University of Thessaly
Department of Special Education
2021-2022
Undergraduate Thesis
Visual Impairment and Learning Disabilities
Student: Anne Emmanouil
Professor: Evangelia Xirofotou
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CONTENTS
Section 1…………………………………………………………… 4
1.1 Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………4
1.2 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………5
Section 2: Theoretical Background…………………………… 6
2.1 Blindness and Visual Impairment (General)
2.1.1 Educational Dimension…………………………….6
2.2. Frequency of occurrence…………………………………………………
2.3. Causes of occurrence……………………………………………………
Section 3: Theoretical Background………………………………… 7
3.1 Review of Language Disabilities.........................................................................
3.1.1 Causes of LD and frequency …………………………………………… 7
3.1.2 Neurobiological Element of Learning Disabilities…………………………8
3.1.3 Learning Disabilities and their Heterogeneity Element .......………………….9
Section 4: Visual Impairment and Learning Disabilities:
…………........................................................9-10
4.1 Definition and impact of vision problems in learning
disabilities…….....................................................................................10
Section 5: Early Intervention
5.1 Early Identification, Prevention, and Early Intervention ......................
……………………………………………………11-12
Conclusion………………………………………………………11-12
References........................................................................................12
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If I save my insight, I don't attend to weakness of eyesight....
Socrates
Section 1
Abstract
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It is now well established from a variety of studies, that vision problems and learning
disabilities are interlinked. This study has as a main purpose to investigate the
learning disabilities and their occurrence in blind children in relation with sighted
children. Vision is the only key to learning, communication, and motivation. This
study has shown that over one million people in the UK with learning disabilities,
have also sight problems and may not be able to recognize them. Children with
learning disabilities are 10% more likely to be visually impaired or blind than the
general population. An estimated 96.500 children with LD (Learning Disabilities) are
blind or partially sighted. The 60% of learning-disabled children needs glasses and
support for their educational activities. Sight tests are imperative for every two years
for these children. The present study and the present thesis explain the significant and
interactive role of visual impairments and blindness on learning disabilities, which
comparatively derives from the learning potential of the viewers.
Introduction
The correlation between the learning disabilities and vision impairment has been
studied extensively in the last years. More specifically, it has been observed that
visual loss in the early years of childhood…For this reason, the aim of this essay is
to delve deeper into the relationship between blindness, vision problems and the
learning disabilities of blind children.
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Section 2 explains the theoretical background and analyzes the concepts of blindness
and vision problems. Section 3 focuses on the examination of learning disabilities, its
causes, frequency and its functions. Section 4 is concerned with the definition and
impact of vision problems in learning disabilities. Finally, in section 5, we will
present the distinct and important role of early intervention as far as visually impaired
children.
Key- words: Blindness, Visual Impairment, learning disabilities, Learning
potential, Skills, Interaction, Early Intervention
Section 2
2.1 Theoretical Background
Visual impairment and Blindness (General Definition)
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Visual impairment is a deep term that describes a wide spectrum of loss in optical
function. The aspects of optical function are many. E.eg. visual acuity (visual ability
to resolve detail), accommodation (ability to concentrate), visual field (the area which
can be seen), light adaptability and color vision (Graeme Douglas & Mike
McLinden:2004). According to World Health Organization (WHO), visual
impairment is based on an assessment, which estimates the individual’s ability to
resolve fine detail (i.g. color vision) using standardized methods (e.eg. the Ishihara
Test). Another example is the estimation of optical acuity, which is based on the
Snellen Chart. Low vision is between <6/18 and 3/60. These people can be described
as “visual impaired”.
According to Holbrook, (2006): "blindness is the inability of the human visual system
to capture visual stimuli that result in the creation of visual representations". A
different aspect, which focuses on the functional area of disability, adopts the view
that "blindness can be considered the loss of vision to such an extent that it is difficult
or even impossible for the individual to carry out daily routines without some special
adjustments. This is because the eye cannot see objects so clearly (with so many
details) (Holbrook, 2006).
Blind is considered a visual person, who with corrected vision, has acuity 20/200 or
otherwise 2/20 in the best eye. People who, while their optical acuity exceeds 2/20,
have the widest diameter of the visual field at an angle of 20 degrees, are considered
legally blind. The World Health Organization -(WHO) defines blindness as "the
inability of a person to measure the fingers of his hand at a distance of less than 10
feet.”
2.1.1 Educational dimension
In educational terms, people who are unable to read printed speech and who are
alternatively taught through the tactile method of writing and reading Braille or by
acoustic methods are considered blind.
Children with visual impairments or partially sighted people are considered to be
people who can, even with some adjustments (use of lenses, closed circuit screen,
enlarged printed speech, etc.) read texts in printed form and write in the conventional
way (Holbrook, 2006).
It therefore seems that the terms blind and partially sighted have a different meaning
in medicine and in the classification of information (Webster & Roe, 1998).
A detailed functional assessment is important for a teacher with special training in this
area, because in this way, the teacher can organize the suitable activities for the visual
impaired child, and the child himself will make significant use of his visual potential.
2.2. Frequency of occurrence
According to US data, only 0.1% of children and adolescents with severe vision
problems need some kind of special treatment, even after medical intervention. For
every 500 children one is deaf and for every 3000 one is legally blind. (WHO)
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In Greece, relevant research has shown that 9% of people up to 0-2years old have low
vision. This percentage rises to 14% in the ages 21-64 and 69% in the ages 65-84.
The Panhellenic Association of the Blind estimated that the number of blind and
partially sighted people in our country at the end of 1990 was 20,591.
2.3. Causes of occurrence
Visual Impairment and Blindness is related with a wide range of causes, which can
generally be classified as hereditary adventitious, as the result of an accident or
disease or age-related {(prenatal- rubella, perinatal-hypoxemia, postnatal causes-
meningitis}. Other conditions, can affect the eye itself
(ocular visual impairment such as glaucoma). Damage to the optic pathways, optic
nerve atrophy is another case. The majority of children, which externalize physical
disabilities and complex learning disabilities, are reported as having a cortical optical
impairment (harm to the visual cortex) (Buultjens 1997). Despite this, there is a
variety of causes, which vary from country to country, from culture to culture, and
from season to season. So not only the definition of causes, but also the definition of
blindness or vision problems should be taken into account.
Section 3:
3.1 Review of Language Disabilities
The term, learning disability (LD), is synonymous with the unforeseen
underachievement- especially for children who manifest problems related with
listening, speak, mathematics and reading skills, analogous with their potential. This
unexpected underachievement has been reported under the rubrics of dysgraphia,
dyslexia, word blindness, dyscalculia etc. (See J. Doris:1993)
The term “Learning Disabilities” gained acceptance in the chronological range 1960-
1970.Particurlary, 1962 Samuel Kirk coined this term. But this underachievement
correlated with the educational process. Kirk used the term to refer to a variety of
syndromes influencing learning, language and communicative skills. “A retardation,
disorder, or delayed development in one or more of the processes of speech, language,
reading, spelling, writing, or arithmetic resulting from a possible cerebral dysfunction
and not from mental retardation, sensory deprivation, or cultural or instructional
factors (S. Kirk:1962). It is discrepancy between a child’s achievement and his or her
apparent capacity to learn” defined as LD, by Kirk (G. Reid Lyon, Jack M.
Fletcher:2001). The educational sense was broadcast. Previously, children who failed
due to visual impairments, hearing impairments, emotional depression or mental
retardation were excluded from their access in special education. Learning Disabilities
Act (1969), Education for all Handicapped Children Act (1975- EAHCA) and
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
Amendments of 1991).
Finally, according to the rearranged version of the DSM-V (2013), it is claimed and
established that “The diagnosis of a specific learning disorder presupposes systematic
difficulties in reading, writing, arithmetic or mathematical proof skills during formal
education. Characteristics may include inaccurate or slow and diligent reading, poor
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written expression that lacks clarity, difficulty retrieving numerical data, or inaccurate
mathematical argumentation. Current academic skills may be well below average in
culturally and linguistically appropriate reading, writing or math tests. "Specific
learning disability can be diagnosed through a clinical review of the individual's
developmental, medical, educational and family history, test scores and teacher
observations, as well as based on the individual's response to academic interventions."
(Specific Learning Disorder fact sheet, American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
3.1.2 Causes of LD and frequency
Regarding the factors that affect the school performance of these children, they are
categorized into neurobiological, purely cognitive, behavioral, psychosocial, but also
environmental (Fletcher, et al., 2007). Other factors may be prenatal, such as
hereditary-developmental diseases of the mother during pregnancy. They can be
epigenetic, which can be due to hypoxemia of the newborn or the birth of a newborn
with low birth weight, while it can also be due to postnatal factors, such as the infant's
head injury. (National Center for Learning Disabilities:2017). Regarding the
frequency, the percentages range from 15% -30% of the student population. In just the
past ten years, the number of school-aged students identified as LD, and this has
increased 38%. On the contrary, 22% of students with learning difficulties showed
improvement and development when they participated in special learning support
programs (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments:1991).
3.1.3 Neurobiological Element of Learning Disabilities
L.D. are a field of investigation, and even neurobiological. In the neurobiological
dysfunction, described the academic, linguistic, cognitive and behavioral
characteristics of individuals with reading or language problems. But there wasn’t an
objective way to prove the brain dysfunction. Neurological investigations focused on
brain anatomy, by using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and they observed subtle
structural differences in several brain regions. For instance, indicates that the brain
organization of children with LD is different from neurotypically children. These
studies show reductions in brain function while performing reading in the left
hemisphere (R. Thatcher, G. Lyon, J. Rumsey, and N. Krasnegor:1996).
Significant role plays and the environmental influences. The findings have shown that
neural functions are interact with the environment, which influences the reading
abilities. This “interaction” is supported from genetic studies. Family generation is
also important and responsible for the inheritance of LD. Parents with LD have eight
times higher possibilities to born children with LD. Moreover, environmental factors
include parenting tactics for their children. For example, parents who read
infrequently usually do not read to their children. In addition, the quality of reading
offered by the school is equally crucial in combination with the genetic background of
the children.
3.1.4 Learning Disabilities and their Heterogeneity
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Learning Disabilities is not a single disability but a composition of disabilities and
contains a combination of seven skills 1). Speaking, 2). Listening 3). Basic reading
(decoding and word recognition) 4). Arithmetic calculations, 5). mathematics, 6).
Reading comprehension and finally 7). Written expression. All these disabilities are
frequently occur together and also are accompanied by social, behavioral and
emotional disorders, and attention disorders. LD, however, are not consequence of
these primary causes. Current seven areas of disability assures that a wide range of
learning disabilities varies and is heterogeneous, making diagnostic evaluation
particularly complex. LD present different forms. For example, reading disorders and
mathematics have multiple dimensions. However, the causes of the different forms of
LD are common. Therefore, treating them as seven different aspects, as
heterogeneous. Of course, there is an urgent need to strengthen the evaluation for each
disability and the different forms of LD (Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes:1993).
Section 4:
Visual Impairment and Learning Disabilities
4.1 Definition and impact of vision problems in learning disabilities
According to The Royal College of Ophthalmologists, the group of people
with learning disabilities are 10 times more likely to have severe vision loss
or even blindness as the leading cause of their disorder. A significant number
of 95,600 people, including 45,000 people who are not registered in a service,
with learning disabilities, face vision problems or blindness, creating a
percentage of 9.3%. Unidentified, sight problems, are observed in thousands
of people with learning disabilities. Visual impairment also combines a wide
spectrum of disabilities for people with learning disabilities. Moreover, visual
problems may affect people with learning disabilities, can have problems in
social inclusion and isolation. Vision helps people to take part in the
community. Helps people to understand if they are included in the activities
they want or excluded. Children with learning disabilities are more likely to
experience school isolation, and as adults the social respectively. Significant
consequences are also observed in the motivation. Loss of vision can catalyze
the motivation to discover and explore the world, as well as the motivation of
the individual to invest further in social skills or self-care skills, such as safe
driving. Thus, an important goal is to enhance the adaptability that the current
environment attributes to specific individuals, is the range of possibilities, as
well as the strengthening of their psychosynthesis. Significant difficulties are
also observed at the learning level, because there may be a slowing down of
reading texts, development of answers-questions, comprehension of verbal
patterns or abstract concepts, etc. Therefore, a necessary condition for the
facilitation of these children, is the proper organization of the classroom, the
transcription of books in Braille, the creation of tangible graphic materials,
and the provision of vision aids such as e.εg. analog, magnifier, CCTV,
braille typewriter, etc.
Finally, an important area, which is affected, is the communication skills,
both on a verbal level, because the child may have problems with the joint
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e.g. dysarthria, as well as visual level, as the child is unable to visually
identify and interact with other people, and also understand the sign language.
Thus, it is imperative to learn mobility and orientation from an early age, with
the aim of understanding the concept of self-determination and the
determination of others. (The Royal College of Ophthalmologists:2011).
5.1 Early Identification, Prevention, and Early Intervention
Early identification, prevention and intervention are important prerequisites
for the proper treatment and assistance in predicting the consequences of
vision problems, and the smooth integration of children into the school
environment. According to Rogow (2005) points out the increasing
recognition of the education of visual impaired children combined with
learning disabilities as one of the most enthralling and challenging aspects of
special education. A variety of factors need to be considered to provide
multifaceted educational opportunities. Educational policy for the integration
of blind children with learning disabilities is a prerequisite for existence in
both general and special schools (Norshidah Mohamad Salleh, Manisah:2010).
Moreover, developing effective educational programs and teaching strategies
is a key factor in the smooth adjustment of children with vision loss and
learning disabilities. In addition, the assignment of functional goals to the
content of the educational programs makes possible the development of
various skills, the multi-sensory practice as well as the independence of the
children in the field of daily living and routine. Early integration
opportunities are especially important for these children. Examples of such
opportunities are the development of social skills as well as the provision of
the ability to self-recognize the dysfunction they carry and the focus on their
capabilities. Furthermore, training with teachers endowed with skills and
knowledge in the field of blindness and learning disabilities will greatly
benefit the educational process. In the case of special educators, most of them
could be trained in this field, while through an interdisciplinary collaboration,
there is the possibility of guiding and supporting these children. Finally, by
promoting a friendly infrastructure, which primarily provides for the
accessibility of these children, the principles of mutual acceptance and
solidarity are automatically ensured.
Conclusion
It is reasonable to conclude that visually impaired people, who owe their
disability to prenatal, perinatal or postnatal factors, are more likely to develop
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learning disabilities, which are, in short, a wide range of learning and
language difficulties. The heterogeneity of learning disabilities, due to
different etiological factors, increases dramatically and covers a wide range,
in which children with visual impairments can be included. However, the
well-organized and early educational awareness, causal analysis, the
organization of the school and the whole class, which will aim at the access of
children to the educational process through tactile material but also the
appropriate intervention, will contribute significantly to the smooth
integration and consolidation of conditions of acceptance of these children.
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1. Graeme Douglas & Mike McLinden:2004- Developing online problem‐
based resources for the professional development of teachers of children
with visual impairment P.237-251
2. Holbrook, (2006) - What Is Visual Impairment? P.1-19
3. Webster & Roe, 1998- Children with visual impairments: Social
interaction, language and learning P.7-20
4. Buultjens 1997- Where are we now? A personal perspective on
educational provision in Scotland for children and young people with
multiple disability and visual impairment
5. See J. Doris:1993 - Understanding and addressing the “neglect of
neglect”: Why are we making a mole-hill out of a mountain P. 1-9
6. S. Kirk:1962- On defining learning disabilities: An emerging consensus
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7. G. Reid Lyon, Jack M. Fletcher:2001- Access of Students with Specific
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2013- The American Psychiatric Association practice guideline on the
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11. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments:1991-
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15. Rogow:2005- A Developmental Model of Disabilities. P.132-135
16. Norshidah Mohamad Salleh, Manisah:2010- Analysis Of
Problems Faced By Special Education Teacher In Teaching The
Multiple Disabilities Students P.714-719
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