 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3 3
Volume occupied by two spheres
Packing efficiency = x 100 %
Volume of the unit cell
8
πr3
3
= 𝟑 x 100 %
(4r/√3 )

Packing efficiency = 68 %

10. Give any two differences between Schottky and Frenkel defect
Schottky defects Frenkel defect
Missing of equal number of cations and Displacement of cation from their lattice
anions from their lattice sites is called sites into the interstitial site is called
Schottky defect. Frenkel defect.
Density of the crystal decreases No change in the density of crystal

NOTE : AgBr shows both Schottky and Frenkel defects.

11. Sodium metal crystallises in a BCC structure. Its unit cell edge length is 420 pm.
Calculate its density. (Atomic mass of sodium = 23 𝝁, NA = 6.022x1023 mol-1)
Z x M 2 𝑋 23 46
d= = = = 1.031 g 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑁𝐴 x 𝑎 3 6.022 𝑋 1023 𝑋(4.20)3 𝑋 10−24 6.022 𝑋 1023 (4.20)3 𝑋 10−24

12. What are F-centres. Mention their importance.

The anionic sites occupied by unpaired electrons are called F- centres.
They imparts colour to crystal.

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Unit – 2 Solutions

1. Define the term ‘molarity’ and ‘molality’ of a solution.

Molarity is defined as the number of moles of the solute dissolved in a litre of the solution.
Molality is defined as the number of moles of the solute dissolved in one kg of the solvent.

2. (a) State Henry’s law. Write its mathematical form.

(b) Give any two applications of Henry’s law.
(a) ‘At constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the
pressure of the gas’.

p = KH ᵡ Where; KH is called Henry’s constant

(b) The law is used

 In the preparation of carbonated beverages
 By scuba divers for respiration

NOTE : Higher the value of KH lower is the solubility of gas

3. How solubility of a gas in liquids varies with temperature and pressure

 Decreases with temperature
 Increases with pressure.

4. State Raoult’s law for liquid mixtures.

‘For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of a component at a given
temperature is directly proportional to mole fraction of that component in the solution.’

5. Give any two differences between Ideal and Non – Ideal solutions.

Ideal Solutions Non – Ideal Solutions

Solutions which obey Raoult’s law Solutions which does not obey Raoult’s law
are called ideal solutions. are called non – ideal solutions.
Ex : n-hexane and n-heptane Ex : Phenol and Aniline
ΔmixV = 0 ΔmixV ≠ 0
ΔmixH = 0 ΔmixH ≠ 0

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 6. Define boiling point elevation constant OR molal elevation constant OR Ebullioscopic
constant. Mention its SI unit.
The elevation in boiling point when the molality of the solution is unity.
SI unit is K Kg mol-1

7. Define freezing point depression constant OR molal depression constant OR Cryoscopic

constant. Mention its SI unit.
The depression in freezing point when the molality of the solution is unity.
SI unit is K Kg mol-1

8. Define isotonic solution. What happens when the blood cell is dipped in a solution
containing more than normal saline concentration (0.9% m/v sodium chloride)?
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called isotonic solutions.
Blood cells gets shrink.

9. What are azeotropes? Give an example for binary solutions showing minimum boiling
azeotrope.
Azeotropes are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and
boils at a constant temperature.
Ex : Ethanol-Water

10. What is reverse osmosis? Mention its one practical utility (use).
The process of reversing the direction of osmosis by applying the pressure, higher than the
osmatic pressure to the solution of higher concentration is called reverse osmosis.
Used in desalination of sea water.

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Unit – 3 Electrochemistry

1. Mention any two factors which affects the conductivity of electrolytic solution.
 Temperature
 Nature of the electrolyte

2. What is molar conductivity OR molar conductance? Write its SI unit.

The conductance due to all the ions produced from one mole of an electrolyte dissolved.
SI unit is S m2 mol-1

3. What is meant by limiting molar conductivity.

The conductivity of electrolytic solution at infinite dilution is called limiting molar conductivity.

4. State Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions.

‘It states that ‘Limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as the sum of the
individual contributions of the cation and anion of the electrolyte’.

5. Write Nernst equation for Daniel cell. Explain the terms?

𝑅𝑇 [𝑀]
EMn+ / M = E0Mn+ / M – ln
𝑛𝐹 [𝑀𝑛+]

Where; ‘R’ gas constant

‘T’ Temperature in kelvin
‘F’ Faraday’s constant

6. What is Daniell cell? Describe the construction and working of Daniel cell.
A Daniell cell is an electrochemical cell which carries out chemical reactions to produce
electricity.
Construction :
 Zinc rod dipped in zinc sulphate solution acts as anode.
 Copper rod dipped in copper sulphate solution acts as cathode.
 The two solutions are interconnected using a salt bridge and the two
electrodes are connected externally through voltmeter and a switch.

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 e- →
. ← current
Zn salt bridge Cu

Zn2+ SO42- Cu2+ SO42-

ZnSO4 CuSO4
Working : When switch is on, the electrons move from anode to cathode producing electric
current.
At anode ; Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
At cathode ; Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Overall cell reaction ; Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
 Representation of cell Zn | Zn 2 1m  || Cu 2 1m  | Cu

 Standard emf of cell is 1.1 volt

7. State Faraday’s first law and Faraday's second law of electrolysis.

First law :
It states that ‘The amount of substance deposited on cathode is directly proportional to quantity
of electric current supplied’.
W= ZxIxt
Where; Z is called Electro-chemical equivalent
Second law :
It states that the ‘The amounts of different substances liberated by the same quantity of
electricity passing through the electrolytic solution are proportional to their chemical equivalent
weights’.

8. Explain the construction and working of Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE).

OR
Draw a neat labelled diagram of SHE, write symbolic representation and half cell reactions
Construction :
It consists of a platinum foil fitted into a glass tube containing mercury.
The inner glass tube is enclosed in an outer jar that contains an inlet at the top to pass H2 gas.
The whole apparatus is placed in 1M HCl solution.

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 Working:
Pure and dry hydrogen gas at 1 bar pressure passed is
adsorbed on platinum surface.
1
At Anode : H2(g) → H+(aq) + e-
2
1
At Cathode : H+(aq) + e- → H2(g)
2

 Representation of SHE is Pt(s) / H2(g, 1 bar) || H+(aq, 1M)

 Emf of SHE is 0.0 V

9. What is a Primary and Secondary cell? Give an example.

A primary cell is one where the reaction occurs only once and after use over a period of time
battery becomes dead.
Ex : Dry cell
A secondary cell is one where after use it can be recharged by passing current through it in the
opposite direction.
Ex : Lead storage cell

10. Write the equations of anodic and cathodic reactions occur during rusting of iron.
At Anode :
2Fe (s) → 2Fe2+(aq) + 4e-
At Cathode :
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- → 2H2O (l)

11. Write the equations of anodic and cathodic reactions of Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell.
At Anode :
2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) → 4H2O (l) + 4e-
At Cathode:
O2(g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e- → 4OH-(aq)

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Unit–4 Chemical Kinetics

1. Mention any two factors which influence the rate of the reaction.
 Temperature
 Catalyst

2. What is a Pseudo first order reaction? Give an example.

The reaction where higher is converted to first order by taking concentration of all reactants in
excess except one reactant is called pseudo first order reaction.
Ex : Acid hydrolysis of methyl acetate

3. Derive an integrated rate equation for the rate constant of a ZERO ORDER reaction.

Consider a zero order reaction

R → P

d[R]
− = K [R]0
dt

d[R] = − K dt (∵ [R]0 = 1)

On integration we get,

[R] = −Kt + I ------------- (1)

Where ‘I’ is integration constant.

When, t = 0 then [R] = [R]0

Therefore [R]0 = −K x 0 + I

Then I = [R]0

equation (1) becomes

[R] = −Kt + [R]o

Kt = [R]o – [R]

[R]o – [R]
K =
t

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 4. Derive an integrated rate equation for the rate constant of a FIRST ORDER reaction.
Consider a first order reaction
R→ P
d[R]
− = K [R]1
dt

d[R]
= − K dt On integration we get,
[R]

ln [R] = - K.t + I -------------- (1)

When t = 0 then, [R] = [R]0

ln[R]0 = −K x 0 + I

Then I = − ln[R]0 equation (1) becomes

ln [R] = - Kt + ln[R]0

Kt = ln[R]0 – ln[R]

[𝑅]0
Then, Kt = ln
[R]

2.303 [𝑅]0
K= log
t [R]

5. (a) Unit of rate constant of a reaction is same as the unit of rate of reaction. What is the
order of reaction.
(b) What is the order of a reaction whose rate expression is rate = k [A]1/2 [B]3/2
1 3
(a) Zero order (b) + =2
2 2

6. (a) Define half life period (t1/2) of a reaction.

(b) Show that for a zero order reaction half -life period is directly proportional to initial
concentration of the reactant.
(a) It is the time taken to complete the reaction by 50%
[R]o – [R]
(b) We know that, K =
t
1
When, t = t1/2 then [R] = [R]0
2
1 1
[𝑅]0 – [𝑅]0 [𝑅]0
2 2
K= =
t1/2 t1/2

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 [𝑅]0
K= OR [𝑅]0
2 t1/2 t1/2 =
2K

7. Show that for a first order reaction half- life is independent of the initial concentration of
the reactant.
2.303 [𝑅]0
We know that, K = log
t [R]

1
When, t = t1/2 then [R] = [R]0
2

2.303 [𝑅]0 2.303

K= log = log 2
𝑡1/2 [𝑅]0 /2 𝑡1/2

2.303 x 0.3010 0.693

K= =
𝑡1/2 𝑡1/2

0.693
t1/2 =
K

Therefore, for a first order reaction t1/2 is independent of initial concentration.

8. Explain the effect of catalyst on the activation energy of a reaction with graph.
The effect is explained by intermediate complex formation theory.
According to this theory, a catalyst combines with the reactants to form an intermediate complex
which is decomposes to products.
A positive catalyst increases the rate of reaction by providing an alternative pathway with lower
activation energy.

↑ Without catalyst
Potential With catalyst
Energy Ea Ea
Reactants
Products
Reaction coordinate →

9. Give any two differences between order and molecularity

Order Molecularity
It can be zero, a whole number or fraction It is always a whole number
Experimental quantity Theoretical quantity

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Unit-5 Surface Chemistry

1. What is the change in enthalpy (ΔH), entropy (ΔS) and Gibbs free energy (ΔG) during
adsorption of gas on a solid?
ΔH, ΔS and ΔG all are decreases OR ΔH, ΔS and ΔG all are negative

2. What are Homogeneous and Heterogeneous catalysis? Give an example for each.
The process in which both reactants and the catalyst are present in the same phase is called
homogeneous catalysis
𝐻𝐶𝑙(l)
Ex : CH3COOCH3(l) + H2O(l) → CH3COOH(aq) + CH3OH(aq)
The process in which the reactants and the catalyst are in different phases is called heterogeneous
catalysis.
𝐹𝑒(𝑠)
Ex : N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

3. Write the differences between Physisorption and Chemisorption.

Physical adsorption (Physisorption) Chemical adsorption (Chemisorption)

Low heat of adsorption High heat of adsorption
Reversible Irreversible
Multi molecular layers Mono molecular layer

4. Write the differences between Lyophilic and Lyophobic colloids.

Lyophilic colloids Lyophobic colloids

The colloids in which there is a strong affinity The colloids in which there is no affinity
between dispersed phase and dispersion medium between dispersed phase and dispersion
is called lyophilic colloids. medium is called lyophobic colloids.
Ex : Starch sol Ex : Gold sol
More stable Less stable
Reversible in nature Irreversible in nature

5. Write the expression for Freundlich adsorption isotherm.

𝑥
= k.p1/n where (n > 1)
𝑚

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 6. What is (a) multimolecular colloid (b) macromolecular colloid (c) associated colloid.
(a) In which a large number of atoms and small molecules aggregate to form particles of
colloidal size.
(b) In which substances having molecules of large size, when dispersed in a medium, form
macromolecules of the colloidal range.
(c) Some substances of intermediate size at higher concentration aggregate to form colloidal
particles are called associated colloid.

7. What is peptization? Give an example.

The process of converting freshly prepared precipitate into colloidal sol by adding small amount
of suitable electrolyte is called peptization.
Ex : Freshly prepared Fe(OH)3 precipitate is treated with FeCl3 solution.

8. What is dialysis? Explain how it is used to purify colloidal solutions.

It is a process of removing a dissolved substances from a colloidal solution by means of
diffusion through a suitable membrane.
An impure colloidal solution is taken in a semipermeable membrane and it is kept in a vessel
containing moving water. The ions diffuse through membrane into the outer water and pure
colloidal solution is left.

9. What is coagulation of a sol? Name two methods by which a lyophobic sol can be
coagulated?
The process of settling of colloidal particles is called coagulation of sol.
 By boiling
 By adding an electrolyte

10. What is Tyndall effect? Mention any two conditions to occur Tyndall effect.
Scattering of light by colloidal particles is called Tyndall effect.
 Diameter of particle and wavelength of the light used should be same.
 Large difference in the refractive indices of dispersed phase and dispersion medium.

11. What is Brownian movement? Give reason for that.

The zig-zag movement of colloidal particles in the colloidal solution is called Brownian
movement.
It is due to bombardment of particles by the molecules of dispersion medium.
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 12. (a) What is electrophoresis?
(b) State Hardy-Schulze rule.
The movement of colloidal particles either towards anode or cathode under the influence of
electric field is called electrophoresis.
It states that ‘Greater the value of the flocculating ion added, the greater is its power to cause
precipitation’.

Unit–6 General principles and process of isolation of elements

1. How is pure alumina is obtained from bauxite by leaching process?

Al2O3 is treated with NaOH gives sodium aluminate leaving the impurities behind.
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2Na[Al(OH) 4](aq)
The solution is neutralized by passing CO2 gas
2Na[Al (OH) 4](aq) + 2CO2(g) → Al2O3.xH2O (s) + 2NaHCO3(aq)
Hydrated alumina is filtered, dried to give back pure Al2O3.
Al2O3.xH2O(s) → Al2O3(s) + xH2O(g)

2. Explain Zone refining.

Principle : Impurities are more soluble in the molten state than in the solid state.
A moving electrical coil is fixed at one end of a impure metal rod.
On heating, pure metal solidifies while impurities pass into the molten zone. The process is
repeated for several times.
This method is used to get ultra-pure metals for producing semiconductors like germanium and
silicon.

Recrystallized zone

Solid

Electric Coil Impurities

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 3. Explain Mond’s process for refining of nickel.
The crude metal is heated with carbon monoxide gives tetra carbonyl.
On heating tetra carbonyl gives metal.
350 𝐾
Ni + 4CO → Ni(CO)4

450 𝐾
Ni (CO)4 → Ni + 4CO

4. Explain Van Arkel method for refining of Zirconium or Titanium.

The crude metal is heated with iodine, gives tetra iodides.
On heating tetra iodides gives metal.
850 𝐾
Zr + 2I2 → ZrI4
200 𝐾
ZrI4 → Zr + 2I2

Metals used in space technology purified by this method.

5. Write down the reactions taking place in different zones in the Blast furnace during the
extraction of iron.
Combustion zone :
At the bottom of the furnace carbon burns with hot air gives CO2.
CO2 moves upwards meets more carbon gives carbon monoxide.
C + O2 → CO2
C + CO2 → 2CO
Reduction zone :
At the top of the furnace CO reduces iron oxide to iron
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
Slag zone :
Limestone decomposed to CaO, which is combined with SiO2 form a slag.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

6. Write the composition of copper matte.

Cu2S + FeS

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 7. Draw labelled diagram of Hall – Heroult Electrolytic cell for the extraction of aluminium.
Write anode and cathode reactions.
A purified Al2O3 (bauxite) is mixed with Na3AlF6, which lowers the melting point and increases
the conductivity of the melt.
Anode :
Graphite rod
C(s) + O2-(melt) → CO (g) + 2e-
C(s) + 2O2-(melt) → CO2(g) + 4e-
Cathode :
Steel vessel with carbon lining
Al3+(melt) + 3e- → Al
Overall reaction is
2Al2O3 + 3C → 4Al + 3CO2

Unit–7 The p – block elements

1. Give any two reasons for anomalous behaviour of nitrogen / oxygen / fluorine.
 Small size
 High electronegativity

2. Give any two anomalous properties of nitrogen.

Nitrogen is a gas while other elements are solids.
Nitrogen is diatomic while other elements are polyatomic.

3. For the manufacture of Ammonia by Haber’s process, write the flow chart and chemical
equations with optimum conditions.
N2 and H2 combined in the ratio of 1:3, gives ammonia
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the optimum conditions to get good yield of ammonia are,
Optimum temperature of 700 K,
High pressure of 200 atm,
In presence of iron oxide as catalyst

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 4. In the manufacture of sulphuric acid by contact process write reactions and optimum
conditions?
 Burning of sulphur in air gives sulphur dioxide
S + O2 → SO2
 Sulphur dioxide oxidised to sulphur trioxide with air
𝑉2 𝑂5
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the optimum conditions to get a good yield of SO3 are,
Optimum temperature of 720 K,
High pressure of 2 bar,
In presence of V2O5 as catalyst.
 Absorption of SO3 in H2SO4 gives oleum. (Fuming sulphuric acid is called oleum)
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7
 Oleum with water gives sulphuric acid.
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4

5. Write the balanced chemical equations with conditions involved in the manufacture of
Nitric acid by Ostwald’s process.
Ammonia is oxidized by air in the presence of Pt – Rh gauze catalyst at 500 K and 9 bar, gives
nitric oxide.
𝑃𝑡 − 𝑅ℎ 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g)
The nitric oxide is oxidised by air, it gives nitrogen dioxide
2NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
Nitrogen dioxide so formed, dissolves in water it gives nitric acid.
3N O2 (g) + H2O (l) → 2HNO3 (aq) + NO (g)
NO thus formed is recycled.

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 6. (a) Describe the preparation of ozonised oxygen (Ozone) with an equation.
(b) Why ozone acts as powerful oxidising agent?
(a) It is prepared by passing silent electric discharge through pure and dry oxygen.
3O2 (g) → 2O3 (g)
(b) Because ozone liberates nascent oxygen
O3 → O2 + (O)

7. Give reason : i) Hydrogen bonding in H2O but not in H2S.

ii) Conc. H2SO4 is a good dehydrating agent.
i) Due to small size and high electronegativity of oxygen.
ii) Due to its high affinity towards water.

8. What are inter halogen compounds? Give an example.

The compounds obtained when two different halogens react with each other are called inter
halogen compounds.
Ex : ClF

9. Give reason : Inter halogen compounds are more reactive than halogens (except fluorine).
This is because X – X1 bond in inter halogens is weaker than X – X bond in halogens,
except F – F bond.

10. For Noble gases

(a) Give reason for chemical inertness
(b) Noble gases have very low boiling point why?
(c)Name the noble gas obtained as decay product of 226Ra.
(d) Name the noble gas used in the treatment of cancer.
(e) Which noble gas is most abundant in atmospheric dry air?
(f) Mention the main commercial source of helium.
(g) Name the noble gas having ns2np6 configuration but does not have d-orbitals in its
valence shell.
(h) Name the first noble gas compound prepared by Neil Bartlett.
(a) They have ns2np6 configuration.
(b) Due to weak dispersion forces between their atoms.
(c) Radon (d) Radon (e) Argon
(f) Natural gas (g) Neon (h) Xe[PtF6]
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Unit – 8 d and f- block Elements

1. Give reason : The electronic configuration of chromium is [Ar] 3d5 4s1 but not [Ar] 3d4 4s2,
similarly for copper is [Ar] 3d10 4s1 but not [Ar] 3d9 4s2.
This is because, half -filled and completely filled orbitals are more stable.

2. Name the metal of the first row transition series (3d series) that
(i) has maximum number of unpaired electrons in its ground state.
(ii) exhibits maximum number of oxidation states.
(iii) has zero spin only magnetic moment in its +2 oxidation state.
(iv) element that do not show variable oxidation state.
(i) Chromium (ii) Manganese
(iii) Zinc (iv) Zinc

3. Transition metals and many of their compounds acts as good catalyst. Explain
Most of the transition elements and their compounds are acts as good catalysts.
The catalytic properties is due to,
 Variable oxidation states.
 Large surface area in the finely divided state.
Ex : Iron is used as a catalyst in Haber’s process.

4. What are interstitial compounds? Give an example. Write any two characteristics.
The compounds obtained, when small atoms like H, C or N are trapped inside the crystal lattices
of metals are called interstitial compounds.
Ex : TiC
 They are chemically inert
 They are very hard

5. What is Lanthanide contraction? Mention one of its consequence and cause for it.
The gradual decrease in atomic and ionic radii from lanthanum to lutetium is called lanthanide
contraction.
Consequence : Almost identical radii of Zr and Hf.
Cause: It is due to imperfect shielding of 4f electrons.

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 6. Give reason Sc+3, Ti4+, Zn2+, Cu+ salts are colourless.
Due to absence of unpaired electrons.

7. Give reason; (i) 3d series elements exhibit variable oxidation states.

(ii) Transition elements form complex compounds.
(iii) Actinides show variable oxidation states
(iv) Zr and Hf have almost identical size OR atomic radii of second and
third series elements are almost identical.
(i) Due to loss of inner (n-1)d and outer ns electrons.
(ii) Due to small size and high charge.
(iii) Due to comparable energies of 5f, 6d and 7s energy levels
(iv) Due to lanthanide contraction

8. Explain the manufacture of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) from chromite ore (FeCr2O4)
Chromite ore is mixed with soda ash and burnt in excess of air gives sodium chromate.
4FeCr2O4 + 8Na2CO3 + 7O2 8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8CO2
Sodium chromate is treated with acid gives sodium dichromate.
2Na2CrO4 + 2H+ Na2Cr2O7 + 2Na+ + H2O
Sodium dichromate is treated with potassium chloride gives potassium dichromate.
Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl

9. How is Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is prepared from MnO2. Write equations.

When MnO2 is fused with KOH gives potassium manganite.
2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2 2K2MnO4 + 2H2O
Potassium manganite in acidic medium gives potassium permanganate.
3K2MnO4 + 4H+ 2KMnO4 + MnO2 + 2H2O + 4K+

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Unit – 9 Co-ordination Compounds

1. Write the postulates of Werner’s theory.

 The central metal show two types of valences, namely primary and secondary valency.
 Primary valences are ionisable and are satisfied by negative ions.
 Secondary valences are non-ionisable and are satisfied by neutral molecules or negative
ions.

2. What are ambidentate and chelating ligands? Give an example for each.
Ligand which can ligate through two different donor atoms to central metal is known as
ambidentate ligand.
Ex : NO2-
A bidentate or polydentate ligand boded with central metal with two or more donor atoms is
known as chelating ligand.
Ex : EDTA

3. Using Valence bond theory account for the geometry and magnetic property of [CoF6]3-.
In [CoF6]3- the cobalt ion is in +3 oxidation state.
For Co3+ the electronic configuration is [Ar] 3d6 4s0

[Ar]
3d 4s 4p 4d
Fluoride is a weak ligand, hence no pairing of electrons takes place in d-orbitals.
Hybridization takes place gives six vacant sp3d2 hybridized orbitals.

Six pairs of electrons, from six fluoride ligands occupy hybrid orbitals.

[Ar]

3d sp3d2
Due to presence of unpaired electrons, the complex is paramagnetic.
It has octahedral geometry.

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 4. Using Valence bond theory account for the geometry and magnetic property of
[Co(NH3)6]3+.
In [Co(NH3)6]3+ the cobalt ion is in +3 oxidation state.
For Co3+ the electronic configuration is [Ar] 3d6 4s0

[Ar]
3d 4s 4p
NH3 is a strong ligand, hence pairing of electrons takes place in d-orbitals.
Hybridization takes place gives six vacant d2sp3 hybridized orbitals.

Six pairs of electrons from six NH3 ligands, occupy hybrid orbitals.

[Ar]
3d d2sp3
Due to absence of unpaired electrons, the complex is diamagnetic.
It has octahedral geometry.

5. Using Valence bond theory account for the geometry and magnetic property of [NiCl4]2-.
In [NiCl4]2- the nickel ion is in +2 oxidation state.
For Ni2+ the electronic configuration is [Ar] 3d8 4s0

[Ar]
3d 4s 4p
Chloride is a weak ligand, hence no pairing of electrons takes place in d-orbitals.
Hybridization takes place gives four vacant sp3 hybridized orbitals.

Four pairs of electrons, from four chloride ligands occupy hybrid orbitals.

[Ar]
3d sp3
Due to presence of unpaired electrons, the complex is paramagnetic.
It has tetrahedral geometry.

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 6. Using Valence bond theory account for the geometry and magnetic property of [Ni(CN)4]2-.
In [Ni(CN)4]2- the nickel ion is in +2 oxidation state
For Ni2+ the electronic configuration is [Ar] 3d8 4s0

[Ar]
3d 4s 4p
Cyanide is a strong ligand, hence pairing of electrons takes place in d-orbitals.
Hybridization takes place gives four vacant dsp2 hybridized orbitals.

Four pairs of electrons, from four cyanide ligands occupy hybrid orbitals.

[Ar]
3d dsp2 4p
Due to absence of unpaired electrons, the complex is diamagnetic.
It has square planar geometry.

7. What are Homoleptic and Heteroleptic complexes? Give an example.

Complexes in which a metal is bound to only one kind of ligands are called homoleptic
complexes.
Ex : Ni(CO)4
Complexes in which a metal is bound to more than one kind of ligands are called heteroleptic
complexes.
Ex : [CoCl3(NH3)3]

8. What is spectrochemical series? Explain the difference between a weak field and a strong
field ligand.
The arrangement of ligands in order of their increasing field strengths is called spectrochemical
series.
 Ligands with small value of crystal field splitting energy are weak ligand.
 Ligands with large value of crystal field splitting energy are strong ligand.

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 9. What is (a) crystal field splitting?
(b) Crystal field stabilisation energy?
(a) The splitting of d-orbitals into t2g and eg sets under the influence of ligands.
(b) It is the difference in energy between t2g and eg orbitals after splitting.

10. Discuss the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls.

In metal carbonyls the metal - carbon bond posses both σ and π – character.
The metal – carbon σ bond is formed by the donation of loan pair of electrons on the carbonyl
carbon into vacant d-orbitals of metal.
The metal – carbon π bond is formed by the donation of a pair
of electrons from a filled d-orbitals of metal into the vacant
antibonding π* orbital of CO.
It is called back bonding or synergic bonding.
The metal to ligand bonding creates a synergic effect which
strengthens the bond between CO and metal.

11. What are solvate (hydrate) and coordination isomerism? Give an example for each.
 Solvate isomerism :
Two or more coordination compounds with the same molecular formula but differ in number of
water molecules as ligands and water of hydration.
Ex : [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 and [Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2 . H2O
 Coordination isomerism :
Two or more coordination compounds with the same molecular formula but interchange of
ligands in the coordination sphere of cationic and anionic parts.
Ex : [Co(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6] and [Cr(NH3)6] [Co(CN)6]

12. What are linkage and ionization isomerism? Give an example for each.
 Linkage isomerism :
Two or more coordination compounds with the same molecular formula but the same ligand
linked to central metal with different donor atom.
Ex : [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]Cl2 and [Co(NH3)5(ONO)]Cl2
 Ionisation isomerism :
Two or more coordination compounds with the same molecular formula but give different ions
on ionization in solution.
Ex : [Co(NH3)5(SO4)]Br and [Co(NH3)5Br] SO4
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Unit – 10 Haloalkanes and haloarenes

1. Explain SN1 mechanism for the conversion of tertiary butyl bromide to tertiary butyl
alcohol.
Step (1) : Tertiary butyl bromide undergoes slow ionization gives carbocation.
CH3 CH3
CH3-C-Br CH3-C + + Br -
CH3 CH3
Step (2) : The nucleophile attack carbocation to form the product.
CH3 CH3
CH3-C + + OH- CH3-C-OH
CH3 CH3

2. Explain SN2 mechanism for the conversion of methyl chloride to methyl alcohol.
The nucleophile OH- attacks the carbon atom from the side opposite to the chlorine.
The formation of C-OH and the cleavage of C-Cl bond takes place simultaneously.
Finally Cl- gets detached to give methyl alcohol.
OH-

3. What is chiral carbon atom OR asymmetric carbon atom OR chirality centre OR stereo
centre? Give an example.
A carbon atom bonded to four different atoms is called chiral carbon atom.
Ex : CH3
H – C* – OH
COOH

4. What are enantiomers ? Give example.

Optically active isomers which are non-super impossible on their mirror images are called
enantiomers.
Ex : (+) Lactic acid and (-) Lactic acid
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 5. What is racemic mixtures? Give example
The equimolar mixture of enantiomers is called racemic mixture.
Ex : ( ± ) Lactic acid

6. Explain Finkelstein and Swart’s reactions. Write the general equation.

When alkyl chlorides are heated with sodium iodide in dry acetone, gives alkyl iodides. This
reaction is called Finkelstein reaction.
𝐴𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒
R - X + NaI → R - I + NaX
When alkyl chlorides are heated with silver fluorides, gives alkyl fluorides. This reaction is
called Swarts reaction.
R - X + AgF → R - F + AgX

7. Explain Fittig and Wurtz-Fittig reaction with equation.

When two molecules of aryl halides are coupled in presence of sodium metal in dry ether, gives
biphenyl. This reaction is called Fittig reaction.

When aryl halide coupling with alkyl halide in presence of sodium metal in dry ether, gives
alkylarene. This reaction is called Wurtz-Fittig reaction.

8. Give any two reasons, aryl halides are less reactive than alkyl halides towards nucleophilic
substitution reactions.
It is due to
 Resonance effect
 Repulsion between nucleophile and benzene ring

9. What are Freon’s? Give an example.

The chlorofluoro compounds of methane and ethane are called Freon’s.
Ex : Freon 12

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Unit – 11 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers

1. Explain the preparation of phenol from Cumene.

When Cumene is oxidised in presence of air gives Cumene hydroperoxide.
Cumene hydroperoxide on acidification gives phenol and acetone.

2. How is phenol prepared from aniline? Write the equation.

A diazonium salt is formed by treating an aromatic primary amine with nitrous acid
at 273-278 K. Diazonium salt is hydrolysed to phenol by warming with water.

3. Write the mechanism of acid catalysed hydration of ethene to ethanol (alkene to alcohol)

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 4. Write the mechanism of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to ethene (alcohol to alkene)
Step (1) : Protonation of alcohol yields protonated alcohol.

Step (2) : Protonated alcohol loses water molecule to form ethyl carbocation.

Step (3) : Ethyl carbocation loses a proton to form ethene.

5. What is Lucas reagent? How does it is used to distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary
alcohols?
A solution of anhydrous zinc chloride in concentrated HCl is called Lucas reagent.
With Lucas reagent
 Primary alcohols do not produce turbidity
 Secondary alcohols produce turbidity after 5 minutes
 Tertiary alcohols produces turbidity immediately

6. Explain Reimer-Tieman reaction.

When phenol is heated with sodium hydroxide and CHCl3, sodium salt of Salicylaldehyde is
obtained, which on acidified with HCl gives Salicylaldehyde.

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 7. Explain Kolbe’s reaction.
When phenol is heated with NaOH gives sodium phenate and then CO2 is passed through it and
followed by acidification gives salicylic acid.

8. How is phenol is converted into benzene. Write the reaction.

Phenol is converted to benzene on heating with zinc dust.

9. How is phenol reacts with bromine water. Write equation.

When phenol is treated with bromine water, a white precipitate of 2, 4, 6-tribromophenol is
formed.

10. Explain Williamson’s ether synthesis.

When alkyl halide is heated with sodium alkoxides, gives ether. This reaction is called
Williamson’s ether synthesis.
Ex : CH3Br + NaOC2H5 CH3-O-CH2-CH3 + NaBr
Methyl Sodium Ethyl methyl
bromide ethoxide ether

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Unit-12 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic acids

1. Explain Rosenmund’s reduction in the preparations of aldehydes.

When acid chlorides heated with H2 in the presence of palladium catalyst gives aldehydes. This
reaction is called Rosenmund reduction.
COCl CHO
Pd-BaSO4
+ H2 + HCl
Benzoyl chloride Benzaldehyde

2. Explain Gatterman-Koch reaction in the preparations of aldehydes.

When benzene is heated with a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride in presence
of anhydrous AlCl3 catalyst, gives benzaldehyde. This reaction is called Gatterman-Koch
reaction.

3. Explain Clemmensen reduction with an example.

The reduction of aldehydes with zinc amalgam and concentrated HCl to corresponding
hydrocarbon is called Clemmensen reduction.
𝑍𝑛−𝐻𝑔 /𝐻𝐶𝑙
CH3CHO + 4[H] → CH3-CH3 + H2O

4. Name the reagent used in (a) Etard’s reaction

(b) Clemmensen reduction
(a) CrO2Cl2 in CS2
(b) Zinc amalgam in [Link]

5. What is a Cannizzaro’s reaction explain with an example.

Aldehydes do not containing α-hydrogen atoms are reacted with strong alkali gives alcohol and
salt of carboxylic acid. This reaction is called Cannizzaro’s reaction.
2HCHO + NaOH HCOONa + CH3OH
Formaldehyde Sodium formate Methanol

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 6. Explain Decarboxylation reaction with an example.
The process of removal of CO2 from sodium salt of carboxylic acids using dry soda lime
(NaOH + CaO) is called decarboxylation.
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝑎𝑂
CH3COONa → CH4 + Na2CO3
Sodium acetate Methane

7. Explain esterification reaction with an example.

When alcohols are heated with carboxylic acids in presence of an acid catalyst gives esters.
𝐻+
CH3COOH + CH3OH → CH3COOCH3 + H2O
Acetic acid Methanol Methyl acetate

8. Explain the mechanism of addition of HCN to a carbonyl group in presence of a base.

CN- ion attacks to carbon of the carbonyl group to form alkoxide ion.
Protonation of alkoxide oxygen gives cyanohydrin product.

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Unit – 13 Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen

1. How is primary amine is prepared by Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction? Write

equation.
Amides on heating with Br2 in presence of NaOH, gives primary amine is called Hoffmann
bromamide reaction.
CH3CONH2 + Br2 + 4NaOH(aq) CH3NH2 + Na2CO3 + 2NaBr + 2H2O
Acetamide Methanamine

2. How do you convert nitrobenzene to aniline? Give equation.

Nitrobenzene is reduced to aniline by passing hydrogen gas in the presence of palladium

3. How is aniline converted to Benzene diazonium chloride? Give equation.

OR
How does aromatic primary amine reacts with nitrous acid?
OR
What is diazotization.
Aromatic primary amines reacts with nitrous acid at 0 – 50 C to give diazonium salts. This
reaction is called diazotization.
C6H5NH2 + HNO2 + HCl → C6H5N2Cl + 2H2O
Aniline Nitrous acid Benzene diazonium chloride

4. What is ammonolysis? Give chemical equation to convert primary amine to quarternary

ammonium salt.
The process of cleavage of C-X bond by ammonia molecule is called ammonolysis.
+ 𝑅−𝑋 + 𝑅−𝑋 + 𝑅−𝑋
R-NH2 → R2NH → R3N → R4N+X-
10 amine 20 amine 30 amine quaternary ammonium salt

5. What is Hinsberg reagent?

Benzene sulphonyl chloride is called Hinsberg reagent.

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 6. Between CH3NH2 and C6H5NH2 which is more basic? Give reason
CH3NH2 is more basic
Due to +I effect of methyl group.

7. Explain Gatterman reaction with example.

Chlorine or bromine are introduced in the benzene ring by treating the diazonium salt solution
with corresponding halogen acid in the presence of copper powder is called Gatterman reaction.
𝐶𝑢/𝐻𝐶𝑙
Ex : C6H5N2X → C6H5Cl + N2 + CuX

8. Explain Carbylamine reaction with example.

When a primary amine is heated with chloroform and alcoholic KOH carbylamines are formed.
This reaction is called Carbylamine reaction.
This is used as a test for primary amines.
CH3NH2 + CHCl3 + 3KOH CH3NC + 3KCl + 3H2O
Methyl amine Methyl isocyanide

Unit-14 Biomolecules

1. Give a reaction to show that glucose contains six carbon atoms in the straight chain.
Glucose on heating with HI and red phosphorous gives n-hexane.
CHO
𝛥
(CHOH)4 + HI → CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH2OH

2. What are reducing sugars? Give an example.

The carbohydrates which reduces Tollen’s reagent are called reducing sugars.
Ex : Glucose

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 3. Write Haworth structure of glucose and maltose.

Glucose :

Maltose :

4. Write the Haworth structure of α-D(-) fructofuranose and β-D(-) fructofuranose.

5. What are essential and non-essential amino acids? Give an example.

Amino acids that are not synthesised in the body and must be supplied through diet are called
essential amino acids.
Ex : Lysine
Amino acids that are synthesised in the body are called non-essential amino acids.
Ex : Glycine

6. What is a peptide bond? How many peptide bonds are present in a tetra-peptide?
The amide bond formed between two ∝ - amino acids is called peptide bond.
Three peptide bonds.

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 7. What is meant by denaturation of proteins? Give an example.
Which level of structure remains intact during denaturation of globular protein?
The process of loss of biological activity of a protein due to heating is called denaturation of
protein.
Ex : Coagulation of egg on heating
Primary structure remain intact.

8. What is a Zwitter ion? Write the general formula of Zwitter ionic form of an amino acid.
The dipolar ion of amino acid is called Zwitter ion.
H3N+ – CH – COO-
R

9. What are fibrous and globular proteins? Give an example.

Long polypeptide chains arranged parallel to each other and held together by disulphide and
hydrogen bonds are called fibrous proteins.
Ex : Keratin (present in hair)
In globular proteins polypeptide chains are coiled around, giving a spherical shape.
Ex : Insulin

10. Answer the following questions.

Reducing sugar Glucose

Non-reducing sugar Sucrose

Nitrogen base present only in DNA Thymine

Nitrogen base present only in RNA Uracil

Water soluble component of starch Amylose

Water insoluble component of starch Amylopectin

Water soluble vitamin Vitamin C

Fat soluble vitamin Vitamin D

Deficiency of vitamin A Night blindness

Deficiency of vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Scurvy

Deficiency of vitamin D Rickets

Deficiency of vitamin B12 Pernicious anaemia
Hormone maintains blood sugar level Insulin

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Unit-15 Polymers

1. Name the monomer present in the following polymer.

Polymer Monomer unit
Poly vinyl chloride (PVC) Vinyl chloride
Polythene Ethene
Nylon 6,6 Hexamethylene diamine + adipic acid
Nylon-6 Caprolactum
Neoprene Chloroprene

Natural rubber Cis-isoprene

(IUPAC Name is 2-methyl buta-1,3-diene)

2. Explain the preparation of Buna-N.

Buna-N is obtained by the copolymerisation of 1,3-butadiene and acrylonitrile in the presence of
a peroxide catalyst .
CN CN
𝑁𝑎
nCH2=CH-CH=CH2 + nCH2=CH → [CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH2-CH ]n
1,3-butadiene Acrylonitrile Buna-N

3. Explain the preparation of Buna-S:

Buna-S is obtained by the co-polymerisation of 1,3-butadine and styrene.
C6H5
𝑁𝑎
nCH2=CH-CH=CH2 + nC6H5CH=CH2 → [CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH2-CH ]n
1,3-butadiene Styrene Buna-S

4. Explain preparation of Neoprene.

Neoprene are Polychloroprene is formed by the free radical polymerisation of chloroprene.

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 5. Explain Vulcanisation of rubber.
The process of heating natural rubber with sulphur, to improve the physical properties rubber is
called vulcanisation of rubber.
 During vulcanisation, sulphur forms bridges between different chains.
 Vulcanized rubber is hard, non-sticky and has high tensile strength.
 It is used for making rubber bands, gloves and tyres.

6. What are biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers? Give an example for each.
Polymers which undergo natural break down into raw materials of nature and disappear into
nature are called biodegradable polymers.
Ex : PHBV
Polymers which cannot undergo natural break down or break down over a long period of time
are called non-biodegradable polymers.
Ex : Polythene

7. What are addition and condensation polymers? Give an example.

The polymers formed by repeated addition of monomer molecules possessing double or triple
bonds are called addition polymers.
Ex : Polythene
The polymers formed by repeated condensation reaction between two different bi-functional
monomeric units are called condensation polymers.
Ex : Nylon 6,6

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Unit-16 Chemistry in everyday life

1. What are food preservatives? Give an example.

Food preservatives are chemicals that prevents food from spoilage due to microbial growth.
Ex : Table salt

2. What are antioxidants? Give an example.

The chemical substances which prevent oxidation and subsequent spoilage of the food are called
antioxidants.
Ex : Butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT)

3. What are antifertility drugs? Give an example.

The chemical compounds which prevents the pregnancy in women are called antifertility drugs.
Ex : Norethindrone

4. What are tranquilizers? Give an example.

Tranquilizers are drugs used for the treatment of stress and mental disorders.
Ex : Equanil

5. What are anionic detergents? Give an example.

Sodium salts of sulphonated long chain hydrocarbons are called anionic detergents.
Ex : Sodium lauryl sulphate

6. Give an example for each of the following.

Artificial sweetening agent : Saccharin
Antiseptic : Dettol
Non-narcotic analgesic : Aspirin

Nothing is Impossible ………

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