Course Content of Unit- I : Basics of Radar

Introduction
Maximum Unambiguous Range
Simple Radar range Equation
Radar Block Diagram and Operation
Radar Frequencies and Applications
Prediction of Range Performance
Minimum Detectable Signal
Receiver Noise
Illustrative Problems
 Course Content of Unit- I : Radar Equation
Modified Radar Range Equation
SNR
Probability of detection
Probability of False Alarm,
Integration of Radar Pulses RCS of Targets
Creeping Wave
Transmitter Power
PRF and Range Ambiguities
System Losses (qualitative treatment)
Illustrative Problems.
 Course Content of Unit- I : Basics of Radar

Introduction
Maximum Unambiguous Range
Simple Radar range Equation
Radar Block Diagram and Operation
Radar Frequencies and Applications
Prediction of Range Performance
Minimum Detectable Signal
Receiver Noise
Illustrative Problems
 Introduction
Basic Principles and features :
 Radar is a contraction of the words Radio Detection And
Ranging.

 Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location

of objects.
 It operates by transmitting a particular type of waveform, a
pulse-modulated sine wave for example, and detects the nature of
the echo signal.

 Radar can see through conditions such as darkness, haze, fog,

rain, and snow which is not possible for human vision.

 In addition, radar has the advantage that it can measure the

distance or range to the object.
 The Radar consists of a transmitting antenna emitting
electromagnetic Radiation generated by an oscillator, a
receiving antenna, and a signal receiver.

 A portion of the transmitted signal is intercepted by a reflecting

object (target) and is re-radiated in all directions.

 The receiving antenna collects the returned signal and delivers

it to a receiver, where it is processed to detect the presence of
the target and to extract its location and relative velocity.

 The distance to the target is determined by measuring the time

taken for the Radar signal to travel to the target and back.
 If relative motion exists between target and radar, the shift in the
carrier frequency of the reflected wave (Doppler Effect) is a
measure of the target's relative (radial) velocity and may be used
to distinguish moving targets from stationary objects.
 In radars which continuously track the movement of a target, a
continuous indication of the rate of change of target position is
also available.
 It was first developed as a detection device to warn the approach
of hostile aircraft and for directing antiaircraft weapons.
 A well designed modern radar can extract more information from
the target signal than merely range.

 Radar was originally developed to satisfy the needs of the

military for surveillance and weapon control
 Radar Waveforms
 Pulse Repetition Frequency(PRF): The [Link] pulses Transmitted
per Second

 Pulse Repetition Time(PRT): The time from beginning of first

pulse to the beginning of next pulse.

 Pulse Width (PW): The duration of transmitted pulse is called PW

 Rest Time or Receiver Time: The time between two successive

transmitted pulses
 Measurement of Range:
 The most common radar waveform is a train of narrow,
rectangular-shape pulses modulating a sine wave carrier.
 The distance, or range, to the target is determined by
measuring the time TR taken by the pulse to travel to the
target and return.
 Since electromagnetic energy propagates at the speed of
light c (3 x 108 m/s) the range
 Range (R) is given by : R= c TR / 2
 The factor 2 appears in the denominator because of the
two-way propagation of radar. With the range R in
kilometers or nautical miles, and TR in microseconds,
the above relation becomes: R(km) = 0.15 X TR ( μS )
 Course Content of Unit- I : Basics of Radar

Introduction
Maximum Unambiguous Range
Simple Radar range Equation
Radar Block Diagram and Operation
Radar Frequencies and Applications
Prediction of Range Performance
Minimum Detectable Signal
Receiver Noise
Illustrative Problems
 Maximum unambiguous range
 Once the transmitter pulse is emitted by the radar, sufficient time
must elapse to allow any echo signals to return and be detected
before the next pulse is transmitted.

 Therefore, the rate at which the pulses may be transmitted is

determined by the longest range at which targets are expected.

 If the pulse repetition frequency is too high, echo signals from

some targets might arrive after the transmission of the next pulse,
and ambiguities in measuring range might result.

 Echoes that arrive after the transmission of the next pulse are
called second-time-around (or multiple-time-around) echoes.

 Such an echo would appear to be at a much shorter range than the

actual.
 The range beyond which targets appear as second-time-around
echoes is called the maximum unambiguous range
 It is given by: R unambig. = C /2fp
Where fp = Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) , in Hz.
 This can also be explained with the following simple
relations.
TR is the time elapsed between transmission pulse and Echo pulse.
TR = 2R/C where R = Range of target
 TR increases with Range R and in extreme case Echo pulse
merges with next Transmitted Pulse. Then TR becomes equal to TP
Where TP= Pulse repetition period
 TR max = TP = 2 R max /C and so R max = CTP/2 = C/2fP = R unambig

 Therefore R unambig is directly proportional to the Pulse period TP

( or Inversely proportional to the PRF fp)
The maximum unambiguous is also called as maximum usable
range , it is the range where radar has sufficient power and
sensitivity.
 Course Content of Unit- I : Basics of Radar

Introduction
Maximum Unambiguous Range
Simple Radar range Equation
Radar Block Diagram and Operation
Radar Frequencies and Applications
Prediction of Range Performance
Minimum Detectable Signal
Receiver Noise
Illustrative Problems
 Simple Radar range Equation

 The radar equation :

 The performance of Radar system is depends on number
of factors including curvature of earth surface and
characteristics of Transmitter, Receiver, Antenna, Target
and Environment.

 The Radar range equation determines the maximum

measurable distance from the radar to the target

 It serves both as a tool for understanding radar operation

and as a basis for radar design.
 Derivation of the simple form of radar equation:
 If the power of the radar transmitter is denoted by Pt and the
power density (watts per unit area) at a distance R from the
radar is equal to the transmitter power divided by the surface
area 4πR2 of an imaginary sphere of radius R.

 Power density from an isotropic antenna = Pt / 4πR2

 Radars employ directive antennas to direct the radiated power

Pt into some particular direction.

 The gain Gt of an antenna is a measure of the increased power

radiated in the particular direction

 Then, Power density from directive antenna = [Link]/ 4πR2

 Now, The ability of target to reflect energy is
characterized by the effective area or RCS, let this area is
σ, and is defined by the relation

 Power density of echo signal at radar

=([Link]/ 4πR2)(σ) / 4πR2

• The radar antenna captures a portion of the echo power. If the

effective area of the receiving antenna is denoted as Ae , then the
power Pr . received by the radar is given by

 Pr = (Pt. Gt/ 4πR2)(σ) / 4πR2 ). Ae

= (Pt .Gt. Ae. σ)/ (4π)2.R4

 The receiving antenna captures a portion of echo energy
incident on it.

 The received power by antenna is the product of incident

power and effective area Ae of receiving antenna.

 Therefore ,the received power is given by

Pr = P’ x Ae

= Pt .Gt. Ae. σ / (4π)2.R4

 The maximum radar range Rmax is the distance beyond which the
target cannot be detected. It occurs when the received echo signal
power Pr just equals the minimum detectable signal Pmin.

 Therefore
Rmax = [ Pt .Gt. Ae. σ / (4π)2. Pmin]1/4

 This expression is called as fundamental Radar equation.

 The effective area, Ae is related with physical area of the
antenna A by relation
Ae = ή A where ή antenna aperture efficiency

 If the transmitting and receiving antenna is common,

According to Antenna theory gives the relationship
between the transmitting gain and the receiving effective
area of an antenna as:

Gt = 4π. Ae /λ2 and Ae = Gt .λ2 / 4π

 Now , substituting Ae in fundamental radar equation,
we get

This is the another simple form of radar range equation

 Limitations of the simple form of Radar equation:

 Does not adequately describe the performance of practical

radar.

 Many important factors that affect range are not explicitly

included.

 In practice, the observed maximum radar ranges are usually

much smaller than what would be predicted by the above
equations, sometimes by as much as a factor of two.

 There are many reasons for the failure of the simple radar
equation to correlate with actual performance and these will
be explained subsequently in the modified Radar range
equation.
 Course Content of Unit- I : Basics of Radar

Introduction
Maximum Unambiguous Range
Simple Radar range Equation
Radar Block Diagram and Operation
Radar Frequencies and Applications
Prediction of Range Performance
Minimum Detectable Signal
Receiver Noise
Illustrative Problems
Radar block diagram and operation:

The operation of a typical pulse radar is described with the help

of a simple block diagram shown in the figure below.

There are two sections of Radar system

i) Transmitter section ii) Receiver Section

 The operation of the radar is described in more detail, starting
with the transmitter.

 Transmitter : The transmitter in Fig is shown as a power

amplifier, such as a klystron, travelling-wave tube, crossed-field
amplifier, or solid state device .

 A power oscillator such as a magnetron also can be used as

the transmitter; but the magnetron usually is of limited average
power compared with power amplifiers, especially the klystron,
which can produce much larger average power than can a
magnetron and is more stable.

 Transmitters not only must be able to generate high power with

stable wave -forms, but they must often operate over a wide
bandwidth, with high efficiency
 Duplexer : The duplexer acts as a rapid switch to protect the
receiver from damage when the high-power transmitter is on.

 On reception, with the transmitter off, the duplexer directs the

weak received signal to the receiver rather than to the transmitter.

 Duplexers generally are some form of gas-discharge device and

may be used with solid-state or gas-discharge receiver protectors.

 A solid-state circulator is sometimes used to provide further

isolation between the transmitter and the receiver.
Antenna :

 The transmitter power is radiated into space by a directive

antenna which concentrates the energy into a narrow beam.

 Mechanically steered parabolic reflector antennas and planar

phased arrays both find wide application in radar.

 Electronically steered phased array antennas are also used.

Waveform Generator:

 The most common radar waveform is a repetitive train of short

pulses.

 CW is employed on some specialized radars for the measurement

of radial velocity from the Doppler frequency shift.

 FM/CW is used when range is to be measured with a CW

waveform Pulse compression waveforms are used when the
resolution of a short pulse.

 MTI radars with low pulse repetition frequencies (PRFs) and

pulse Doppler radars with high PRFs often use waveforms with
multiple pulse repetition intervals in order to avoid range and/or
Doppler ambiguities
Pulse modulator:

 A modulator turns the transmitter on and off in synchronism

with the input pulses. when a power oscillator is used, it is also
turned on and off by a pulse modulator to generate a pulse.
waveform

Low noise RF Amplifier :

 The receiver is almost always a Superheterodyne.

 The input or RF stage be a low noise amplifier which produces

the RF pulse proportional to the transmitted signal
Mixer and Local oscillator:

 The mixer and local oscillator convert the RF signal to the

Intermediate Frequency ( IF ).

 Sometimes the low noise input stage is omitted and the mixer
becomes the first stage of the receiver.

 A receiver with a mixer as the input stage will less sensitive

because of the mixer’s higher noise figure.
IF Amplifier :

 It amplifies the IF pulse. IF amplifier is designed as matched

filter which maximizes the output peak signal to mean noise
ratio.

 The matched filter maximizes the detectability of weak echo

signals and attenuates unwanted signals

 The signal bandwidth of superheterodyne receiver is

determined by the bandwidth of its IF stage.
Second Detector :

 The IF Amplifier followed by a crystal diode which is called

the second detector or demodulator. Its purpose is to assist in
extracting the signal modulation from the carrier.

Video Amplifier :

 Video amplifier is designed to provide the sufficient

amplification or gain to raise the level of the input signal to a
magnitude where it can be seen on a display
Display :

 The most common form of cathode-ray tube display is the Plan

Position Indicator, or PPI (Fig. a) which maps in polar
coordinates the location of the target in azimuth and range.

 This is an intensity-modulated display in which the amplitude

of the receiver output modulates the electron-beam intensity (z
axis) as the electron beam is made to sweep outward from the
center of the tube.

 The beam rotates in angle in response to the antenna position.

Another form of display is the A-scope, shown in Fig. which
plots target amplitude (y axis) vs. range (x axis), for some fixed
direction.

 This is a deflection-modulated display. It is more suited for

tracking-radar application than for surveillance radar.
 Fig
(a) PPI presentation displaying Range vs. Angle
(intensity modulation)

(b) A-scope presentation displaying Amplitude vs. Range

(deflection modulation)
 Course Content of Unit- I : Basics of Radar

Introduction
Maximum Unambiguous Range
Simple Radar range Equation
Radar Block Diagram and Operation
Radar Frequencies and Applications
Prediction of Range Performance
Minimum Detectable Signal
Receiver Noise
Illustrative Problems
Radar frequencies and applications:
 Conventional radars are operated at frequencies extending from
about 220 MHz to 35 GHz, a spread of more than seven
octaves. These are not necessarily the limits, since radars can
be, and have been, operated at frequencies outside either end of
this range.

 The place of radar frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum

is shown in the figure below.

 Some of the nomenclature employed to designate the various

frequency regions is also shown in this figure.
ELECROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Table 1.1: Standard radar-frequency letter-band nomenclature
Applications of Radar:
[Link]
 Ground-based radar is applied chiefly to the detection,
location and tracking of aircraft of space targets

 Shipborne radar is used as a navigation aid and safety

device to locate buoys, shorelines and other ships. It is
also used to observe aircraft

 Airborne radar is used to detect other aircraft, ships and

land vehicles. It is also used for mapping of terrain and
avoidance of thunderstorms and terrain.

 Spaceborne radar is used for the remote sensing of terrain

and sea.
2. Air Traffic Control :
 Used to provide air traffic controllers with position and other
information on aircraft flying within their area of responsibility
(airways and in the vicinity of airports)

 High resolution radar is used at large airports to monitor

aircraft and ground vehicles on the runways, taxiways and
ramps.

 GCA (ground controlled approach) or PAR (precision approach

radar) provides an operator with high accuracy aircraft
position information in both the vertical and horizontal. The
operator uses this information to guide the aircraft to a landing
in bad weather.

 MLS (microwave landing system) and ATC radar beacon

systems are based on radar technology
 [Link] Navigation :

 Weather avoidance radar is used on aircraft to detect and

display areas of heavy precipitation and turbulence

 Terrain avoidance and terrain following radar (primarily military)

 Radio altimeter (FM/CW or Pulse) – to measure height

 Doppler navigator

 Ground mapping radar of moderate resolution sometimes

used for navigation
4. Ship Safety :

 These are one of the least expensive, most reliable and largest applications of
radar
 Detecting other craft and buoys to avoid collision Automatic detection and
tracking equipment (also called plot extractors) are available with these radars
for collision avoidance
 Shore based radars of moderate resolution are used from harbour surveillance
and as an aid to navigation
[Link] :

 Radars are used for rendezvous and docking and was used for landing on the
moon
 Large ground based radars are used for detection and tracking of satellites
 Satellite-borne radars are used for remote sensing (SAR, synthetic aperture
radar)
[Link] Sensing:
 Used for sensing geophysical objects (the environment)
 Radar astronomy - to probe the moon and planets

 Ionospheric sounder (used to determine the best frequency to use

for HF communications)
 Earth resources monitoring radars measure and map sea
conditions, water resources, ice cover, agricultural land use, forest
conditions, geological formations, environmental pollution
(Synthetic Aperture Radar, SAR and Side Looking Airborne Radar
SLAR)

7. Law Enforcement
 Automobile speed radars

 Intrusion alarm systems

8. Military Use:

 Early warning of intruding enemy aircraft & missiles

 Tracking hostile targets and providing location information

to Air Defense systems consisting of Tracking Radars
controlling guns and missiles.

 Battle field surveillance

 Information Friend or Foe IFF

 Navigation of ships, aircraft, helicopter etc.

 Course Content of Unit- I : Basics of Radar

Introduction
Maximum Unambiguous Range
Simple Radar range Equation
Radar Block Diagram and Operation
Radar Frequencies and Applications
Prediction of Range Performance
Minimum Detectable Signal
Receiver Noise
Illustrative Problems
Prediction of Range Performance:

 The simple form of Radar equation derived earlier expresses

the maximum radar range Rmax in terms of radar and target
parameters:

 Where Pt = transmitted power, watts

Gt = antenna gain
Ae = antenna effective aperture, m2
σ = radar cross section, m2
Pmin = minimum detectable signal, watts
 All the parameters are to some extent under the control of the
radar designer, except for the target cross section σ.

The radar equation states that if long ranges are desired :

 The transmitted power must be large

 The radiated energy must be concentrated into a narrow beam with

high transmitting antenna gain

 The received echo energy must be collected with a large antenna

aperture

 The receiver must be sensitive to weak signals

 In practice, the simple radar equation does not predict the range
performance of actual radar equipment to a satisfactory degree of
accuracy.

 The predicted values of radar range are usually optimistic. In some

cases, the actual range might be only half of that is predicted.

Part of this discrepancy is due to

 The failure of the above equation to explicitly include the various

losses that can occur throughout the system.

 The loss in performance usually experienced when electronic

equipment is operated in the field rather than under laboratory-
type conditions .

 Another important factor i.e the statistical or unpredictable nature

of several of the parameters in the radar equation.
 Course Content of Unit- I : Basics of Radar

Introduction
Maximum Unambiguous Range
Simple Radar range Equation
Radar Block Diagram and Operation
Radar Frequencies and Applications
Prediction of Range Performance
Minimum Detectable Signal
Receiver Noise
Illustrative Problems
Minimum detectable signal:

 The ability of a radar receiver to detect a weak echo signal is

limited by the noise energy that occupies the same portion of
the frequency spectrum as does the signal energy and
accompanies the signal.

 The weakest signal the receiver can detect is called the

minimum detectable signal.

 It is difficult to define minimum detectable signal (MDS)

because of its statistical nature and because the criterion for
deciding whether a target is present or not is not too well
defined.
 Detection is normally based on establishing a threshold level at
the output of the receiver

 Whenever Rx output signal which is a mixture of echo and

noise crosses this threshold, then it is detected as a target. This
is called threshold detection.

 Consider the output of a typical radar receiver as a function of

time as shown in the figure below which typically represents
one sweep of the video output displayed on an A-scope.
 The envelope has a fluctuating appearance due to the random
nature of noise and consists of three targets A, B and C of
different signal amplitudes.

 The signal at A is large which has much larger amplitude than the
noise. Hence target detection is possible without any difficulty
and ambiguity.

 Next consider the two signals at B and C, representing target

echoes of equal amplitude. The noise voltage accompanying the
signal at B is large enough so that the combination of signal plus
noise exceeds the threshold and target detection is still possible.

 But for the target C, the noise is not as large and the resultant
signal plus noise does not cross the threshold and hence target is
not detected.
 Threshold Level setting:

 Weak signals such as C would not be lost if the threshold level

were lower. But too low a threshold increases the likelihood that
noise alone will rise above the threshold and is taken as target.

 Such an occurrence is called a false alarm. Therefore, if the

threshold is set too low, false target indications are obtained,

 But if it is set too high, targets might be missed. The selection of

the proper threshold level is a compromise that depends upon
how important it is if a mistake is made either by probability of a
miss or probability of a false alarm
 1. Failing to recognize a signal that is present
(probability of a miss) or by

 2. Falsely indicating the presence of a signal when it

does not exist (probability of a false alarm)

 The signal-to noise ratio necessary to provide

adequate detection is one of the important parameters
that must be determined in order to compute the
minimum detectable signal.
 Course Content of Unit- I : Basics of Radar

Introduction
Maximum Unambiguous Range
Simple Radar range Equation
Radar Block Diagram and Operation
Radar Frequencies and Applications
Prediction of Range Performance
Minimum Detectable Signal
Receiver Noise
Illustrative Problems
Receiver noise:
 Noise is unwanted electromagnetic energy which interferes
with the ability of the receiver to detect the wanted signal
thus limiting the receiver sensitivity.

 It may originate within the receiver itself, or it may enter

via the receiving antenna along with the desired signal.

 If the radar were to operate in a perfectly noise-free

environment so that no external sources of noise
accompanied the desired signal, and if the receiver itself
were so perfect that it did not generate any excess noise
 There would still exist an unavoidable component of noise
generated by the thermal motion of the conduction
electrons in the ohmic portions of the receiver input
stages.

 This is called thermal noise, or Johnson’s noise, and is

directly proportional to the temperature of the ohmic
portions of the circuit and the receiver band width.
 The available noise power generated by a receiver of bandwidth Bn
(in hertz) at a temperature T (degrees Kelvin) is given by :

Available Thermal-noise power = k T Bn

where k = Boltzmann's constant =1.38 x 10-23J/deg

T is taken to be273 K
The factor kT is 3.77 x 10-21 .Bn W/Hz

 Whether the noise is generated by a thermal mechanism the noise

at the output of the receiver may be considered as thermal-noise
power obtained from an “ideal“ receiver multiplied by a factor
called the noise figure.
 The noise figure Fn of a receiver is defined by the equation:

Fn = No/ kTo [Link]

Where No = noise output from receiver

Ga = available gain.
Temperature To is taken to be 273 K

 The noise No is measured over the linear portion of the receiver

input-output characteristic.
 The available gain Ga is the ratio of the signal out So to the
signal in Si and kTo Bn is the input noise Ni in an ideal
receiver.

 The above equation may be rewritten as:

 Therefore, the noise figure may be interpreted, as a measure of

the degradation of signal-to noise-ratio as the signal passes
through the receiver.
Thank you
 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):
The results of statistical noise theory will be applied to obtain:
• The signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the IF amplifier necessary to
achieve a specified probability of detection without exceeding a specified
probability of false alarm.
• The output signal-to-noise ratio thus obtained is substituted into the final modified
radar equation, we have obtained earlier.
The details of system that is considered:
• IF amplifier with bandwidth BIF followed by a second detector and a video amplifier
with bandwidth BV as shown in the figure below.
• The second detector and video amplifier are assumed to form an envelope detector, that
is, one which rejects the carrier frequency but passes the modulation envelope.
• To extract the modulation envelope, the video bandwidth must be wide enough to pass
the low-frequency components generated by the second detector, but not so wide as to
pass the high-frequency components at or near the intermediate frequency.
• The video bandwidth BV must be greater than BIF/2 in order to pass all the
video modulation.
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):
 Integration of Radar Pulses:
• Many pulses are usually returned from any target on each radar scan and can be
used to improve detection.
• The number of pulses nB returned from a point target as the radar antenna scans
with a pulse repetition rate of fp Hz, an antenna beam width θB degree and which
scans at a rate of θS degree per second is
• nB = θB . fP / θs = θB . fP /6 ωm
Where θ B = antenna beam width , degrees
fP = pulse repetetion frequency, Hz
θs = antenna scanning rate, deg / sec
ωm = revolutions per minute (rpm) for a 360o rotating
antenna, antenna scan rate, rpm
n = number of pulses received , known as hits per scan or pulses per scan
• The process of summing all the radar echoes available from target is known as
integration.
 Integration of Radar Pulses

• The process of summing all the radar echo pulses for the purpose of

improving detection is called integration.

• Integration may be accomplished in the radar receiver either before the

second detector (in the IF) or after the second detector (in the video).

• Integration before the detector is called pre detection or coherent

integration, while integration after the detector is called post detection or

non coherent integration.

 Integration of Radar Pulses

• Pre detection integration requires that the phase of the echo signal is to be

preserved if full benefit is to be obtained from the summing process

• If n pulses, all of the same signal-to-noise ratio, were integrated by an ideal

pre detection integrator, the resultant or integrated signal-to-noise (power)

ratio would be exactly n times that of a single pulse.

• Then SNR in Radar equation becomes (SNR)n i.e., (S/N)n = (S/N)1 /n

 Integration of Radar Pulses
• Integration after the detector is called post detection or non coherent integration. In this phase
information is destroyed by the second detector. Hence post detection integration is not concerned
with preserving RF phase. Due to this simplicity it is easier to implement in most applications, but
is not as efficient as pre detection integration.
• Due to its simplicity, Post detection integration is preferred many a times even though the
integrated signal-to-noise ratio may not be as high as that of Pre-detection. An alert, trained
operator viewing a properly designed cathode-ray tube display is a close approximation to the
theoretical post detection integrator.

• If n pulses of same signal-to-noise ratio were integrated by an ideal post detection device, the
resultant signal-to-noise ratio would be less than n times that of a single pulse.

• This loss in integration efficiency is caused by the nonlinear action of the second detector,
which converts some of the signal energy to noise energy in the rectification process.
 Integration of Radar Pulses
• The efficiency of post detection integration relative to ideal pre-detection

integration has been computed by Marcum when all pulses are of equal amplitude.

The integration efficiency may be defined as follows:

• Ei(n) = (S/N)1 / n(S/N)n

Where n = number of pulses integrated

(S/N)1 = Value of signal to noise ratio of a single pulse required to produce a

given probability of detection ( for n =1)

(S/N)n = Value of signal to noise ratio per pulse required to produce the same

probability of detection when n pulses (of equal amplitude) are integrated

 Radar Cross Section of Targets
• They found use in Military Stealth Technology
• Military planes have been developed with “stealth” (cautious and
surreptitious action or movement) characteristics. This means that such a
plane has a very small σ, or radar cross section, relative to other aircraft of
similar size.
• It can still be detected by a sufficiently powerful radar or at sufficiently
close ranges. Anti aircraft missile
 Radar Cross Section of Targets
• RCS depends on several factors. Primarily depends on

• The value of RCS basically is measure of how easily detectable an object is.
• The lower is the value of RCS is better for military vehicles, because they don’t
want to get detected.
 Radar Cross Section of Targets
• Radar cross section (σ) provides an indication of how well a given target
reflects radar energy.
• It is the property of the scattering object or target that is included in the
radar equation to represent the magnitude of the echo signal returned to
the Radar by the target.
• The radar cross section of a target is the area intercepting that amount of
power when scattered equally in all directions, produces an echo at the
radar equal to that from the target.
Pulse Repetition Frequencies and Range Ambiguities
Pulse Repetition Frequencies and Range Ambiguities
Pulse Repetition Frequencies and Range Ambiguities
SYSTEM LOSSES
SYSTEM LOSSES
SYSTEM LOSSES