Republic of the Philippines

ILOCOS SUR POLYTECHNIC STATE COLLEGE

Main Campus, Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur

Learning Module in
Teaching Science
(Biology and Chemistry)

JAY-R C. REINTEGRADO
About this module:

In this module you will understand the spiraling basic science concepts and application of
science inquiry in Chemistry and Biology, strategies in teaching elementary science,
development of instructional materials and assessment. Content topics in Chemistry include
Properties and Structure of Matter and Changes that Matter Undergo. In Biology, content topics
include Parts and Functions of Animals and Plants, Heredity: Inheritance and Variation,
Biodiversity and Evolution and Ecosystems. Ultimately, the pre-service teachers will be
equipped with the pedagogical content knowledge in science as well as skills in instructional
materials development and knowledge of the design, selection, organization and use of
appropriate assessment strategies for the primary elementary grades (1-3).
The module is self-instructional and allows you to learn in your own space and pace.
So, relax and enjoy! To get the most out of this module, here are a few reminders:
1. Take your time in reading the lessons.
2. Write down points for clarification. You may discuss these points with other teachers
or with me being your mentor in our group chat (GC) or even via personal message in
messenger during the time scheduled in our subject.
3. Perform all activities. The activities are designed to enhance your understanding of
the ideas and concepts being discussed.
4. Answer all tests in this module, including the intended learning activities,
assessments and assignments. The tests will give you an idea how well you understand the
lessons. Review the lessons if necessary, until you have achieved a sufficient level of
proficiency.
5. The accomplished activities in your module shall be submitted on the scheduled time
for the face to face meeting. Put your activities on a short brown. Indicate at the back of the
envelope your name, course and section. All activities shall be hand written, unless it will
require you to use gadgets.

NOTE: The content of this module was adopted from the sited references. This is under
development and open for revision. For the improvement of this module you can contact the
instructor assigned.

How to use this module!

This module is divided into different topics which consist of competency-based

intended learning activities, assessment and assignment to be accomplished on the specified
time frame. The following graphics are used to represent each part of the module:

This represents the intended learning outcomes that you are expected to achieve on the
successful completion of the module.

This represents the lecture in the module. This part of the module should be read
thoroughly for understanding and comprehension of the topics presented.
 This picture shows the intended learning activities which you are going to do within the
allotted time. These activities are designed for you to hone the required competencies which
are being set in the completion of this course subject.

This picture represents the assessment tasks for you to do at the end of the module.
These will be used to gauge your understanding on the concepts presented in the lecture.
Furthermore, these will also be served as bases of your mastery level on the expected
competencies presented in each topic.

This represents your assignment to further enhance your understanding of the topics.

Module Learning Outcomes:

On successful completion of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand and internalize the theoretical framework in Science based on the K to 12 Basic
Education Curriculum.
2. Demonstrate content knowledge of science for elementary grades including its nature,
content, conceptual framework, domains of learning, pedagogical approaches, and research-
based knowledge and principles of teaching and learning the subject,
3. Demonstrate pedagogical content knowledge that promotes scientific, technological and
environmental literacies,
4. Select, develop and use varied teaching and learning resources, including ICT, in teaching
science and
5. Design, select, organize and use appropriate and varied learning processes and assessment
strategies consistent with the curriculum requirements.

MODULE CONTENTS

Time
MODULE TOPICS
Frame
Midterms
The theoretical framework in Science based on the K to 12 Basic Education 2 weeks
Curriculum. (6 hours)
The Nature of Science 1 weeks
Goals of Elementary Science Education (3 hours)
1 weeks
Current Developments in Primary Science
(3 hours)
2 weeks
The Processes of Science
(6 hours)
1 weeks
Constructivism
(3 hours)
1 weeks
Inquiry: Learning how to do science rather than learning about science
(3 hours)
 Finals
Basic Concepts and Principles for the Elementary Science Education Program:
1 week
Chemistry includes Properties and Structure of Matter and Changes that
(3 hours)
Matter Undergo.
Basic Concepts and Principles for the Elementary Science Education Program:
1 weeks
Biology includes Parts and Functions of Animals and Plants, Heredity:
(3 hours)
Inheritance and Variation, Biodiversity and Evolution and Ecosystems.
Instructional Materials Development for Elementary Science Education and 1 weeks
Technology in Elementary Science Education (3 hours)
Strategies for Successful Science Activities
a. Process-oriented, Problem-based, Inquiry-based
2 weeks
b. Animals and Plants in the Classroom
(6 hours)
c. Outdoor classrooms
d. Others based on students’ reasearch
Assessment
a) Assessment of process skills
b)Assessment of inquiry
1 weeks
c) Assessment of attitude
(3 hours)
d)Assessment of content Authentic Assessment Techniques a)Interviewing
b) Journals
c) Portfolios
Concept Mapping in Elementary Science for Lesson Planning, Instruction and 1 weeks
Assessment (3 hours)
2 weeks
Synthesis and Application of Key concepts and principles
(6 hours)
 LESSON

1 THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK IN SCIENCE BASED ON

THE K TO 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

After this lesson students are expected to:
1. Explain and describe the Science framework in the K to 12 BEC.
2. Discussed the framework relative to each grade level.
Time frame:2 weeks

CONTENT

ENGAGE

What do you expect to teach in science? What first come to your mind when you are to
teach Science? In K to 12 enhanced curricula, what is the national framework for Science in
all levels?
Have you ever come across an acronym in science which is STL? It means Science and
Technology Literacy. It includes the ability to apply scientific and technological concept, use
the process skills and embrace science attitudes and values in life.
This lesson will engage you to all these as the Science Framework from Kindergarten
to Grade 6 and beyond.
EXPLORE
EXPLORE

The Science Framework in the K to 12

Science as whole, as provided by the national framework of the DepEd responds to the
21st Century Literacy which is Science and Technological Literacy. It involves three important
components.
1. Understanding and Applying Scientific Knowledge
2. Developing and Demonstrating Scientific Attitude and Values
3. Performing scientific Skills
Based on these phases, all science learners who aim to be scientifically and
technologically literate should be:
 Critical and Creative Problem Solver
 Responsible steward of nature
 Innovative and Inventive Thinker
 Informed decision maker, and
 Effective communicator
As a future teacher, you should bear in mind, that you will be assisting or guiding your
learners to acquire these scientific and technological skills.
 How are these skills developed? Based on the framework, the foundations of scientific
and technological literacy are characterized by the following models approaches and practices
which are fully anchored on several learning theories:
1. Multidisciplinary-Interdisciplinary Approach- interrelationships and interaction
of different discipline like science and mathematics, science and social studies,
science and history and many more.
2. Science-Technology Society (STS) Approach- one way to appreciate science is to
link it with technology and how it influence people, and their ways of life.
3. Problem/ Issue Based Learning- making use of identified problem or issue
surrounding the environment will more meaning in learning science.
4. Inquiry-Based Approach- the basic principle of inquiry-based approach the
learners’ take ownership of a problem or a need and the desire to solve it.
5. Constructivism- constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs
as learners are actively involved in the process of meaning and knowledge
construction. Learners are the makers of meaning and knowledge.
6. Social Cognition Learning Model- learning can be directed to observing others
while interacting and experiencing.
7. Learning Style Theory- The VARK model identifies Visual, Auditory,
Reading/Riting and Kinesthetic learners who respond to different kinds of learning.
There are also many other type of learning style.
This means that to teach science for learners to learn, a future teacher like you, will use
the above theories, principles and models in teaching.

EXPLAIN

Science Technological Literacy is the ultimate goal of science learning. Its development
starts early and formally begin in K to a completion of a degree and throughout life. A country
whose citizens are science and technologically literate will be educationally and scientifically
advanced.
To achieve this goal, there are three intervening skills that need to be addressed.
Understanding and applying Scientific Knowledge. Science literacy starts with
acquisition of knowledge (ideas, concepts, generalization, and theories). However such
knowledge should be understood and applied. Thus, teaching science, teachers should
remember that although memorization of facts is important, however, these facts, knowledge,
generalization and theories should be understood and used in the daily lives.
Performing Scientific Inquiry Skills. Other than understanding and applying science
knowledge, it is also the foundation of scientific and technological literacy to perform inquiry
skills. Scientific inquiry skills can be seen as a set of skills to be learned by the students include
the science processes of the AAAs, the performance of the scientific investigations and the
cognitive outcomes the students will achieve. What students will be able to do is the
performance of inquiry and based on what the students know about inquiry. In short, scientific
inquiry is a systematic approached used by scientists in order to answer mind boggling
questions.
Developing and Demonstrating Scientific Attitude and Values. The development and
demonstration of scientific attitudes and values is a very important component of scientific
literacy. What are scientific attitude and values?
EXPLAIN
ELABORATE

A. The Components of Scientific and Technological Literacy

 Understanding and Applying Scientific Knowledge
To understand better scientific knowledge, it is best to understand first what science
is. Science consist of two things: a body of knowledge and the process by which that body is
produced. More often, science is defined only as a body of knowledge. However, science
processes is the other component that describes the way of thinking of knowing about the
world. Scientific knowledge is not absolute or certain. Knowledge, including facts, theories,
and laws, is all tentative and subject to change due to new evidence brought by advanced theory
and technology. Science knowledge is also socially and culturally embedded.

 Developing and Demonstrating Scientific Attitude and Values

What is scientific attitude? It can be defined as way of viewing things, a curiosity to
know how and why things happen with an open mind on govern facts. It is a way of thinking,
feeling, acting and a disposition towards science. Attitude can be positive or negative. Science
attitude is oftentimes attributed to characteristics of scientists, but learners can also develop
scientific attitudes. Here are some of the scientific attitudes.

1. A scientist must be curious about the world. (Curiosity)

2. A scientist admits failures and recognizes that there are better ideas ( Humility)
3. A scientist listens and respects ideas of others (Open-mindedness)
4. A scientist is intellectually honest. (Intellectual honesty)
5. A scientist works hard and persistent. (Perseverance)
6. A scientist does not jump to conclusion. (Skepticism)
7. A scientist is creative and critical thinker. (Creative and Innovative)
 8. A scientist uses reason or logical thinking before giving answers. (Rational)
9. A scientist is willing to suspend judgment until he is sure of his results. (Objectivity)
10. A scientist tries new approaches to arrive at solutions (Innovative)

 Performing Scientific Inquiry Skills

A science oriented mind is a questioning mind. To inquire is not to ask a series of
questions asked. The series of questioning and finding answers to the questions refer to science
inquiry.
Students’ abilities that are needed to enable them to be science inquirer are presented
for K to 4 and G5 to 8 learners. These are found in the matrix below.

Kindergarten to Grade 4 learners Grade 5 to Grade 8 learners

Ask questions about objects, organism and Identify questions that can be answered
events in the environment. through scientific investigations.
Plan and conduct a simple investigation. Design and conduct simple scientific
investigations.
Employ simple equipment and tools to gather Use appropriate tools and techniques to
data and extend the senses. gather, analyze and interpret data.
Use data to construct reasonable explanation. Develop descriptions, explanations,
predictions, and models using evidence.
Communicate investigations and Think critically and logically to make the
explanations. relationship between evidence and
explanations.

B. Approaches, Models and Practices Used in the Framework

Based on the framework, there are dominant approaches, models and practices that
can be utilized in teaching and learning science in the elementary grades. Being a future science
teacher, you must be able to understand the processes or the pedagogy of each.
1. Multidisciplinary- Interdisciplinary Approach- is the use of two or more
subject areas in one lesson or activity. For example Science and history can go
together when the topic is about discoveries and inventions.
2. Science-Technology Society (STS) Approach- is an disciplinary field that
examines how science and technology shape societies, cultures and environments
and how social, cultural and environmental factors that shape the development of
science and technology.
3. Problem/ Issue Based Learning (PBL) - is a method of and teaching which
allows students to focus on how and what they will learn. An unfamiliar problem,
situation or task is presented to the students and students are encourage to
determine for themselves how they will go about solving the problem. This usually
occurs through small group work and allows student to utilize their prior
knowledge in the topic area and identify the gaps in their knowledge as they
attempt to solve the problem. PBL is a student-centered approach to learning that
encourages students to be self-directed, interdependent and independent as they
attempt to solve the set problem.
 4. Inquiry-Based Approach- is anchored on the idea of seeking for truth,
information or knowledge. Memorizing facts and information is not as useful as
asking questions that will lead to the understanding of such data and information.
It is not looking for the right answer but seeking the appropriate solution. No one
can learn everything, but everyone can learn the skills of an inquiring attitude.
Skills and ability and habits of the mind to continue learning through inquiry-based
approach teaching-learning.
5. Constructivism- is a theory that explains about how people learn by constructing
their own understanding and knowledge of the world through prior experiences
reflecting on those experiences. When something new is learned, this has to be
compared with the previous experiences, perhaps discarding the old if the new
information is relevant. Thus in constructivism, there is a continuous asking of
questions, exploration and assessment. In the teaching-learning it means
encouraging to use active learning as experimenting and real world problem
solving to create more knowledge. In discussing about what the students are doing
themselves, will allow then to realize that their understanding may also be
changing, thus constructing their own knowledge.
6. Social Cognition Learning Model- has been introduced by Lev Vygotsky where
he asserts that culture is the primary factor of individual development. First
through culture, children acquire much of the content of their thinking which is
their knowledge and second, the surrounding culture provides the learners the
means or process of thinking. In short in social cognition learning model, culture
teaches the learners both what to think and how to think. Thus, since children learn
much through interaction between learners and learning task. Further appropriate
adult help or scaffolding is needed for independent problem solvers.
7. Learning Style Theory- “all learners are created equally but learn differently”
this is the premise of the learning style theory. That each individual has a
preference in how they learn. Individual learning style depends on cognitive,
emotional, environmental factors and one’s previous knowledge. Individualized
learning and learning or differentiated instructions are likewise anchored on
learning styles of learners. The most accepted understanding of the learning style
fall into three categories: Visual, Auditory (Oral-Aural) and Tactile or Kinesthetic.
 Visual learners prefer to use images, maps and graphic organizers to access and
understand new information.
 Auditory (Oral-Aural) learners’ best understand new concepts through speaking
and listening. Mnemonic devices, use of repetition, music, discussion, and
lectures are some of the strategies learners prefer.
 Kinesthetic (Tactile) - learners prefer to touch, move or manipulate. They learn
best through hands on activities, practicum and other similar activities.

Characteristic of a Scientific and Technological Literate Person

If the learners are able to model, theories, and practices that are imbibed based the
framework, how then should every learner be characterized? It is expected that science teachers
should be able to develop learners who have characteristics exemplified below. Read for
further explanations.
 Critical and Creative Problem Solver. Learners have developed skills that enable them
to analyze and found solutions to any perplexing questions of problems. They have
other ways of solving problems.
  Responsible Steward of Nature. Learners demonstrate concern in keeping the
environment safe for themselves and for everybody. They become citizens who take
responsibility of their action in protecting and preserving the environment.
 Innovative and Inventive Thinker. Science as a discipline will enable learners to create
and innovate something simple for humanity. They will become scientists and inventors
of the future.
 Informed Decision Maker. As a science learners are growing up, they should be able to
develop the ability to make informed decisions. Most especially if they become
independent learners.
 Effective Communicator. Science literacy also develops the ability of the learners to
convey correct message to others, whether written or oral, from their fund of
knowledge, results of inquiry, investigations, and many more. There is a need for
science learners to share the findings.
Monitoring and Assessment
All throughout the process of science teaching and learning and based on the
framework, there is a continuous monitoring and assessment of learning. There are very
important elements that need to be addressed in all educational endeavor including science
teaching and learning.

INTENDED LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Let’s find out!
Answer the following questions based on Lesson 1,
1. What are the most important knowledge, skills and valued that I learned?
2. What else do I need to learn to understand the Science Framework for K to 12?
3. As a future teacher, what will I do with what I know?

ASSESSMENT
Self-check. Choose the correct answer from the options given.
1. In the basic component of the framework, all imply that science involves action or
doing. Which is not emphasized in the learning of science?
a. Memorizing facts, concepts, principles and theories
b. Understanding and applying Scientific Knowledge
c. Developing and Demonstrating Scientific Attitude and Values
d. Performing Scientific Inquiry Skills
2. As future science teacher, what is the ultimate goal of science in the framework that
each learner should achieve?
a. 21st Century Literacy
b. Science Technology and Literacy
c. Science, Technology and Society
d. Develop innovators and inventors
 3. Science as a subject in the elementary grades should stand alone. This statement is
a. Supportive of the approaches in science teaching
b. Contrary to science as multi-disciplinary and integrated
c. Advocated in the theories that support science learning
d. Acceptable based on the science framework
4. There is no single way of learning science, hence there is no single method that would
fit every learner. This belief supports the theory of
a. Constructivism c. Learning style
b. Social Cognition d. Hands-On, Minds On
5. Creative, critical thinker, innovative, informed decision maker. These are the
characteristics of
a. Pure and applied scientist c. Digital natives
b. Science and Technology Literates d. None of the above

ASSIGNMENT
Answer the following questions.

1. How similar/different is the current curriculum compared to how you were taught?
2. How are the contents of the current curriculum addressing the kinds of 21st century
learners that we have?

REFERENCE:
Bilbao, Perita P., Juasayan, Shirlet R., Norano, Lourdes N., Tingson, Lea C., Teaching Science
in the Elementary Grades Volume 1, Lorimar Publishing, Inc. 2019
 LESSON

2 NATURE OF SCIENCE

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

After this lesson students are expected to:
1. Inquire into the nature of science - -- the scientific enterprise, products, applications and
attitudes --- and what this looks like in the primary classroom
Time frame: 1 week

CONTENT

ENGAGE
Over the course of human history, people have developed many interconnected and
validated ideas about the physical, biological, psychological, and social worlds. Those ideas
have enabled successive generations to achieve an increasingly comprehensive and reliable
understanding of the human species and its environment. The means used to develop these
ideas are particular ways of observing, thinking, experimenting, and validating. These ways
represent a fundamental aspect of the nature of science and reflect how science tends to differ
from other modes of knowing.

It is the union of science, mathematics, and technology that forms the scientific
endeavor and that makes it so successful. Although each of these human enterprises has a
character and history of its own, each is dependent on and reinforces the others. Accordingly,
the first three chapters of recommendations draw portraits of science, mathematics, and
technology that emphasize their roles in the scientific endeavor and reveal some of the
similarities and connections among them.

EXPLAIN

THE SCIENTIFIC WORLD VIEW

Scientists share certain basic beliefs and attitudes about what they do and how they view their
work. These have to do with the nature of the world and what can be learned about it.

The World Is Understandable

Science presumes that the things and events in the universe occur in consistent patterns
that are comprehensible through careful, systematic study. Scientists believe that through the
use of the intellect, and with the aid of instruments that extend the senses, people can discover
patterns in all of nature.
 Science also assumes that the universe is, as its name implies, a vast single system in
which the basic rules are everywhere the same. Knowledge gained from studying one part of
the universe is applicable to other parts. For instance, the same principles of motion and
gravitation that explain the motion of falling objects on the surface of the earth also explain the
motion of the moon and the planets. With some modifications over the years, the same
principles of motion have applied to other forces—and to the motion of everything, from the
smallest nuclear particles to the most massive stars, from sailboats to space vehicles, from
bullets to light rays.

Scientific Ideas Are Subject To Change

Science is a process for producing knowledge. The process depends both on making
careful observations of phenomena and on inventing theories for making sense out of those
observations. Change in knowledge is inevitable because new observations may challenge
prevailing theories. No matter how well one theory explains a set of observations, it is possible
that another theory may fit just as well or better, or may fit a still wider range of observations.
In science, the testing and improving and occasional discarding of theories, whether new or
old, go on all the time. Scientists assume that even if there is no way to secure complete and
absolute truth, increasingly accurate approximations can be made to account for the world and
how it works.

Scientific Knowledge Is Durable

Although scientists reject the notion of attaining absolute truth and accept some
uncertainty as part of nature, most scientific knowledge is durable. The modification of ideas,
rather than their outright rejection, is the norm in science, as powerful constructs tend to survive
and grow more precise and to become widely accepted. For example, in formulating the theory
of relativity, Albert Einstein did not discard the Newtonian laws of motion but rather showed
them to be only an approximation of limited application within a more general concept. (The
National Aeronautics and Space Administration uses Newtonian mechanics, for instance, in
calculating satellite trajectories.) Moreover, the growing ability of scientists to make accurate
predictions about natural phenomena provides convincing evidence that we really are gaining
in our understanding of how the world works. Continuity and stability are as characteristic of
science as change is, and confidence is as prevalent as tentativeness.

Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions

There are many matters that cannot usefully be examined in a scientific way. There are,
for instance, beliefs that—by their very nature—cannot be proved or disproved (such as the
existence of supernatural powers and beings, or the true purposes of life). In other cases, a
scientific approach that may be valid is likely to be rejected as irrelevant by people who hold
to certain beliefs (such as in miracles, fortune-telling, astrology, and superstition). Nor do
scientists have the means to settle issues concerning good and evil, although they can
sometimes contribute to the discussion of such issues by identifying the likely consequences
of particular actions, which may be helpful in weighing alternatives.

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

Fundamentally, the various scientific disciplines are alike in their reliance on evidence,
the use of hypothesis and theories, the kinds of logic used, and much more. Nevertheless,
scientists differ greatly from one another in what phenomena they investigate and in how they
go about their work; in the reliance they place on historical data or on experimental findings
and on qualitative or quantitative methods; in their recourse to fundamental principles; and in
how much they draw on the findings of other sciences. Still, the exchange of techniques,
information, and concepts goes on all the time among scientists, and there are common
understandings among them about what constitutes an investigation that is scientifically valid.

Scientific inquiry is not easily described apart from the context of particular
investigations. There simply is no fixed set of steps that scientists always follow, no one path
that leads them unerringly to scientific knowledge. There are, however, certain features of
science that give it a distinctive character as a mode of inquiry. Although those features are
especially characteristic of the work of professional scientists, everyone can exercise them in
thinking scientifically about many matters of interest in everyday life.

Science Demands Evidence

Sooner or later, the validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations

of phenomena. Hence, scientists concentrate on getting accurate data. Such evidence is
obtained by observations and measurements taken in situations that range from natural settings
(such as a forest) to completely contrived ones (such as the laboratory). To make their
observations, scientists use their own senses, instruments (such as microscopes) that enhance
those senses, and instruments that tap characteristics quite different from what humans can
sense (such as magnetic fields). Scientists observe passively (earthquakes, bird migrations),
make collections (rocks, shells), and actively probe the world (as by boring into the earth's crust
or administering experimental medicines).

In some circumstances, scientists can control conditions deliberately and precisely to

obtain their evidence. They may, for example, control the temperature, change the
concentration of chemicals, or choose which organisms mate with which others. By varying
just one condition at a time, they can hope to identify its exclusive effects on what happens,
uncomplicated by changes in other conditions. Often, however, control of conditions may be
impractical (as in studying stars), or unethical (as in studying people), or likely to distort the
natural phenomena (as in studying wild animals in captivity). In such cases, observations have
to be made over a sufficiently wide range of naturally occurring conditions to infer what the
influence of various factors might be. Because of this reliance on evidence, great value is placed
on the development of better instruments and techniques of observation, and the findings of
any one investigator or group are usually checked by others.

Science Is a Blend of Logic and Imagination

Although all sorts of imagination and thought may be used in coming up with
hypotheses and theories, sooner or later scientific arguments must conform to the principles of
logical reasoning—that is, to testing the validity of arguments by applying certain criteria of
inference, demonstration, and common sense. Scientists may often disagree about the value of
a particular piece of evidence, or about the appropriateness of particular assumptions that are
made—and therefore disagree about what conclusions are justified. But they tend to agree
about the principles of logical reasoning that connect evidence and assumptions with
conclusions.

Scientists do not work only with data and well-developed theories. Often, they have
only tentative hypotheses about the way things may be. Such hypotheses are widely used in
science for choosing what data to pay attention to and what additional data to seek, and for
guiding the interpretation of data. In fact, the process of formulating and testing hypotheses is
one of the core activities of scientists. To be useful, a hypothesis should suggest what evidence
would support it and what evidence would refute it. A hypothesis that cannot in principle be
put to the test of evidence may be interesting, but it is not likely to be scientifically useful.

The use of logic and the close examination of evidence are necessary but not usually
sufficient for the advancement of science. Scientific concepts do not emerge automatically
from data or from any amount of analysis alone. Inventing hypotheses or theories to imagine
how the world works and then figuring out how they can be put to the test of reality is as
creative as writing poetry, composing music, or designing skyscrapers. Sometimes discoveries
in science are made unexpectedly, even by accident. But knowledge and creative insight are
usually required to recognize the meaning of the unexpected. Aspects of data that have been
ignored by one scientist may lead to new discoveries by another.

Science Explains and Predicts

Scientists strive to make sense of observations of phenomena by constructing

explanations for them that use, or are consistent with, currently accepted scientific principles.
Such explanations—theories—may be either sweeping or restricted, but they must be logically
sound and incorporate a significant body of scientifically valid observations. The credibility of
scientific theories often comes from their ability to show relationships among phenomena that
previously seemed unrelated. The theory of moving continents, for example, has grown in
credibility as it has shown relationships among such diverse phenomena as earthquakes,
volcanoes, the match between types of fossils on different continents, the shapes of continents,
and the contours of the ocean floors.

The essence of science is validation by observation. But it is not enough for scientific
theories to fit only the observations that are already known. Theories should also fit additional
observations that were not used in formulating the theories in the first place; that is, theories
should have predictive power. Demonstrating the predictive power of a theory does not
necessarily require the prediction of events in the future. The predictions may be about
evidence from the past that has not yet been found or studied. A theory about the origins of
human beings, for example, can be tested by new discoveries of human-like fossil remains.
This approach is clearly necessary for reconstructing the events in the history of the earth or of
the life forms on it. It is also necessary for the study of processes that usually occur very slowly,
such as the building of mountains or the aging of stars. Stars, for example, evolve more slowly
than we can usually observe. Theories of the evolution of stars, however, may predict
unsuspected relationships between features of starlight that can then be sought in existing
collections of data about stars.

Scientists Try to Identify and Avoid Bias

When faced with a claim that something is true, scientists respond by asking what
evidence supports it. But scientific evidence can be biased in how the data are interpreted, in
the recording or reporting of the data, or even in the choice of what data to consider in the first
place. Scientists' nationality, sex, ethnic origin, age, political convictions, and so on may incline
them to look for or emphasize one or another kind of evidence or interpretation. For example,
for many years the study of primates—by male scientists—focused on the competitive social
behavior of males. Not until female scientists entered the field was the importance of female
primates' community-building behavior recognized.

Bias attributable to the investigator, the sample, the method, or the instrument may not
be completely avoidable in every instance, but scientists want to know the possible sources of
bias and how bias is likely to influence evidence. Scientists want, and are expected, to be as
alert to possible bias in their own work as in that of other scientists, although such objectivity
is not always achieved. One safeguard against undetected bias in an area of study is to have
many different investigators or groups of investigators working in it.

Science Is Not Authoritarian

It is appropriate in science, as elsewhere, to turn to knowledgeable sources of

information and opinion, usually people who specialize in relevant disciplines. But esteemed
authorities have been wrong many times in the history of science. In the long run, no scientist,
however famous or highly placed, is empowered to decide for other scientists what is true, for
none are believed by other scientists to have special access to the truth. There are no pre-
established conclusions that scientists must reach on the basis of their investigations.

In the short run, new ideas that do not mesh well with mainstream ideas may encounter
vigorous criticism, and scientists investigating such ideas may have difficulty obtaining support
for their research. Indeed, challenges to new ideas are the legitimate business of science in
building valid knowledge. Even the most prestigious scientists have occasionally refused to
accept new theories despite there being enough accumulated evidence to convince others. In
the long run, however, theories are judged by their results: When someone comes up with a
new or improved version that explains more phenomena or answers more important questions
than the previous version, the new one eventually takes its place.

THE SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISE

Science as an enterprise has individual, social, and institutional dimensions. Scientific

activity is one of the main features of the contemporary world and, perhaps more than any
other, distinguishes our times from earlier centuries.

Science Is a Complex Social Activity

Scientific work involves many individuals doing many different kinds of work and goes
on to some degree in all nations of the world. Men and women of all ethnic and national
backgrounds participate in science and its applications. These people—scientists and
engineers, mathematicians, physicians, technicians, computer programmers, librarians, and
others—may focus on scientific knowledge either for its own sake or for a particular practical
purpose, and they may be concerned with data gathering, theory building, instrument building,
or communicating.

As a social activity, science inevitably reflects social values and viewpoints. The history
of economic theory, for example, has paralleled the development of ideas of social justice—at
one time, economists considered the optimum wage for workers to be no more than what would
just barely allow the workers to survive. Before the twentieth century, and well into it, women
and people of color were essentially excluded from most of science by restrictions on their
education and employment opportunities; the remarkable few who overcame those obstacles
were even then likely to have their work belittled by the science establishment.

The direction of scientific research is affected by informal influences within the culture
of science itself, such as prevailing opinion on what questions are most interesting or what
methods of investigation are most likely to be fruitful. Elaborate processes involving scientists
themselves have been developed to decide which research proposals receive funding, and
committees of scientists regularly review progress in various disciplines to recommend general
priorities for funding.

Science goes on in many different settings. Scientists are employed by universities,

hospitals, business and industry, government, independent research organizations, and
scientific associations. They may work alone, in small groups, or as members of large research
teams. Their places of work include classrooms, offices, laboratories, and natural field settings
from space to the bottom of the sea.

Because of the social nature of science, the dissemination of scientific information is

crucial to its progress. Some scientists present their findings and theories in papers that are
delivered at meetings or published in scientific journals. Those papers enable scientists to
inform others about their work, to expose their ideas to criticism by other scientists, and, of
course, to stay abreast of scientific developments around the world. The advancement of
information science (knowledge of the nature of information and its manipulation) and the
development of information technologies (especially computer systems) affect all sciences.
Those technologies speed up data collection, compilation, and analysis; make new kinds of
analysis practical; and shorten the time between discovery and application.

Science Is Organized Into Content Disciplines and Is Conducted in Various Institutions

Organizationally, science can be thought of as the collection of all of the different

scientific fields, or content disciplines. From anthropology through zoology, there are dozens
of such disciplines. They differ from one another in many ways, including history, phenomena
studied, techniques and language used, and kinds of outcomes desired. With respect to purpose
and philosophy, however, all are equally scientific and together make up the same scientific
endeavor. The advantage of having disciplines is that they provide a conceptual structure for
organizing research and research findings. The disadvantage is that their divisions do not
necessarily match the way the world works, and they can make communication difficult. In
any case, scientific disciplines do not have fixed borders. Physics shades into chemistry,
astronomy, and geology, as does chemistry into biology and psychology, and so on. New
scientific disciplines (astrophysics and sociobiology, for instance) are continually being formed
at the boundaries of others. Some disciplines grow and break into sub-disciplines, which then
become disciplines in their own right.

Universities, industry, and government are also part of the structure of the scientific
endeavor. University research usually emphasizes knowledge for its own sake, although much
of it is also directed toward practical problems. Universities, of course, are also particularly
committed to educating successive generations of scientists, mathematicians, and engineers.
Industries and businesses usually emphasize research directed to practical ends, but many also
sponsor research that has no immediately obvious applications, partly on the premise that it
will be applied fruitfully in the long run. The federal government funds much of the research
in universities and in industry but also supports and conducts research in its many national
laboratories and research centers. Private foundations, public-interest groups, and state
governments also support research.

Funding agencies influence the direction of science by virtue of the decisions they make
on which research to support. Other deliberate controls on science result from federal (and
sometimes local) government regulations on research practices that are deemed to be dangerous
and on the treatment of the human and animal subjects used in experiments.

There Are Generally Accepted Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Science

Most scientists conduct themselves according to the ethical norms of science. The
strongly held traditions of accurate recordkeeping, openness, and replication, buttressed by the
critical review of one's work by peers, serve to keep the vast majority of scientists well within
the bounds of ethical professional behavior. Sometimes, however, the pressure to get credit for
being the first to publish an idea or observation leads some scientists to withhold information
or even to falsify their findings. Such a violation of the very nature of science impedes science.
When discovered, it is strongly condemned by the scientific community and the agencies that
fund research.

Another domain of scientific ethics relates to possible harm that could result from
scientific experiments. One aspect is the treatment of live experimental subjects. Modern
scientific ethics require that due regard must be given to the health, comfort, and well-being of
animal subjects. Moreover, research involving human subjects may be conducted only with the
informed consent of the subjects, even if this constraint limits some kinds of potentially
important research or influences the results. Informed consent entails full disclosure of the risks
and intended benefits of the research and the right to refuse to participate. In addition, scientists
must not knowingly subject coworkers, students, the neighborhood, or the community to health
or property risks without their knowledge and consent.

The ethics of science also relates to the possible harmful effects of applying the
results of research. The long-term effects of science may be unpredictable, but some idea of
what applications are expected from scientific work can be ascertained by knowing who is
interested in funding it. If, for example, the Department of Defense offers contracts for
working on a line of theoretical mathematics, mathematicians may infer that it has application
to new military technology and therefore would likely be subject to secrecy measures.
Military or industrial secrecy is acceptable to some scientists but not to others. Whether a
scientist chooses to work on research of great potential risk to humanity, such as nuclear
weapons or germ warfare, is considered by many scientists to be a matter of personal ethics,
not one of professional ethics.

Scientists Participate in Public Affairs Both as Specialists and as Citizens

Scientists can bring information, insights, and analytical skills to bear on matters of
public concern. Often they can help the public and its representatives to understand the likely
causes of events (such as natural and technological disasters) and to estimate the possible
effects of projected policies (such as ecological effects of various farming methods). Often they
can testify to what is not possible. In playing this advisory role, scientists are expected to be
 especially careful in trying to distinguish fact from interpretation, and research findings from
speculation and opinion; that is, they are expected to make full use of the principles of scientific
inquiry.

Even so, scientists can seldom bring definitive answers to matters of public debate.
Some issues are too complex to fit within the current scope of science, or there may be little
reliable information available, or the values involved may lie outside of science. Moreover,
although there may be at any one time a broad consensus on the bulk of scientific knowledge,
the agreement does not extend to all scientific issues, let alone to all science-related social
issues. And of course, on issues outside of their expertise, the opinions of scientists should
enjoy no special credibility.

In their work, scientists go to great lengths to avoid bias—their own as well as that of
others. But in matters of public interest, scientists, like other people, can be expected to be
biased where their own personal, corporate, institutional, or community interests are at stake.
For example, because of their commitment to science, many scientists may understandably be
less than objective in their beliefs on how science is to be funded in comparison to other social
needs.

ELABORATE

Characteristics of The Nature of Science

Science education has defined tenets (characteristics) of the nature of science that are
understandable by students and important for all citizens to know. William McComas and
Joanne Olson analysed recent science education curriculum documents worldwide and
identified 14 statements about the nature of science that are common to most curricula:

 Science is an attempt to explain natural phenomena.

 People from all cultures contribute to science.
 Scientific knowledge, while durable, has a tentative character.
 Scientific knowledge relies heavily, but not entirely, on observation, experimental
evidence, rational arguments and scepticism.
 There is no one way to do science – therefore, there is no universal step-by-step
scientific method
 New knowledge must be reported clearly and openly.
 Scientists require accurate record-keeping, peer review and reproducibility.
 Observations are theory laden.
 Scientists are creative.
 Over the centuries, science builds in both an evolutionary and a revolutionary way.
 Science is part of social and cultural traditions.
 Science and technology impact each other.
 Scientific ideas are affected by the social and historical setting.
 Laws and theories serve different roles in science – therefore, students should note that
theories do not become laws even with additional evidence.

Simpler still

Some researchers have refined this list to the following five tenets:
  Scientific knowledge is tentative (subject to change).
 Science is empirically based (based on or derived from observation of the natural
world).
 Science is inferential, imaginative and creative.
 Science is subjective and theory laden.
 Science is socially and culturally embedded.

This is probably the most widely recognised list of tenets of the nature of science. These tenets
are considered appropriate for primary to secondary school learning because they provide a
more accurate view of the scientific enterprise and do not require expertise in science to be
effectively understood. Each tenet is described in the article Tenets of the nature of science.

There are two additional important aspects:

 The distinction between observation and inferences.

 The relationships between scientific theories and data.

INTENDED LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Let’s find out!
Answer the following questions.
1. What are the most important knowledge, skills and valued that I learned?
2. What else do I need to learn to understand the Nature of Science?
3. As a future teacher, what will I do with what I know?

ASSESSMENT
Make a concept map on the nature of science.
 ASSIGNMENT
As a future teacher, what insights have you learned from this lesson?

MY REFLECTION
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 LESSON

3 CONTENTS OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE IN A

SPIRAL PROGRESSION

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

After this lesson students are expected to:
1. Identified the contents of science in grade 3 to 6 in a spiral progression.
2. Explained that the contents or subject matter of science progresses in complexity from
grade level to another.
Time frame: 1 week

CONTENT

ENGAGE

Is science easy or difficult to teach? What areas in Science should I study in order to
teach well? Will the topics on living things be taught only in Grades 4 and 5? What about Force
and Motion?
EXPLORE
EXPLORE
Science is a spiral curriculum design in which “key concepts are presented repeatedly
throughout the curriculum but with deepening layers of complexity.” The learner tries to spiral
upwards learning as the new knowledge is introduced as well as the new process skills are
developed. This will increased the breadth and the depth of knowledge achieved. This is the
curriculum design for science in the basic education to start with the Grade 3 to Grade 6.
 The content of Science in the K to 12 Curriculum is made up of the four major fields
or discipline.
A. Chemistry (Matter: Diversity of Materials, Properties and Structures, Change and
Interactions)
B. Biology ( Living things and Their environment)
C. Physics ( Force, Motion and Energy): and
D. Earth and Space ( Sorroundings and Land, Water and Air, Weather, Climate and Solar
System)
The subject area contents are not labelled by the major science discipline, instead these
are given titles that are understandable by the learners from Grade 3 to Grade 6 and even
up to Grade 10.

•diversity of materials •properties

•properties and •Stuctures and
Strucure Functions
•Change •Processed
•Interactions Living Things •Interactions
Matter and their
Environment

Earth and Force and

Space Motion
•sorroundings: Land, •movement
Water, Air •Effects of Force
•Weather and Climate •Form of Energy
•Solar System •Transformation

The four quadrants represent the total coverage of Science in the elementary level. as
noted, there is a continous flow of topics in every quadrant. This implies integration,
interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary of Science.

EXPLAIN

For every grade level, there are four science areas to be covered. Each area is taken up
in every quarter since there are four quarters in every school year level.
Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6
Quarter 1 Matter Matter Matter Matter
Quarter 2 Living Things Living Things Living Things Living Things
Quarter 3 Force, Motion, Force, Motion, Force, Motion, Force, Motion,
Energy Energy Energy Energy
Quarter 4 Earth & Space Earth & Space Earth & Space Earth & Space

Although science as a subject starts in Grade 3, yet the components of science such as
content and processes, inquiry and science attitudes are also taken up starting in Kindergarten,
Grade 1 and Grade 2. These are incorporated in specific areas of learning as Social Studies,
Mother Tongue Multi-Lingual Education (MTB-MLE) or in Communication Arts. This is one
of the characteristics of the K to 12 Curricula in the Philippine Basic education where formal
Science Subject begins in Grade 3.
Thus starting in Grade three up to Grade 6 in the elementary level, future teachers
should learn how to teach the science as subject and not merely to embed science in other
subjects.
The Science Curriculum Guide of the Department of Education begins with the Topic
on Chemistry: Matter. How is the big concept of Matter presented in the curriculum in its spiral
progression. Find out in this section
Let us have a closer look at each major area and how each increases in complexity as
learning moves from a level to a higher level.
Major Area: Chemistry
Description in the Elementary curriculum: Matter
The chart below show the different topics that are taken in progression in Chemistry
from one lower grade level to another higher grade level. All topics are anchored on one bigger
topic as Properties and Structure.
Grade 3 Properties and Structure of Matter
 Characteristics of solids, liquids and gases
Matter  Changes in solids, liquids and gases
Grade 4 Properties and Structure of Matter
 Properties used to group and store materials (ability to absorb water;
Matter float or sink; decaying or non-decaying) regrouping materials:
recycle, reduce, reuse, recover, and repair.
Changes that Materials undergo.
 Changes that are useful
 Changes that are harmful
Grade 5 Properties and Structure of Matter
 Properties used to minimize waste.
Matter  Importance of reading product label
Changes that Materials undergo.
 Evidence of change
 Appropriate way of storing materials
Grade 6 Properties and Structure of Matter
 Mixture and their characteristics
Matter - Heterogeneous mixtures: solutions and suspensions
- colloids
Separating Mixtures

Major Area: Living Things and Their Environment

The next major topic in Biology which is describe as Living Things and Their
Environment. Let us see the different topics and how these progress in the different grade
levels.
Grade 3 Characteristics of Living Things
Parts and Functions of Living Things
Living Things  humans
and Their  animals
Environment  plants
Traits Passed on From Parents
 humans
 animals
 plants
Interactions of Living Things with the Environment
 Basic needs
 Feeding relationships
Grade 4 Parts and Functions
 Humans
Living Things - Major organs of the body
and Their - Caring for major organs
Environment - Diseases that affect the major organs
 Animals
- Terrestrial animals
- Aquatic animals
 Plants
- Terrestrial plants
- Aquatic plants
Life Cycle
 Human, Animals, and Plants
Interactions
 Beneficial interactions
 Harmful interactions
Grade 5 Parts and Functions
 Humans
Living Things - Stage of growth
and Their - Part of the reproductive system
Environment - Development of secondary sex characteristics
- Menstrual Cycle
 Animals
- Parts of the reproductive system of representative groups of
animals and their functions
- Difference in the modes of reproduction: external fertilization,
internal fertilization
 Birds (Ducks)
 Fishes (tilapia)
 Toads/ frogs
 Crustaceans ( crabs and shrimps)
 Dragonflies and Butterflies
- Protecting habitats of animals
 Plants
- Flowering plants (rice/corn, pechay, mongo)
- Non-flowering plants (cone bearing, ferns, liverworts)
- Protecting habitats of plants
 Interactions among Living Things
Grade 6 Parts and Functions
 Human Body System
Living Things - Musculoskeletal
and Their - Digestive system
Environment - Respiratory system
- Circulatory system
- Nervous system
 Animals
- Characteristics of vertebrate and invertebrate
- Economic importance of vertebrate and invertebrate in the
community
- Rare animals in the community
- Protecting and caring animals
 Plants
- Parts of spore-bearing plants
- Life cycles of ferns and mosses
- Vegetative plant propagation
 Interactions
- Physical condition of tropical rainforest, coral reefs and
mangrove swamps
- Plants and animals living in these ecosystems
- Feeding relationships in these ecosystems
- Protecting and conserving tropical forest ecosystems
Separating mixture

ELABORATE

After having seen the coverage of the two components, what have you observed in the
content outline for each topic: Matter and Living Things and Their Environment? Let us
understand the framework by answering the following questions that refer to the two areas of
discipline and how they move along in progression from lower to higher grade level.
Let us make a comparison of the similarities of the two. Agree or disagree to the
observations and explain or elaborate further.
Statements about (1) Matter and (2) Living Agree Disagree Explanations
Things in their Environment
1. In both topics, the concept in Grade 3 are
simpler than Grade 4.
2. There is a consistent title of the major topic
from Grade 3 to Grade 6.
3. The area on Living Thing and Their
Environment focused on three kinds of living
things: Humans, Animals and Plants.
4. The Chemistry component of Elementary
Science revolve around Matter that
progressively advance in complexity from
Grade 3 to Grade 6.
5. In the Elementary science framework,
Chemistry which is considered by many as
difficult subject is taught in Grade 3.
6. Elementary Science should lead learners to
scientific literacy.

In summary, what do you understand of a spiral progression curriculum in science for

elementary grades?

ASSESSMENT
Test your understanding about the Science Framework from Grade 3 to Grade 6 specific to
Chemistry (Matter) and Biology (Living Things and their Environment).
1. Science in the Elementary level in the K to 12 curriculum include
a. Chemistry and Biology
b. Chemistry, Biology, and Physics
c. Chemistry, Biology, Physics and Earth Science
d. None of the Above
2. As the contents of science progress in a spiral, the difficulty of topics
a. Decrease b. increase c. maintains d. static
3. In order to teach science effectively in the elementary level, a teacher should do one of
the following;
a. Must have a comprehensive knowledge of only one discipline of science in the
curriculum
b. Must have a comprehensive knowledge of at least two discipline of science in the
curriculum
c. Must have a comprehensive knowledge of the four discipline of science in the
curriculum
d. Must have a comprehensive knowledge of all branches of science.
4. Spiral progression in science means that grade three pupils learn simple content than
grade four. This statement is -
a. true b. false c. partly true d. doubtful
5. Which statement is TRUE about teaching science in the elementary grade level for K
to12?
a. All elementary grades teachers should be equipped with contents and process of
science.
 b. Only those who will teach science should learn the different branches of science in
college.
c. Learning what to teach and not to teach science is a universal principle.
d. None of the Above

ASSIGNMENT
As a future teacher, what insights have you learned from this lesson?

MY REFLECTION
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