PRINCIPLES of INDUCTION TUBE WELDING

PRINCIPLES OF
HIGH FREQUENCY
INDUCTION TUBE
WELDING

By
JOHN WRIGHT
Electronic Heating Equipment, Inc.
Sumner, Washington

Page 1 © 1997 Electronic Heating Equipment, Inc.

Page 1
 PRINCIPLES of INDUCTION TUBE WELDING

Introduction and it is inductance rather than resistance that

governs current flow at high frequencies. This is
High Frequency induction welding accounts for the sometimes refered to as “proximity effect”.
majority of welded tubing produced worldwide, yet
it is still a largely misunderstood process. Part of the It can be seen from this that there are two main
reason is that the process is very forgiving, however a paths along which current can flow when a voltage is
thorough understanding of it can lead to higher applied or induced across the edges of the strip. The
product yields and quality. key to operating a high frequency welder efficiently is
to direct the majority of the current along the faying
edges where it does useful work in heating them, and
Principals of operation minimise the wasteful parasitic current that flows
around the inside surface of the tube.This is done by
Induction welding is a form of Electrical Resistance making the impedance of the vee low relative to that
Welding (ERW) in which the large rotary trans- of the I.D. surface.
former common in low frequency ERW is replaced
by a “virtual transformer” consisting of the work coil Function of impeder
(primary winding) and the tube itself (secondary
winding). A ferromagnetic core inside the tube has a
similar role to the laminated iron core in a conven- The first tool we have is called an impeder because it
tional transformer. raises the impedance of the tube. An impeder is
simply a bar of ferromagnetic material placed inside
the tube within the weld area. Such materials have
Faying Edges the effect of raising the inductance of a circuit
surrounding them. The resistance of the inside
surface of the tube is extremely low but at high
frequencies, it is inductance (or more specifically
inductive reactance) that is the primary factor in
determining current flow. The sum of reactance and
resistance is known as impedance. This is the “clas-
sic” explanation of how impeders work, but there are
two additional factors involved:

Materials such as ferrite “conduct” magnetic fields in

a similar way to that in which metals conduct elec-
tricity. This is known as magnetic reluctance, and is
analagous to resistivity in metals. Although little or
Current
no magnetic field penetrates the wall of the tube (at
Work Coil
least in the case of ferritic (magnetic) tubing), some
flux does enter the ferrite through the open vee. The
Current flowing in the coil causes a magnetic field to low reluctance of the ferrite causes some flux to be
develop surrounding the coil, part of which intersects drawn into the impeder, and because there is now
with the open tube. This causes an electric field on flux inside the tube as well as outside, a correspond-
the outer surface of the tube which in turn creates a ing electric field is induced on the inside surface of
voltage difference across the edges of the strip. At the the tube. This field has the same polarity as the field
frequencies used for induction welding, the interac- on the outer surface, so the inductance of the inside
tion between electric and magnetic fields can cause surface further increased.
currents to flow in unexpected ways. The “skin
effect” confines current to within a few thousanths of There is yet a third method in which impeders
an inch of the surface, so the voltage across the strip improve the efficiency of induction welding. The
edges tends to cause current to flow circumfrentially work coil & the open tube constitute a transformer,
around the inside surface of the tube in the opposite albeit a very poor one. Not all of the flux that results
direction to the induced current on the outside from current flowing in the coil is common to the
surface. tube (or secondary winding in our virtual trans-
former). This stray flux is represented in transformer
Because the faying edges of the strip are in close design as leakage reactance, and it has exactly the
proximity to one another from the coil to the apex of same effect as an equivalent amount of ordinary
the vee, they have a very low value of inductance, reactance placed in series with the secondary. When

Page 2 © 1997 Electronic Heating Equipment, Inc.

 PRINCIPLES of INDUCTION TUBE WELDING

current flows through a reatance, a voltage drop Nowhere in the mill is there as much variation in
occurs. In this case, the voltage drop is across the design philosophy as there is in weld box arrange-
edges of the strip, so more & more current must be ments. Early designs were derived from low fre-
forced through the work coil to maintain the voltage quency ERW, with massive lower rolls on
across the strip. cantilevered shafts & smaller head rolls. This ar-
rangement is still widely used on large mills. (A)
Because ferromagnetic materials “conduct” magnetic
flux far better than air, the presence of an impeder in The five roll box (B) is a variation in this desgn that
a tube causes more of the coil flux to intersect with adds a fifth roll at the bottom of the tube, allowing
the tube, so leakage reactance is reduced. smaller diameter side rolls to be used.

Familiar ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickle Many smaller mills use three rolls mounted 120
& chromium are a poor choice for impeders because degrees apart. Some are orientated with a grooved
they have very low electrical resistivity. This results roll at the top of the tube (D), others with a roll
in large eddy currents being induced in them, caus- directly below the tube. D eliminates edge misalign-
ing uncontrolled heating. Ferrite is a man made ment and is especially suited to D/T ratios above
substance having magnetic properties similar to iron, 10:1. C provides a means of compensating for edge
but much higher resistivity. Some eddy current misalignment caused by camber in the strip, and is
heating still takes place, but it is much less than more frequently used wither lower D/T ratios. Both
would be the case with pure metals, and cooling methods work well, and some weld boxes can be
requirements become manageable. inverted, allowing either configuation to be used.

Some three roll boxes are designed around standard 3

Weld roll arrangements jaw lathe chucks. This permits all three rolls to move
in or out as a unit, however it also raises or lowers
The induction heater just heats the strip edges. The the metal line due to vertical movement of the lower
actual welding occurs as a result of material flow roll(s).
resulting from pressure applied by the squeeze rolls.
This section of the tube mill offers one of the greatest For very small diameter tubing, a two roll weld box is
challenges to the mill designer. The weld pressure often the best. These are the simplest both in con-
unit (or weld box) not only has to provide a very struction or setup, but difference in surface speed
high degree of precision, but it also has to be strong between the rim & the root of the rolls is greater
enough to withstand unwelded tube being forced than with other roll arrangements & this can lead to
through it. It is the only section of the mill subjected swirl marking of the tube. Two roll boxes can be
to high temperatures & thermal shock, and to fur- made with the bearing blocks staggered, allowing the
ther complicate matters, induction welding geometry use of very small diameter rolls, however keep in
requires that the rolls and supports be as small as mind that the smaller the roll diameter, the greater
possible. the rotational speed. Since the same pressure is
needed to create a weld upset with all roll configura-
tions, small rolls will have shorter bearing life.

Vee Length
Vee length depends on coil position, and to some
extent on coil length, since heating starts to occur
even before the strip enters the coil.
A: FOUR ROLL

C: THREE ROLL
Coil position is usually determined by the diameter
and size of the weld roll box, whereas coil length is
generally dictated by the matching capabilities of the
welder.

There are two factors involved here:-

1 The high efficiency of induction welding is

due to the fact that only a very small mass of metal is
B: FIVE ROLL D: THREE ROLL INVERTED

Page 3 © 1997 Electronic Heating Equipment, Inc.

 PRINCIPLES of INDUCTION TUBE WELDING

heated. Increasing the vee length allows more time weakly magnetic (Tungsten carbide) rolls will reduce
for heat to be conducted away from the edges, so roll heating.
more energy is needed & a wider heat affected zone
results. Approach angle
2 The distribution of current between the vee The closer the faying edges are to each other, the
and the inside surface of the tube depends on the lower their inductance will be. This reduces the total
relative impedances of the two circuits. A longer vee impedance of the vee, relative to the parasitic current
has a higher impedance, which directs more of the path around the inside tube surface. There is a limit
available current around the inside of the tube. This to how small a vee angle can be used. As the angle is
is particularly important when welding small diam- reduced, any mechanical instability such as “breath-
eter tubing, since the small space available for imped- ing” will cause a greater change in vee length, and
ers limits their effectiveness. therefore in weld temperature. In addition, at high
levels of induction, the voltage across the vee can be
sufficient to ionize the air between the edges, causing
D C arcing. A lower frequency helps because it reduces
the voltage, but there is still ultimately a mechanical
G
limitation of about 2-3 degrees for carbon steel
tubing and 5-8 degrees for stainless & non ferrous
A materials.

F END OF FERRITE
Work coils
SHOULD EXTEND
E B PAST WELD POINT

A TUBE O.D.
B EFFECTIVE VEE LENGTH MINIMUM
C WELD ROLL DIA. MINIMUM
D COIL LENGTH MINIMUM
E FIN PASS TO COIL CENTER 2x VEE LENGTH MINIMUM
F FERRITE AHEAD OF COIL CENTER 1 to 1-1/2 x VEE LENGTH
G COIL I.D. 1-1/4 x A (MAX 1"OVER TUBE DIA)

There are several schools of thought regarding

optimum vee length, but all agree that minimum
electrical power is used with short vee lengths and
short work coils. Power distribution across the edge
face of the strip is fairly even, however there is less
thermal conduction away from the corners, which
may result in their overheating before the center of
the edge reaches forging temperature. This tendency
can be reduced by increasing the vee length, or by Current flowing through the work coil establishes a
lowering the welder frequency (more on this later), magnetic field that causes energy to be induced into
so optimum vee length is more a function of wall the tube. Coil current increases with weld power &
thickness than it is of diameter. As a general rule, I decreases with frequency, but at any frequency used
recommend using a minimum length vee & the for induction welding, the currents are in the order
shortest practical work coil unless there is evidence of of hundreds, to thousands of amps. This current all
uneven temperature distribution. If the weld tends to travels close to the coil surface due to the high fre-
be cold in the center, the coil should be moved back quency skin effect, so coils must be designed and
the minimum distance needed to correct the prob- made to handle these extremely high currents with
lem. minimum losses. We have seen solid state welders
with quoted efficiencies of 90% or better degraded to
Because the weld rolls are usually made of steel (D2 less than 60% because of poor work coil design.
or H13), they will heat up readily due eddy currents Vacuum tube welders are more forgiving of poor coil
induced in them by the work coil. This sets the construction because most operate at higher voltages
minimum acceptable clearance between coil & rolls. & lower currents, but well designed & manufactured
Non magnetic (ceramic or Ampco 25 bronze) or coils will still save thousands of dollars in energy
costs each year.

Page 4 © 1997 Electronic Heating Equipment, Inc.

 PRINCIPLES of INDUCTION TUBE WELDING

Coil Position network that allows them to operate efficiently into a

fairly wide range of coil impedances. Vacuum tube
Coil position depends on vee length, which we have oscillators typically have a higher output impedance
already covered in some detail. The coil should than solid state types, so the coils are generally of
normally be posititioned as close to the weld rolls as lighter construction and have more turns. Coils for
possible without induction heating them or their transistor oscillators are usually single or two turn
support structure. Many people believe that a left to types and operate at lower voltage & higher current
right mill should use clockwise helix coils & a right levels.
to left mill should use counterclockwise helix. In
most cases the helix direction is of no consequence A typical single turn coil on a solid state welder may
but in a few installations, one helix direction may carry several thousand amps so it is imperative that
keep the coil leads further away from the rolls & all connections and joints be capable of carrying
bearing blocks, resulting in less heating. This occurs these high currents. At 2500 amps, even 1/1000 of
more with 4 roll weld boxes where the head rolls are an ohm of resistance results in over 6kW being
smaller than the side rolls. The coil is usually axially dissipated!
centered around the tube, although some operators
set the coil high so that there is more clearance at the Most welders have to accomodate a wide range of
top. This has little effect on performance. tube sizes. As tube diameter decreases, so must the
coil diameter and at some point, extra turns must be
added to keep the coil inductance within the range of
Coil length the welders matching circuit. Electrically there is no
such thing as a fractional number of turns & going
From a purely electrical standpoint, a coil has its from a single turn, to two turn coil of the same
highest efficiency when the length is equal to the diameter & length results in an almost fourfold
diameter. In induction tube welding, a longer coil increase in coil inductance. With many welders, this
starts to heat the strip edges further from the weld will exceed the matching range in the opposite
point, so more energy is lost to thermal conduction. direction, so the two turn coil is often made longer
As a result, short coils are preferable. Having a coil than it should be to reduce its inductance. While
that is too short may raise its inductance to a point permitting a proper impedance match to the welder,
where it can no longer be matched to the welder. this increases the effective vee length, so overall
This will limit the maximum power that can be welding efficiency drops.
delivered from the welder to the coil. If the welder
hits an over current limit before it reaches full volt- Impeders
age, the coil impedance is too low & turns should be
added, or the length should be reduced. If a voltage
limit is reached first, the impedance is too high &
turns should be removed or the coil lengthened. A
shorter coil has a more narrow cuurent path, so it’s
resistance will be higher. This will lead to higher I2R
looses in the coil. At very high power levels, using
too short a coil may also lead to heating of the tube
body, since current flowing in the vee also has to
flow around the outside surface of the tube. A short
coil forces this current into a smaller area, once again
increasing I2R looses.
The very first impeders were bundles of soft iron
As a general guide, making the coil length equal to wire. Although they worked in the sense that they
tube diameter seems to work well for D/T ratios of diverted more power into the vee, the electrical eddy
around 10:1. Shorter coils increase efficiency with curent losses in the impeder cores limited their use to
higher D/T ratios & longer coils may benefit lower very low power levels & frequencies. Fortunately a
D/T ratios, provided that the overall vee length can better material exists. Ferrite is a ceramic material
be kept short. composed of oxides of iron and other divalent met-
als. Because there are oxygen atoms present in the
crystal lattice as well as metals, the electrical conduc-
Number of turns tivity is much lower than that of pure metals, and the
magnetic characteristics are also somewhat improved.
Most modern welders have some built in matching

Page 5 © 1997 Electronic Heating Equipment, Inc.

 PRINCIPLES of INDUCTION TUBE WELDING

Type of ferrite tinuous lengths, rather than cut as it exits the mill.
For these applications, return flow water cooled
Early ferrites used oxides of iron and nickle. These impeders are available in sizes as small as 8mm
were designed for higher frequencies and much lower (0.315”). Most return flow impeders use a coaxial
power levels than those present in induction welding, coupling, so that coolant enters & leaves through a
so they don’t offer optimum performance. Ferrites single fitting.
based upon oxides of iron, manganese & zinc have
lower magnetic losses and can operate at much Various attempts have been made to cool impeders
higher power levels. with air or nitrogen, but the high coolant flow
requirements make these impractical or uneconomi-
cal in most cases. An impeder that requires one
Cooling requirements gallon per minute of cooling water at 60 degrees F,
would require several hundred cubic feet per minute
A theorectically perfect ferrite would not require any of air to achieve the same cooling effect. Chilling the
cooling but unfortunately we are not quite there yet. air or nitrogen will reduce the flow requirements, but
Modern ferrites are much improved over those ferrite works best in the 80-150 degree range, and
available a few years ago, but even the best are not cooling it excessively actually increases the rate at
perfect insulators so some eddy current heating which heat is generated, as well as reducing the
occurs. Eddy current heating increases with the magnetic permeability of the material. Air or gas
square of frequency, so doubling the frequency cooling may become a practical reality as better
increases these losses fourfold. Energy is also ab- grades of ferrite are developed, but with the present
sorbed in changing the orientation of the magnetic state of the art, it has severe limitations and its high
domains in the ferrite and this energy is released as cost limits its use to a few applications where liquid
heat as well. Losses occuring due to this are known as cooled impeders cannot be used.
hysteresis losses, and are directly proportional to
frequency, and to the coercivity of the ferrite mate- Ferrite position
rial.

At 400 kHz., typical manganese/zinc ferrites have For optimum efficiency, the ferrite rod in an im-
maximum total losses (eddy current + magnetic peder should extend from the centerline of the weld
hysteresis) of 5-10kW per kilogram, although some rolls, through the coil and at least a similar distance
newer types have as little as 1kW/kg. A core used in a on the entry side of the coil. Minimum ferrite length
3/4" impeder weighs 6 oz. or 170 grams., so it could should be twice the distance from the weld roll
dissipate as much as 1700 watts, making liquid centerline to the work coil centerline. Having the
cooling virtually a requirement. At this power level, ferrite longer will improve efficiency up to point, but
one gallon per minute of water would be required to there is little to be gained by increasing this length by
continuously remove 1700 watts with a 15 degree more than 50%.
temperature rise.
If the ferrite does not extend all the way to the apex,
there will be a large reduction in efficiency, however
Flow types there are a few situations where the addition weld
power required may be justified in exchange for
Most impeders are cooled by water or mill coolant longer impeder life. Having the ferrite as little as 1/4"
which enters through a threaded coupling at one short of the apex can increase power requirements by
end, & discharges into the welded tube after cooling as much as 25%.
the ferrite. Some impeders may have an internal
stainless steel tie rod so that an I.D. scarfing or bead The vertical position of the ferrite within the tube is
rolling head can be supported. Hollow impeders are important as well. Many operators allow the impeder
also available for applications where an existing I.D. to lay in the bottom of the tube, however it is least
tow rod or other internal tooling needs to be passed effective in this position. The ideal position is as
through the impeder. close to the strip edges as possible, but it is more
vulnerable to damage here. A good compromise is
There are a number of manufacturing processes that keep the impeder one strip thickness below the top
require that the tube a clean & dry I.D. These inside surface of the tube.
include conduit, certain types of automotive &
refrigeration tubing, aluminum & stainless steel The ferrite must not extend toward the mill entry
tubing, and any tubing which is produced in con- end so far that it passes through the centerline of the

Page 6 © 1997 Electronic Heating Equipment, Inc.

 PRINCIPLES of INDUCTION TUBE WELDING

last fin pass or seam guide. Doing so will cause large to establish the correct orientation, but improper
induced currents to flow “upstream” and through the adjustment or worn tooling can prevent this from
fin or seam guide. It is important to note that a happening. If the strip is not worked sufficiently in
second “vee” exists upstream from the coil, since the the fins, the inside corners will meet first, and the
last fin or seam guide electrically connects the strip majority of weld current will flow through the point
edges. Insulating the seam guide has little effect of first contact. In order to get the weld to penetrate
because the insulation just forms a capacitor and at through to the outside of the tube, the inside corner
high frequencies, current will still flow. The length of has to be overheated to a point where it melts,
this second vee should be at least twice that of the causing premature impeder failure, a rough I.D.
primary vee. beads, and in extreme cases, “birdshot” inside the
tube.
Impeder failure
All impeders fail eventually & have to be repaired or
replaced. Nothing gets “used up” but the environ-
ment is so hostile that they have to be considered as
expendable components. Having said this, it is
obviously desireable to get the longest possible use
out of each one.

The main cause of damage to impeders is poor edge

presentation. Not only does this require excessive
heat to achieve a reliable weld, but it also increases
the height of the inside weld bead.

Insufficient cooling can cause ferrite to shatter, and

vibration or mechanical shock has a similar effect.
Contrary to common believe, the loss of magnetic
properties that occurs when ferrite is heated above its
Curie point is completely reversable, and the proper-
ties revert to normal when the temperature is low- Solid state vs Vacuum tube
ered. If there is no physical damage to the ferrite, its
properties are not affected. Most newer welders use transistors rather than
vacuum tubes to generate the high frequency power
that feeds the coil. Both types rectify the 3 phase
Controlling the I.D. bead power, then use either vacuum tubes or transistors to
chop the direct current into narrow pulses. The pulse
The I.D. bead can be minimised by threading the stream feeds a resonant tank circuit that converts the
mill so that any slitting burr is on the bottom of the pulses into a clean sine wave at the tank’s resonant
strip. In this way, it ends up on the outside, rather frequency. The main differences in two technologies
than the inside of the tube. are in the currents and voltages used.

I.D. bead height can also be adversely affected by Vacuum tubes operate at high voltages & low cur-
improper weld roll adjustment. The rolls should rents. A typical induction welder uses 12,000 to
always be set using a plug gauge & then left alone! 15,000 volts at 10 to 50 amps. A high frequency
They should not be used to increase or decrease the transformer reduces this to a lower voltage which is
amount of weld upset. This should be done by applied to the work coil. A tube mill is not a good
adjusting the fin passes and breakdown passes, or by enviromnent for high voltage equipment, so vacuum
changing the strip width. There is only one position tube welders require more maintenance.
of the weld rolls that results in a round tube. Using
the weld rolls to control the amount of upsetting Transistor inverters generally operate off DC power
distorts the tube & will affect the edge presentation. at around 500 volts, so currents are correspondingly
much higher. Although the transistors themselves are
It is critically important that the edges of the strip are more efficient & reliable than vacuum tubes, the
parallel to each other as they enter the weld rolls. high currents employed can cause significant losses to
The purpose of the fin passes is to “coin” the edges, occur in buss bars, work coils & the coil connections.

Page 7 © 1997 Electronic Heating Equipment, Inc.

 PRINCIPLES of INDUCTION TUBE WELDING

The only true measure of efficiency is to compare oxidizes in the presence of atmospheric oxygen.
input kVA/hours (not kilowatt/hours!) to welded Chromium oxide is a hard, transparent refractory
tube produced per hour. Solid state welders should material which is impervious to most corrosive
still theorectically come out ahead, but this isn’t elements. Unlike iron oxides, which melt at a lower
always the case! temperature than the base metal, chromium oxide
remains a solid, and must be forced out of the weld
The best frequency interface if defects are to be prevented.

Induction tube welders are available in frequencies as Although most chromium oxide is wiped off the
low as 80 kHz., and as high as 800 kHz., as well as a metal surface by the fins, it immediately reforms at
few that are adjustable over a fairly wide range. the elevated temperatures of the weld area. Although
Higher frequency units offer more versatility, since atmospheric oxygen is a factor, any water in the weld
most of the effects of a lower frequency can be area is a far greater problem. At weld temperatures,
achieved by adjusting coil and/or impeder position. water doesn’t just vaporize - it dissociates into its
The only significant drawback of too high a fre- components, oxygen & hydrogen. The monatomic
quency is that it results in higher voltages across the oxygen (O, not O2) is far more reactive than ordinary
work coil, and across the strip edges, both of which oxygen, so chromium oxide reforms immediately on
can result in arcing. the faying edges of the tube.

There is no benefit in using a high frequency It is essential to exclude water & preferably oxygen as
(>400kHz.) to weld 8" O.D. x 1/2" wall pipe, and well from the weld area when induction welding 300
higher frequency welders are more expensive to series (austenitic) stainless. 400 series has little or no
manufacture. The benefits of higher welder frequen- chromium, so it is less of a problem. Use of water
cies are mostly apparent in producing tubing below cooled return flow impeders is a requirement for
1" in diameter, where there is very little space for an welding stainless, and a low pressure inert gas atmos-
impeder. An impeder is more effective at higher phere is sometimes used as well.
frequencies, but it also requires more cooling.
Because stainless steels are poor thermal conductors,
There are many solid state welders in service that there is a tendency for the corners of the strip to
produce high quality welded tubing below 1" O.D. overheat, and for a layer of molten metal to form on
using frequencies below 200kHz., but they are not as the surface of the faying edges. Use of a lower fre-
efficient as units operating in the 400kHz range. The quency can help to reduce this, but the same effect
difference in efficiency has very little to do with the can be achieved by moving the impeder back toward
depth of the heat affected zone, which only varies the entry end of the mill, or eliminating it altogether.
slightly over this range. The main factors are that a More power is required, but the increase is less than
higher frequency improves the ratio of vee current to with carbon steel because austenic stainless and other
I.D. current, and makes impeders more effective. It non ferrous materials have a much lower magnetic
also reduces coil losses because coil currents are permeability than ferritic steels. This reduces the
lower. A difference of just 10% in the efficiency of a need for an impeder.
400kW welder can cost $25,000.00 a year in added
power costs. Aluminum, copper & their alloys also have less need
for impeders, however their thermal conductivity is
high, so short, closely coupled coils should be used to
Stainless & non ferrous minimise the loss of weld heat by conduction.
alloys. Aluminum also readily forms insoluble oxides which
must be eliminated from the weld area. Remember
Most of what has been covered applies to all induc- that grinding wheels & sandpaper are made of
tion welded tube & pipe, but there are a few special aluminum oxide. This is definitely not a material
factors to consider when welding Stainless Steels & that you want incuded in the weldment! Although
certain other non ferrous metals. water does not dissociate at the temperatures used to
weld aluminum, it causes corrosion if left in the tube
The “stainless” properties of corrosion resistant steels so return flow impeders are normally required.
are due to the fact that the surface is already oxidized!
Chromium is an extremely reactive metal that readily

Page 8 © 1997 Electronic Heating Equipment, Inc.