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Module No.2
MODULE TITLE

Definition of Approach, Strategy and Technique in intermediate grades (4-6)

MODULE OVERVIEW

This module will help you understand the appropriate approach, methods and techniques in
teaching Aralin Panlipunan grades 4-6.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Differentiate an approach, a strategy or method and a technique

• Discussion and demonstration of features of the different approaches and methods in
teaching Social Studies
• Observe a Demonstration Lesson to be conducted by the Course Facilitator or a
Basic Education Teacher handling AP for Grades 4-6

LEARNING CONTENTS

2.1. Approaches
2.2. Methods
2.3. Technique
2.4. Research on effective delivery of learning to intermediate grade learners.
Introduction

“A thousand teachers, a thousand methods”-Chinese Proverb

There are diversity of learners, how could you effectively teach each one of them? How could you
make learning effectively?

Teaching Aralin Panlipunan subject to primary grades may be different from teaching the subject
to intermediate, why? Reasons affecting may be:

 Interest
Learners from intermediate grades’ interest go deeper, at this stage students learn how to
deeply think about and make connections in new material, and grasp more complex
concepts across all subjects. At this stage, pupils are increasing their interest in reading and
learning from context.

 Level of thinking
Learners from intermediate learners “have intellectual curiosity but are often less

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imaginative than third graders. They relate more to the subject matter than to the teacher.
Students look for explanations of facts, how things work, and why things happen as they
do. In addition, the ability to deal with multiple variables emerges at this grade level. This
is a good age for scientific exploration.
They are actively receptive as learners of factual information and often love to memorize.
Perhaps because they like logic and like to organize, collections are of particular interest at
this age. Fifth grade students are capable problem solvers and have an increasing ability to
abstract. They work best when following a set schedule of activities.”

 Learning Styles
This factor may be connected with interest and level of thinking. Cognitive development
develops as times go by. Through this development, learning styles may differ from the
primary to intermediate grades. Intermediate grades prefer learning through experiments,
collaboration with peers, or learning alone.

Ap
pr “It is a set of principles, beliefs, or ideas about the nature of learning which is
oa translated into the classroom.”[25] It is also defined as “It is a set of ideas, is
ch personal philosophy of teaching. Teaching approach is like the form or the way
we teach or how we do it.”[26]

Traditional Modern

Teacher-Centered The
following are the Learner-Centered main
approaches of teaching
learning: Subject-Mattered Centered
Learner-Centered

Teacher
centered
approach: Teacher-Dominated
Interactive

Teacher centered approaches are

more traditional in nature,
focusing on the teacher as
instructor. They are sometimes Banking Approach
Constructivist
referred to as direct instruction,
deductive teaching or expository
teaching, and are typified by the Disciplinal
Integrated
lecture type presentation. In these
methods of teaching, the teacher
controls what is to be taught and Individualistic Collaborative
how students are presented with the
information that they are to lean.[26] Guided
Learner-Centered Approach Rirect

In which it is premised on the

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belief that the learner is also an important resource because he/she too knows something and is
therefore capable of sharing something.[25]
Banking Approach

The teacher deposits knowledge into the “empty” minds of students for students to commit to
memory.[25]

Integrated Approach

It makes the teacher connects what he/she teaches to other lessons of the same subject
(intradisciplinary) or connects his/her lessons with other subjects thus making his/her approach
multidisciplinary.[25]

Disciplinal Approach

It limits the teacher to discussing his/her lessons within the boundary of his/her subject.[25]

Collaborative Approach

It will welcome group work, teamwork, partnerships, and group discussion. [25] Cooperative
Learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to work
together for the achievement of a common goal. The term 'Collaborative Learning' is often used as
a synonym for cooperative learning when, in fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a
broader range of group interactions such as developing learning communities, stimulating
student/faculty discussions, and encouraging electronic exchanges (Bruffee, 1993). Both
approaches stress the importance of faculty and student involvement in the learning process. [27]

Individualistic Approach

It wants the individual students to work by themselves.[25]

Direct Teaching Approach

The teacher directly tells or shows or demonstrates what is to be taught.[25]

Guided Approach

The teacher guides the learner to discover things for himself/herself. The teacher facilitates the
learning process by allowing the learner to be engaged in the learning process with his/her
guidance.[25]

There are also other teaching approaches that are cited in education literatures:

Research-Based Approach

As the name implies, teaching and learning are anchored on research findings.[25]

Whole Child Approach

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The learning process itself takes into account not only the academic needs of the learners, but also
their emotional, creative, psychological, spiritual, and developmental needs.[25]

Metacognitive Approach

The teaching process brings the learner to the process of thinking about thinking. The learner
reflects on what he learned and on his/her ways of learning.[25]

Problem-Based Approach

As the name implies, the teaching-learning process is focused on problems. Time is spent on
analyzing and solving problems.[25]

Constructivist Theory in Teaching Social Studies

Introduction Generation Z or post-millennial comprise a significant number of Filipino learners.

The said generation was born and grew up with technology thus, they are called the digital natives.
This context poses a challenge to educators around the world more specifically on their
effectiveness and efficiency in engaging learners to acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and
attitude of Social Studies curriculum. This brings us to the discussion of constructivism as an
essential educational philosophy and its role in the effective delivery of any discipline or learning
area, in this case, the Social Studies program.

Think

Constructivism has become the parlance of educators, teachers, education policy-makers, and
curriculum specialists for the last three decades. Much has been said about this educational
philosophy, including the impact of its implementation on the lives of both teachers and the
learners.

For one, constructivism changed the landscape of classroom instruction. It presented multiple
challenges in developing learning standards, designing instructional models, deciding appropriate
pedagogical approaches, and determining assessment tools and processes.

Interestingly, however, constructivism was so prominent that many practitioners overused and
misused it. Various misinterpretations regarding its classroom application surfaced. As such, it is
good to be clear on the basic ideas that it espouses. Constructivism is a theory of learning that has'
roots in both philosophy and psychology. The essential core of constructivism is that learners
actively construct their own knowledge and meaning from their experiences (Fosnot, 1996; Steffe
& Gale, 1995).
This core has roots that extend back to many years and many philosophers, including Dewey
(1938), Hegel (1807/1949), Kant (1781/1946), and Vico (1725/1968). Philosophically, this essence
relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism: relativism, the concept that while reality may
exist separate from experience, it can only be known through experience, resulting in a personally
unique reality. Von Glasersfeld (1984, 1990) proposed three essential epistemological tenets of
constructivism which a fourth has been added in light of recent writings.

The Basic Tenets of Constructivism

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• Knowledge is not passively accumulated, but rather, is the result of active cognizing by the
individual;
Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an individual's behavior more viable given
a
particular environment;

Cognition organizes and makes sense of one's experience, and is not a process to render an
accurate
representation of reality; and

Knowing has roots in both biological/neurological construction, and social, cultural, and language-
basedinteractions (Dewey, 1916/1980; Garrison, 1997, 1998; Gergen, 1995; Maturana & Varela,
1992).The above tenets acknowledge the learner's active role in the personal creation of
knowledge, the importance of experience (both individual and social) in this knowledge creation
process, and the
realization that the knowledge created will vary in its degree of validity as an accurate
representation ofreality. These four fundamental tenets provide the foundation for the basic
principles of the teaching,
learning, and knowing process as described by constructivism. As will be seen, however, these
tenets may be emphasized differently, resulting in various "degrees" or "types" of constructivism.

As mentioned earlier, the concept of constructivism is not new. In fact, its basic premises are
somehow
articulated by various thinkers and authors though differently fashioned.
For one, Giambattista Vico, in his treatise titled "De antiquissima Italorum sapientia" (1710),
explored its essence when he coined the phrase "verum est ipsum factum." He reiterated the idea
that, in order to know something, one must know the parts and how they have been fit together.

In the modern period, more specifically in the field of psychology, the idea ol cognitive
construction was first fashioned into a comprehensive theory by James Mark Baldwin (1861-1934)
and Jean Piaget (1896-1980). They were able to map the procedures and operations on the
constructions of a "stable experiential world, having access only to sensation and to the operations
of the mind.

For us to better understand the concepts of constructivism, let us examine the various schools of
thought under this paradigm.

Types of Constructivism

It is essential to point out that constructivism Is not a unitary theoretical position; rather, it is a
continuum or spectrum. The assumptions behind this continuum vary along several dimensions and
have resulted in the definition and support for multiple types of constructivism. Typically, this
continuum is divided into three broad categories which include Cognitive Constructivism, Social
Constructivism, and Radical Constructivism.

A. Cognitive Constructivism This is typically associated with information processing and

relies heavily on the component process of cognition. It emphasizes that in order to acquire
knowledge, an individual has an active role in cognizing any stimuli that formed part of
his/her experiences. Adaptive process is essential in this kind of knowledge creation. It

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maintains the idea that an independent, yet knowable reality exists. This differentiates
cognitive constructivism from radical and social constructivism.

Thus, knowledge is the result of accurate internalization, construction, and reconstruction

of external reality by any individual capable of doing so. The internalization of process and
structures corresponds to the processes and structures that exist in the real world. These
internalizations, construction, and reconstruction are what we call learning; learning that
creates accurate internal models or representations that reflect external structures that exist
in the "real" world.

This perspective on learning focuses on:

(a) the processes of learning;
(b) how "experiences" are represented or symbolized in the mind; and
(c) how representations are organized within the mind.

Overall, the construction of knowledge is considered primarily a technical process of

creating mental structures but has little bearing on the nature of the subjective knowledge
within the mind.

Cognitive constructivism contributed significantly to empirical findings regarding learning,

memory, and cognition, including schema theory, working memory models, computational
models of learning and memory, and neurological models of brain function. Likewise, this
theoretical development has led to successful instructional applications such as the use of
advanced organizers, concept maps, teaching for transfer, elaborative practice, teaching for
automaticity, and the use of reading strategies (e.g., SQ3R; Survey, Question, Read, Recite,
Review) and problem-solvine strategies (e.g., IDEAL; Identify problems, Define goals,
Explore strategies, Act, Learn)

B. Radical Constructivism Radical constructivism, on the other hand, believes that the
acquisition of knowledge (e.g., ideas, concepts, processes, insights, etc). is an adaptive
process that could be attributed from the active çognition of an individual translating an
experientially based mind.

It maintains that there is an internal nature of knowledge. Also, it recognizes the existence
of an external reality that is unknowable to the individual (von Glasersfeld, 1990, 1996)
since our experience with external forms is mediated by our senses, and the latter is not
adept at interpreting an exact representation of these external forms (e.g., objects, social
interactions).

Thus, while knowledge is constructed from experience, the way it is constructed is not an
accurate representation of the external world or reality (von Glasersfeld, 1990, 1995). It
means that knowledge is not objective truth, rather a viable model of experience (von
Glasersfeld, 1995). These models are created within an individual and influenced by
various contexts. Staver (1995) precisely articulately this idea when he said that
"knowledge is knowledge of the knower, not knowledge of the external world; improving
knowledge means improving its viability or fit in, but not match with, an external world"
(p. 1,126). C.

Social Constructivism Social constructivism as a school of thought lies between the

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transmission of the knowable reality of the cognitive constructivists and the construction of
a personal reality of the radical constructivists. Social constructivism "upholds the social
nature of knowledge and that knowledge is the result of social interaction and language
usage, and thus is a shared, rather than an individual, experience" (Prawatt & Floden,
1994).

Moreover, social interaction occurs within a socio-cultural context, resulting in knowledge

that is bound to a specific time and place (Gergen, 1995; Vygotsky, 1978). Bakhtin (1984)
explained this position by saying that "truth is not to be found inside the head of an
individual person; it is born between people collectively searching for truth, in the process
of their dialogic interaction" (p. 110).

Thus, truth is considered not an objective reality as espoused by cognitive constructivists

nor the experiential reality as argued by radical constructivists, but rather is a socially
constructed truth which evolved from co-participation in cultural practices (Cobb &
Yackel, 1996, p. 37).

Constructivist Pedagogy
Due to the breadth of constructivism's theoretical underpinnings, pedagogies vary among
practitioners. Among these differences, however, there were identified eight factors that are
essential in constructivist's pedagogy (Brooks & Brooks, 1993; Larochelle, Bednarz, &
Garrison, 1998; Steffe & Gale, 1995). Before we begin enumerating and explaining these
principles, it is best to clarify that these are not solely constructivist in nature.
1. Authentic and real-world environments are necessary for learning to take place.
Authentic environments are essential in realizing "learning experiences" for it provides
actual learning contexts. It provides the activity upon which the mind operates. Also,
knowledge construction is enhanced when the experience is authentic.
2. Social negotiation and mediation should be taken into account in any form of learning.
Social interaction is a vital element of learning for it provides socially relevant skills
and knowledge. In the age of globalization and cultural heterogeneity, learners should
be exposed to various opportunities of interaction in order for them to develop the
necessary knowledge, skills, and values such as tolerance, social adaptation, flexibility,
peaceful co-existence, and collaboration, among others. Language is an integral part of
social mediation since it is the medium through which knowledge and understanding
are constructed in social situations (Spivey, 1997).
3. Content and skills are made significant to the learners: Regardless of types,
constructivism emphasizes the importance of knowledge since it serves an adaptive
function. Knowledge could enhance one's adaptation and functioning; thus, it is
necessary to the individual's current condition and even goals.
4. Learner's prior knowledge is fundamental in the acquisition of content and skills. All
learning begins within an individual's schema or prior knowledge. This simple yet
profound statement can unravel learning possibilities for it allows us to examine the
personal history (i.e., experiences, trauma, interests, contexts) of each learner. Only by
attempting to understand a student's prior knowledge will the teacher be able to create
effective experiences, resulting in optimum learning.
5. Formative assessment should be done to inform future learning experiences.
Constructivism asserts that knowledge acquisition and understanding is an active and
ongoing process that is heavily impacted by the student's prior knowledge and
experiences. Sadly, knowledge and understanding are not directly visible, but rather
must be inferred from action. Thus, in order to account a learner's level of

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understanding in this ongoing teaching and learning process, a teacher must continually
assess the individual's knowledge. This type of assessment is needed to accurately
design the appropriate series of experiences and activities for students. Formative
assessment here functions as "assessment for learning."
6. Constructivism encourages learners to become self-regulated, self-mediated, and self-
aware. One of the basic tenets of constructivism is the idea that individuals (learners)
are active in knowledge and meaning construction, deconstruction, and reconstruction.
This cognitive exercise requires individuals to manipulate and organize experiences,
regulate own cognitive functions, integrate, new meanings from existing ones, and form
awareness of current knowledge structures. As Brown & Palincsar (1987) espoused,
"Metacognition is considered an essential aspect of learning and consists of (1)
knowledge of cognition (i.e., knowing what one knows, knowing what one is capable of
doing, and knowing what to do and when to do it) and (2) regulation of cognition (i.e.,
the ongoing task of planning, monitoring, and evaluating one's own learning and
cognition)."
7. Teachers should act as guides and facilitators of learning. The teacher's role plays a
major part in students' learning. In the cognitive constructivist perspective, teachers
create experiences where students participate, leading them to knowledge processing
and acquisition. Thus, teachers are seen as the "guide on the side" instead of the "sage
on the stage." On the other hand, social and radical constructivism supports the idea
thatthe teacher is to guide students to an awaireness of their experiences and socially
agreed-upon meanings. This metaphor indicates that the teacher is to motivate, provide
examples, discuss, facilitate, support, and challenge learners in order to realize optimum
learning.
8. Teachers must employ multiple perspectives and representations of content. If learners
are provided multiple perspectives or lenses examining a particular phenomenon or,
event, he/she can have the raw materials necessary to create and develop varied
representations. This, turn, allows him/her various routes from which to retrieve
knowledge which in the long run develops his/her capacity to use more complex
schemas relevant to the experience. These perspectives provide the student with a
greater opportunity to develop a more viable model of their experiences and social
interactions, thus making their existence more meaningful.

Instructional Models for Social Studies

Introduction
In preparation for your vacation to Coron, Palawan, you and your friends researched for travel
guides made by people who have already visited the island. You discovered that there are many
sets of activities that can be done in Coron, but you only have a limited number of days so you
cannot enjoy everything. You can do the traditional island hopping and enjoy the different beaches,
reefs, and lagoons. You can take a historical tour which involves going to churches, museums, and
notable landmarks. You can also opt for a more natural expedition and visit parks, zoos, and safari.
Or you may prefer just staying in your hotel room and relish the atmosphere away from the city.
You need to make a collective decision on which set of activities to follow so that you can plan
your vacation well.
In instructional planning, teachers also make decisions as to how best learning goals can be
achieved. They have to take into account how they approach a given unit or lesson so that it will be
easily understood by the students. They also need to come up with a set of activities that will
ensure student motivation and participation. By doing these things, teachers subscribe to an

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instructional model in planning.

Think
Teachers adhere to an instructional model when they write their unit or lesson plans. An
instructional model serves as a general framework for the process of learning. It is comprised of a
variety of teaching strategies and a set of step-by-step procedures that should be done to achieve
the instructional goals. An instructional model may be compatible with a particular goal or content
but not in another. As such, teachers need to be familiar with the different instructional models that
can be utilized in planning offective instruction for elementary social studies.

Direct Instruction Model

Perhaps the most commonly used instructional model in social studies is direct instruction. Also
called expository learning or explicit teaching, iț is defined as a "highly-structured, teacher-
centered strategy that capitalizes on such behavioural techniques as modelling, feedback, and
reinforcement to promote basic skills acquisition" (Morrison, 2000). Direct instruction requires
teachers to convey facts and details, demonstrate skills and learning, provide immediate feedback,
and give guided and independent practices to test student learning. Strategies that fall under this
model are lectures, class discussions, and demonstrations.

In a social studies classroom, the direct instruction model is commonly used when teachers
transmit content information about communities, history, government, culture, and other bodies of
knowledge. Moreover, it can be used to impart skills, such as how to read a map, or offer an
explanation, such as why the country is divided into different regions. Many teachers prefer direct
instruction because of its efficiency. Given a wide range of topics and a short period of time,
explicit teaching allows them to cover the curriculum and finish the scope and sequence for the
whole year. It also promotes mastery since students are given sufficient time to observe
demonstrations and practice their skills through guided and independent practice. However, it also
has a number of disadvantages. Since this model devotes majority of the time to teacher talk,
students may tune out. of the discussion, given that they have varied attention spans and learning
styles. Too much reliance on direct instruction may also stifle the teacher's creativity and may
hamper the development of students' higher order thinking skills. However, many educators
acknowledge that direct instruction is also vital in presenting basic facts and information that will
serve as a foundation for lessons that emphasize critical thinking and problem-solving.

One example of direct instruction is Hunter's Seven-Step Model. It was developed by Madeline
Hunter who believed that this model can be adopted by any grade level and subject. It can be done
by following these steps:

1. Anticipatory Set. The teacher motivates the students by directing their attention to the
lesson. He/she may pose a question, show a video or picture, or tell a story.
2. Objective and Purpose. The teacher states the purpose and objectives of the lesson so that
students will know what they will learn and why, it is useful.
3. Input. The teacher presents the lesson content through lecture, discussion, reading,
observing, and other possible means.
4. Modeling. The teacher, an invited resource person, or a member of the class demonstrates
what all students should be able to do.
5. Checking for Understanding. The teacher asks questions or requests demonstrations from
students to ensure that they understood the lesson.

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6. Guided Practice. Students are asked to perform individual tasks while theteacher roams
around the classroom to ensure that they are doing it correctly.
7. Independent Practice. Once all students demonstrate their knowledge, the teacher gives
them tasks which they should perform completely without the aid of the teacher.
How do we apply Hunter's Seven-Step Model to an elementary social studies class? The table
below illustrates an example. The topic is "Ang Aking Kwento," the level is grade 1, and the
competency is "Nakikilala ang timeline at ang gamit nito sa pag-aaral ng mahahalagang pangyayari
sa buhay hanggang sa kanyang kasalukuyang edad."

Process Application
The teacher presents five pictures that show the different stages in the life of
Anticipatory a pet. He/she asks the class to arrange them chronologically and provide
Set captions that will describe each picture.
Objective and The teacher states the objective of the lesson: to know what a timeline is and
Purpose how it is used in presenting important events in one's life
Input The teacher presents the lesson through discussion or storytelling.
Modeling The teacher presents his/her own timeline which contains. five important
events in his/her life.
Checking for The teacher asks the class:
Understanding 1) What is a timeline?
2) What does it look like?
3) How can it be used to present one's story?
Guided The teacher provides a worksheet with a timeline already drawn and students
Practice have to supply it with five events that happened to them in the past week or
month. He/she roams around the classroom to check 8Ithe students' work and
provide immediate feedback.
Independent The teacher gives an assignment instructing studentsto create their own
Practice timeline which features eight important events in their life from birth to
present. He/she may require students to be more creative in the construction
of their timeline.

Inquiry Model
Ellis (2010) defines inquiry as an investigative process based on the examination of evidence, often using
questioning, hypothesis testing, and data gathering to arrive at an evidence-based conclusion. Introduced by
John Dewey in the 1920s, this model is one of the most common indirect approaches in social studies
instruction and is also often used by social scientists in the conduct of historical, anthropological, and
sociological research.
The use of the inquiry model in social studies has some benefits. Because it is a student-centered approach,
it can increase student motivation and active participation especially if the questions posed by the teacher
are interesting and challenging. It also promotes the development of research skills and the use of critical
thinking since students are asked to use multiple sources to arrive at valid conclusions. In topics with real-
world applications, students are also trained to solve practical problems using the scientific method. Perhaps
the main challenge for teachers who use this model is time allotment. It is impossible to use the inquiry
model in every lesson because it is highly possible that the teacher will fail to cover the curriculum for the
school year. Also, while the process is student-centered, it is important to note that teachers should actively

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guide the students in their search for answers. This holds true especially for the lower elementary grades, to
ensure that they will arrive at valid conclusions.
There are many inquiry models that can be used by social studies teachers. Anexample of this is from Banks
(1990) who
1. Pose a question for, inquiry. Make sure that the question can be using data and evidence.
2. Encourage students to formulate hypotheses. Use observations, prior experiences, and logic to
arrive at as many hypotheses as possible.
3. Gather and analyze data. Be involved in the data collection process to ensure that students will
draw valid and reliable conclusions.
4. Determine whether to accept 'or reject the hypotheses based on the
conclusion. Have students publicly present the inquiry process and their findings.
How do we apply the inquiry model to an elementary social studies class? The table below shows an
example of the step-by-step procedure using Banks' model. The topic is "Ang Katangiang Pisikal ng Aking
Bansa," the level is grade 4, and the competency is "Nailalarawan ang bansa ayon sa mga katangiang pisikal
at pagkakakilanlang heograpikal nito."

Process Application
Pose a question for The teacher asks the central question:
inquiry Ano ang katangiang pisikal ng Pilipinas?
Encourage students to Students will share their hypothesis, examples of which are:
formulate hypotheses Hypothesis A: Ang Pilipinas ay napaliligiran ng tubig.
Hypothesis B: Maraming bundok sa Pilipinas.
Hypothesis C: Mas malaki ang Pilipinas kaysa Estados Unidos.
Hypothesis D: Mainit sa Pilipinas.

Divide the class into small groups and assign them different tasks
Group 1: Pagsusuri ng mapang topograpikal ng Pilipinas
Group 2: Pagsusuri ng kinalalagyan ng Pilipinas sa mapa ng daigdig
Gather and analyze Group 3: Pagsusuri ng mga larawan ng mga anyong lupa at anyong tubig
data sa Pilipinas
Group 4: Pagsusuri ng mga larawan ng mga likas yaman ng Pilipinas
Group 5: Pagbabasa ng talata tungkol sa heograpiya ng Pilipinas
Determine whether Students report their findings in front. Afterward, the class decides which
to accept or reject the hypotheses are accepted and rejected hypotheses based on based on their
conclusion research.

Cooperative Learning Model

Chapin (2013) defines cooperative learning as a popular instructional approach in which small groups of
students work together toward a common learning goal. Since schools are tasked to develop not only the
cognitive capacities of students but also their social and interpersonal skills, many teachers utilize this
model in theirinstruction. Cooperative learning promotes positive relationship with peers and trains students
to collaborate with people, skills that are very much needed in the real world. It also fosters individual
accountability, with teachers emphasizing that everyone should equally contribute, and free riding should be
discouraged. Moreover, it can be used with other instructional models such as direct instruction and inquiry.
Examples of learning activities that fall under this model are jigsaw, brainstorming, and role-play.
In planning cooperative learning, Chapin (2013) suggests to consider the following
elements:

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1. Objectives and tasks. Ensure that cooperative learning is compatible with the objectives. Come up
with challenging and rewarding tasks that will require many skills and discourage the dependence
on one or two people.
2. Size of the group and the method of assigning members. Experts have different opinions on the
ideal size of groups. Cohen (1994) suggests not more than five while Kagan (1994) believes the
perfect number is four. In any case, teachers should make sure that the group is not that large with
the tendency to discourage other members from participating in the tasks. Also, teachers should
implement heterogeneous grouping and ensure that there is a fair distribution of abilities and gender
in the groups.
3. Roles. Teachers should ensure that members of the group have roles to play. Examples of such roles
are facilitator/leader, recorder/secretary, and monitor/checker. Roles may be assigned by teachers or
decided by the students, Corresponding tasks should be emphasized, and self and peer evaluation
should be implemented to ensure accountability. Roles should also be rotated to give opportunities
for growth to every student.
4. Room arrangement and materials. Groups must be seated near each other to allow ease of
communication. Group materials should also be tended by members of the group to foster
accountability and responsībility.
An example of the cooperative learning model is the Student Teams-Achievement Division or STAD. This
model promotes individual accountability and teamwork through the following procedure:
1. Direct instruction. The teacher enumerates the objectivės and presents the lesson through lecture,
discussion, or demonstration.
2. Teams. The class is divided into heterogeneous small groups. Members should help one another in
understanding the lesson presented by the teacher and ensure each other's mastery with the help of
teacher-made worksheets. –
3. Quiz. After the group session, students are given individual quizzes.
4. Individual Progress Score. Scores in the present quiz will be compared to Scores in the past exams.
Students with increased scores earn corresponding points for their team.
5. Team Recognition. Teams that reach or go above the set criterion score will receive recognition
through awards, certificates, special privileges, or bonus points.
How do we apply the STAD to an elementary social studies class? The table belou shows an example. The
topic is "Mga Patakaran at Programa ng mga Pangulo bilana Pagtugon sa mga Hamong sa Kasarinlan," the
level is grade 6, and the competency is "Nasusuri ang mga patakaran at programa ng pamahalaan upang
matugunan ang mga suliranin at hamon sa kasarinlan at pagkabansa ng mga Pilipino."

Process Application
The teacher presents the objectives and discusses the lesson with the use of
Direct Instruction charts, tables, and graphic organizers to highlight the policies and
programs of each administration.
The class will be asked to work with their teams (assigned at the beginning
Teams of the quarter) and complete an individual worksheet that summarizes the
lesson.
Quiz The teacher gives an individual quiz.
Scores of students in the quiz will be compared to the
Individual Progress average score of their past quizzes. Those who got an increase in score
will be given 5 points for their team.
Team Recognition At the end of the quarter, teams who got a score of 100 and above will be
given an additional one point in their final grade.

Lecture-Discussion

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Introduction
In delivering the lesson about their region's economy, Teacher Bam enumerated the different products and
industries that are present in their area and nearby provinces. He listed these on the board and asked the
students to copy it. He wrapped up the lesson by stating that their economy is dependent on their natural
resources. In tackling the same topic, Teacher Mark asked the students to give examples of products and
industries that are found in their hometown. He encouraged students to recite and write their answers on the
board. He also provided an activity that asks students to list five of their region's resources and explain how
these affect people's livelihood. At the end of the lesson, he asked students to summarize the important
points and generate a conclusion based on their discussion.
Teacher Bam and Teacher Mark tackled the same lesson but they implemented different instructional
strategies. The former utilized a lecture while the latter preferred a discussion. In your opinion, which of the
two teachers delivered better instruction for elementary pupils? Why?
Both the lecture and discussion have strong and weak points when implemented in the classroom. To get the
best of both strategies, educators suggest the utilization of the lecture-discussion. In this chapter, you will
learn what this strategy is and how it is implemented in the classroom.
Think
Leçture-discussion is perhaps the most widely used instructional strategy across all grade levels and subjects
areas. Also called teacher-led discussion or classroom discussion, it is a strategy under the direct instruction
model which promotes interąction between teacher and students through explicit instruction combined with
different levels of questioning. This strategy is preferred by many teachers to veer away from the negative
connotations of a lecture (i.e., the teacher dominates the discussion while the students are only seen as
passive recipients of information) and recitation (i.e., a fast-paced interaction between teacher and students
where teachers ask mostly knowledge-level questions).
The lecture-discussion strategy is founded on the cognitive theory of education which believes that students
internally organize and process the information they receive, thus making them active participants in the
learning process. Under this strategy, students explore ideas and concepts, develop lower order and higher
order thinking skills, engage in problem-solving and group decision-making, and develop informed òpinions
based on evidence (Wilen, 2004; Engles and Ochoa, as cited in Larson, 2000). The lecture-discussion
strategy is applicable in many content areas in social studies, in explaining new concepts, ideas, phenomena,
and historical events.
Steps
The lecture-discussion strategy is done by following these four basic steps:
1. Introduction. The teacher begins the lesson by providing a motivation activity, presenting the
objectives, and giving an overview of the topic.
2. Presentation of the lesson. The teacher proceeds to the unfolding of the topic through the use of
question-and-answer techniques and visual organizers.
3. Comprehension monitoring. The teacher checks students' understanding through different strategies
of formative assessment.
4. Integration and closure. Students summarize the lesson by highlighting the important points,
synthesizing old and new information, and/or sharing evidence-based conclusions.

Advantages
While there are many educators who warn against the use of direct instruction strategies, lecture-discussion
is beneficial if used in moderation. First, it is easy to implement and can be applied in almost all content
areas in social studies. Its greatest strength lies in its efficiency in imparting information since teachers

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transfer the same amount of knowledge to all students in the classroom within a short period of time, Also,
the structured content-and the allotted time for comprehension monitoring aids In mastery of learning which
can, in turn, improve student achievement. Lastly, by utilizing a wide range of questioning, the teacher
engages students in different ways of thinking-from concrete to abstract, from convergent to divergent, and
from lower order to critical and creative thinking skills.
Tips
1. Plan the lesson in detail and practice your presentation. Vocal delivery is very important in lecture-
discussion. It will be helpful if you plot your questions and plan how to explain concepts that will
be easily understood by students.
2. Be brief In the presentation of the lesson. Elementary students have short attention spans. If
possible, insert activities that will capture their attention from time to time.
3. Use a questioning script to develop your questions. A questioning script is basic set of questions
constructed to guide students from lower level to higher levels of thinking. You may refer to
Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain or the Taba I and Taba Il approach as a guide in
developing this. Also, avoid questions that are ambiguous, biased, and answerable only by yes or
no.
4. To increase the effectiveness of delivery, use numerous concrete examples, media, and
graphic/visual organizers (e.g., concept map, semantic web, Venn diagram).
5. Pause occasionally after giving questions. Provide ample thinking time and rephrase questions if
students do not provide answers.
6. Lecture-discussion works best if used in moderation and if integrated with other strategies. I.

Using Graphic Organizers

Introduction
Upon looking at the curriculum guide, Teacher Christine thought that the topic had many different concepts.
This made her struggle so much in choosing the appropriate teaching strategies to be used. In her mind, she
has to consider active involvement and the pupils' retention. Immediately after, she was able to craft various
diagrams that could show different relationships among certain concepts. However, she still has to know if
the crafted diagrams are effective inside her classroom. In the lesson proper, she was astonished how her
pupils responded in all the activities. Her pupils became engaged and competitive, particularly in the writing
of answers on the board. At the end of the day, Teacher Christine was able to validate the effectivity of her
diagrams.
You might remember how your teachers in the past had used the same strategy as Teacher Christine did.
This kind of strategy is called the graphic organizers.
Think
Learning is a painful process, as we say it in the field of academe. Learners have to face complex ideas and
demanding tasks for them to achieve their goals and ambitions in life. Learning how to effectively think is
the key to this issue and, believe it or not, there are possible ways to lighten up the burden of learning.
While some of concepts that we know may be forgotten, our capacity to learn is constant. Therefore, we
must find effective learning strategies for us to acquire necessary information and apply it in real life.
The major breakthrough of the graphic organizer happened in the 1960s when Ausubel (1963) theorized
how new concepts become facilitating factors that influence learning. He purported that the brain organizes
and stores information in a systematic manner, revolving around existing schema. The schema already
contained a certain knowledge and, therefore, arranged in a new schematic framework that makes
information easier to comprehend and remember. Ausubel's theories support learner engagement while

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learning, most importantly the processing of new information for meaning construction and longer retention
(Marzano, 2007).
Graphic organizers provide a visual representation in developing and summarizing students' learning
components. They help structure disjointed information by creating patterns that represent the
interconnectedness of ideas (Tacaiochta & Leibheal, 2008). These facilitate effective learning by enabling
the learners to see information in a pattern that uses labels. The main function of graphic organizers is to
present information in precise ways, to highlight relationships and the organization of concepts.
Why Use Graphic Organizers?
1. It facilitates critical and creative thinking. Graphic organizers allow the learners to focus only on
the highlighted essential components. It enables them to find necessary connections that could
unveil answers to problems and issues in daily living.
2. It organizes information. The human mind is designed to store information using a series of
networks. As we live day by day, we encounter various experiences which contribute to what we
khnow. Graphic organizers give us an opportunity to organize and evaluate the existing and new
knowledge that we encounter.
3. It shows relationship. One good relationship example that is always used is the broad-to-specific
relationship. It is sometimes called as part-part-whole relationship which identifies the number and
its components.
4. It allows self-directed learning. The good thing about graphic organizers is that it can be used for
independent learning among the learners. This is because it is much easier for the learners to grasp
information and see connections.
5. It encourages interaction. This form of teaching strategy literally engages the learners to participate
in class activities. Since they appreciate its visual nature, the motivation to learn comes next.
6. It is a form of assessment. Teachers can assess learning both before and after the discussion. It
could be both done in formative and summative assessments.
How to Use Graphic Organizers
Teachers are faced with various dilemmas in planning and implementing their lessons. As mentioned
earlier, the use of graphic organizers in the instruction reveals many positive outcomes. However, it is not
easy to do so. In order to transform the İnstruction to the next level, the following procedures are
recommended (Curriculum Development Institute, HK, 2001).

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Familiarize yourself with different types of graphic organizers

Explain to students what graphic organizers are and why they are
useful in learning

Present the specific graphic organizer for a topic.

Point out its subject and organizational framework

Present the specific graphic organizer for a topic. Point out its subject
and organizational framework

Use èxamples to illustrate the use of some graphic organizers

Assign the graphic organizer as an individual, paired, or group activity

Review students' work. Generate classroom discussion on the effective use

of graphic organizers

Eight Types of Graphic Organizers for Social Studies

The use of graphic organizers inside the classroom is relevant in promoting effective social studies
education. It boosts active participation and maximizes teaching and learning. Having seen the same
importance, Gallavan and Kottler (2007) discussed it according to the purposes of learning.
1. Assume and Anticipate. This form of graphic organizer is best for formative assessment where
teachers evaluate [Link] of the learners on a certain topic. This could be done in a form of
opinion-seeking activity where the teachers introduce a topic or issue that learners have to answer.
As the discussion unfolds, the teachers and learners return to their answers for validation. The most
common example here is the "What you know, what you Want to know, and what you Learned
(KWL).

What I KNOW What I Want to KNOW What I LEARNED

K-W-L

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2. Position and Pattern. This type of graphic organizer helps teachers and students see the relationship
of a concept with another, particularly in chronological order and how the pattern occurs and
reoccurs in different contexts and events. Learners can visualize cause and effect by placing words
or pictures in a sequence presented as a chain or timeline.

Global Warming
1 6 7

3.
Outcome 1
2 5 8
Outcome 2

Outcome 3 3 4 9
Group and Organize. These organizers help
teachers and students understandbthat several ideas or parts are related to a single category. These
can alsobshow a central concept and its corresponding attributes. It can be shown in different shapes
and forms.

Plants Animals
Upper

flower dog Middle

Lower
rootcrop goat

4. Compare and Contrast. These diagrams are used to identify the similarities and differences between
and among concepts. It allows the learners to see what characteristics are shared and exclusive to
the concepts that are compared.

A
1
D Letters B
3 2
C
5. Relate and Reason. The idea behind this type of graphic
organizer revolves around the use of inductive and deductive thinking patterns. It shows whether a
concept is part of a whole or the sum total of its parts. Inductive thinking mainly shares pieces of
evidence in support of big ideas, while deductive thinking provides evidence for underlying
concepts or topics.

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1.1 2.1
1
1 2
5 2

4 3
4.1 3.1
4 3

6. Identify and Imagine. These organizers use various shapes and forms to visually represent several
concepts or pieces of information. It allows the students to see connections and analyze
relationships among concepts. The most common example of this is the concept map.

1 2 3

7. Estimate and Evaluate. This type of organizer shows how to evaluate and concepts through visual
perspectives. An example is a pie graph where one can assume that the component which has the
largest portion is the most frequently used or picked.
6

0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 1st Qtr 2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

8. Combine and Create. Among others, these organizers allow both ‘teachers and students to construct their
own representations. These can be a combination of two or more previously mentioned organizers. They
give the teachers and students the freedom to choose organizers ‘that will represent what they have in mind.

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Inguiry-based Teaching Strategy

Introduction
One of the major goals of social studies in the Philippines is the development of critical thinking. Having
this in mind, Teacher Kevin reflected if he has been able to develop this skill among his learners. He
thought that to develop critical thinking, his learners must be able to use their, analytical and problem-
solving skills. Hence, the solution to his problem is the use of questions inside the classroom. Upon
implementing essential questions in class, he noticed that his learners became more attentive than ever.
Since then, he used question and answer as a strategy to ensure that his learners are attentive.
The question or inquiry is a strategy that social studies teachers can use to elicit the desired responses
among the learners. However, not all teachers can effectively facilitate such instructional technique. To do
so, teachers must know how to make and throw relevant questions to facilitate discussions. In this lesson,
you will learn the art of questioning by discussing its types and usages.
Think
Inquiry is defined as the process of looking and creating informatiòn or knowledge by means of questions.
Inquiry is a huge part of our community. From birth to adulthood, we observe, recognize things or events,
and from here, we create questions that need to be answered. The process of inquiring begins with the
assembly of information and data by applying the human senses such as seeing, hearing, touching, tasting,
and smelling (Kumari, Arora, & Tiwari, Shruti, 2016). In the field of social studies education, the
importance of inquiry has been overlooked by many. Teachers tend to use differentiated instruction that
sometimes is not relevant to the competencies being harnessed. Moreover, once adopted as a strategy,
teachers sometimes strictly rely on the procedures steps leaving the idea of the art of questioning at stake.
In 1999, White, Shimoda and Frederiksen developed an instructional theory that enabled scientific inquiry
as part of instruction among a widespread variety of learners, including new ones and slow learners. They
postulated that quality education could be by allowing the learners to understand metacognition. This could
be done by constructing an instructional methodology that develops the students' metacognitive knowledge
and skills following the process of:
a. Scaffold Inquiry. Teachers should guide the learners in attaining the goals of any discussion. Hence,
they must be aware of several techniques that could allow them to surface the learners' knowledge
and skills.
b. Reflection. The spontaneity of the discussion depends on the capacity of the teachers to direct and
guide the learners. The most important point is for learners to reason out their mind and try to assess
both sides of any situation that will lead to a generalization.
c. Generalization. This is the optimum part of the process wherein the learners have created their own
beliefs and communicated their disposition. Take note that in social studies, teachers must know how to
divert and process misleading ideas because it may break their motivation and self-esteem.
Inquiry-based learning is grounded on rational strategies used to motivate learners to generate responses
through the queries regarding issues/events. The learners are seen as active participants in the teaching
process. It helps learners to enhance their intellectual capačity through the significance of scientific queries.
Some of the benefits of inquiry-based teaching are as follows:
1. Inquiry is dedicated to nurturing the schema of learners essential to create, communicate, and
assess answers coming from their interests.
2. It helps the learners acquire and process ideas in a logical way.
3. It encourages intelligent responses which can be practiced to discover why issues are occurring.
To fully understand the strategy, here is the inquiry process.

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Source: [Link]
In this model, the roles of teachers as facilitators are highlighted. It is their responsibility to let the learners
identify the problem situation, judge the inquiry events, and reply to learners' inquiry to augment learning. It
supports the learners in establishing the importance of their inquiry. It also simplifies the conversation of the
problematic situation among the learners because the responses are generated by them. Hence, they will be
able to find connections starting from the questions aboutthe topic being discussed.
Questioning Techniques
The art of questioning is the most important aspect in this strategy. The teachers must be well-exposed to
various ways of posting questions to students. Having known the different questioning techniques, teachers
are assured of the success of their inquiry. Gershon (2014) identified the different questioning techniques
that social studies teachers can use:

a. Might question. What might history be? What might be the answer to that social issue? This
question does not limit the possible responses among the learners. But rather, it opens up a range of
possible responses that allows learners to reason out. Their answers may not be correct but their
explanation might put all things right. Including the word might signals the learners that they need
to use critical thinking to create arguments relevant to the question/s.
b. What if question. What if there is an earthquake; what shall we do? What if you became the
mayor; what programs shall you implement? These kinds of questions bring out the creativity,

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speculation, and rationality among the learners. It allows the learners to think in a totally different
perspective that is usually grounded on what they believe in. It could be a great way to assess the
learners formatively because it allows them to answer based from the learnings they had.
c. Different roles question. You are the judge; will you give your verdict in favor of the suspect?
You are a teacher and you are expected to guide your learners. If there is a naughty pupil, will you
spank him/her? This type of question allows the learners to have a glimpse of possible roles they
might portray in the real world. This strategy is a nice representation of the outside world and gives
the learners the chance to evaluate themselves.
d. Socratic questioning. This questioning style combines all the aforementioned form of questioning.
Socrates has been known in history as the master of incessant questioning to achieve wisdom.
Throughout his life, he spent so much time asking people questions for the purpose of revealing
falsehoods. Scholars divided Socrates' questions into four types:

Gadfly questions. These allow teachers to ask several questions to push the learners to answer questions.

 What are the elections all about?

 How important is it for people to participate in the elections?
 What if people were not allowed to vote? What will happen?
 When you reach the legal age, will you practice your right to vote?
Stingray questions. These questions lead to a sudden change in the course of questions. Sometimes, this, is
associated to the drift in the situation.

 You said that love is the answer; will love change the situation of the poor?
 Imagine that poverty is not applicable to your case; would you still pursue your career as an artist?
Midwife questions. From the name itself, these questions are used to elicit new ideas to the learners.

 That is a very good point. Can you elaborate it further?

 How might that idea change the lives of Filipinos?
 What made you say that idea?
Ignoramus questions. In here, pictures play dumb for them to elicit responses among the learners.

 I don't understand. Can you further explain it to me?

 So, do you mean that …….?
 What does your answer mean?
By learning to address increase, learners can appreciate problem solving and critical thinking. Hence, there
is a need for social studies teachers to learn how to properly use questioning skills to fully attain the goals of
social studies education in the Philippines.

Me
tho
d
It refers to the term “pedagogy”. Its main goal is on effective presentation of
 Approach
subject matter in order learners to have mastery over it. Its just like scientific
 Method
Technique
method way of teaching for it talks about step by step presentation of the
lesson. Method of teaching is the overall plan or blueprint for systematic
presentation which is anchored on selected approach that the teachers been
exercising. Therefore it is the practicalrealization of an approach through a
procedure in a system.[25]

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Teaching method also refers to a kind of learning activities we use in order to teach our learners.
Method means “procedure within an approach”.

“It is about scientific way of presenting the subject keeping in mind the psychology and physical
requirements of the children. It is a process or procedure whose successful completion results in
learning or as a means through which teaching becomes effective. It is the formal structure of the
sequence of acts. The term method covers both strategy and techniques of teaching. Different
strategies may be adopted in following a method.

It is wider term. Method is related to the nature of content of a subject to be taught. Teaching
method is a style of presentation of content in classroom. Method refers to the formal structure of
the sequence of acts commonly denoted by instructions. It involves the choice of what is to be
taught and in which order is to be presented.”[25]
Direct Instruction- Lecture Method

Direct instruction is aimed at helping students acquire procedural knowledge exercised in the
performance of some task. Procedural knowledge refers to skills needed in the performance of a
task.

Deductive Method
Deductive method of instruction is more teacher-centered approach. It is Inductive Deductive
a way of teaching in which the general role is general role to specific. Specific General
General Specific
Example:
Subject matter is noun, teacher give the definition of noun (it refers to
name of person, place, thing, animals, etc), it is the general idea. Then giving example of nouns
such as: Berto, Maria, teacher Manila.., specific ideas.

This way of teaching may spoon feed your learners, giving them everything they need to learn.

Inductive Method
In contrast with deductive method of instruction, inductive general role is specific to general.
Through this kind of method, teachers help learners realize and come into conclusion what is being
taught or the general topic, it may fall to student-centered approach.

Example:

Subject matter is noun, teacher hangs up student what does noun means, but gives some example
of it, Berto, Maria, teacher Manila.., as specific ideas. Then learners conclude the noun refers to
name of person, place, thing, animals, etc. learners jump/ conclude into their own understanding
what is noun instead of spoon feeding them.

Inquiry Based Method

“Inquiry-based learning is an education approach that focuses on investigation and problem-

solving. Inquiry-based learning is different from traditional approaches because it reverses the
order of learning. Instead of presenting information, or ‘the answer’, up-front, teachers start with a

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range of scenarios, questions and problems for students to navigate.

Inquiry-based learning prioritises problems that require critical and creative thinking so students
can develop their abilities to ask questions, design investigations, interpret evidence, form
explanations and arguments, and communicate findings.”[28]

According to [Link] [28]

(assessed in the given link
[Link] )
there are some benefits of using inquiry based teaching method it promotes:

 Social interaction. This helps attention span and develops reasoning skills. Social
interaction encourages students to generate their own ideas and critique in group
discussions. It develops agency, ownership and engagement with student learning.
 Exploration. This allows students to investigate, design, imagine and explore, therefore
developing curiosity, resilience and optimism.
 Argumentation and reasoning. This creates a safe and supportive environment for
students to engage in discussion and debate. It promotes engagement in scientific
discussion and improves learning of scientific concepts. It encourages students to
generate questions, formulate positions and make decisions.
 Positive attitudes to failure. The iterative and evaluative nature of many STEM problems
means failure is an important part of the problem-solving process. A healthy attitude to
failure encourages reflection, resilience and continual improvement.

How to use it?

UNESCO recommends a four-step process:

 set a challenge for students

 encourage active student investigations
 make generalisations
 reflect

there are lots of teaching methods a teacher may use, such as class/group discussions,
student reports, debate and other more (please make additional readings on the given
link: [Link]
InstructionalMethods/[Link], and share it to class).[29]

Te
ch
niq It is more on personalistic way of teaching. Some teachers may use
ue their personality in order to teach effectively their learners. It is a
particular own strategy or trick of a teacher to accomplish his/ her
own objectives.

A teacher may use his her own perspective of teaching, for example, a pupil keeps on
distracting the class, and catching his/her classmates’ attention, teacher may
psychologize, make use of it and identify what to do in such situations, she may give

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extra activity or task in order to make that learner behave in the class.

A teacher also may be looking terror, in such way pupils get scared and refrain from
doing unnecessary movements/ activities while the class is on-going. In contrast, a
teacher may get pupils’ love and affection so that it would not be hard for him/her make
pupils obedient.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Activity #1

1. Based on the conceptual Framework of the teaching of aralin panlipunan in Intermediate grades,
how would you effectively teach the subject? (choice particular topic in the Curriculum guide,
showing the application of 3 learning approach) make 3 sample lesson plan (DLP).

a. Constructivism
b. Cooperative Learning

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c. Experiential Learning?

2. Watch demo teaching with the given link: [Link]

Answer the questions.
a. What are the preparatory activities that the teacher do?
b. What are the learning activities that the teacher used during the lesson?
c. What approache(s) method(s) and technique(s) that the teacher used?
d. Was the teaching effective? Critique and give your own insight with the given demonstration.

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