1

Basic Network
Concepts

1.1 INTRODUCTION
We know that like charges repel each other whereas unlike charges attract each other. To overcome this force
of attraction, a certain amount of work or energy is required. When the charges are separated, it is said that a
potential difference exists and the work or energy per unit charge utilised in this process is known as voltage
or potential difference.
The phenomenon of transfer of charge from one point to another is termed current. Current (I) is defined as
the rate of flow of electrons in a conductor. It is measured by the number of electrons that flow in unit time.
Energy is the total work done in the electric circuit. The rate at which the work is done in an electric circuit
is called electric power. Energy is measured in joules (J) and power in watts (W).

1.2 RESISTANCE
Resistance is the property of a material due to which it opposes the flow of electric current through it.
Certain materials offer very little opposition to the flow of electric current and are called conductors, e.g.,
metals, acids and salt solutions. Certain materials offer very high resistance to the flow of electric current and
are called insulators, e.g., mica, glass, rubber, Bakelite, etc.
The practical unit of resistance is ohm and is represented by the symbol Ω. A conductor is said to have
resistance of one ohm if a potential difference of one volt across its terminals causes a current of one ampere
to flow through it.
The resistance of a conductor depends on the following factors.
(i) It is directly proportional to its length.
(ii) It is inversely proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor.
(iii) It depends on the nature of the material.
(iv) It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
Hence,
l
R∝
A
l
R=ρ
A
where l is length of the conductor, A is the cross-sectional area and r is a constant known as specific resistance
or resistivity of the material.
1.2 Network Analysis and Synthesis
1. Power Dissipated in a Resistor We know that v = R i
When current flows through any resistor, power is absorbed by the resistor which is given by
p=vi
The power dissipated in the resistor is converted to heat which is given by
t t

∫ v i dt ∫ R i i dt = i
2
Rt
0 0

Example 1.1 A 25 W resistor has a voltage of 150 sin 377 t. Find the corresponding current i and
power p.
Solution R = 25 Ω
v 150 si 377 t
v 150 sin 377 t
i= = = 6 sin 377 t
R 25
p vi (150 si 377 t ) (6 sin
i 377 t)) sin 2 337 t
si

Example 1.2 A current waveform shown in Fig. 1.1 is applied to a 2 W resistor. Draw the voltage
waveform.
i (A )

t(s )
0 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 1.1
v ( V)
Solution
For the resistor, v Ri
10
(a) For 0 1, v R i = 2 × 5 = 10 V
(b) For 1 3, v Ri = 2 × 0 = 0
t( s)
(c) For 3 4, v R i = 2 × 5 = 10 V 0 1 2 3 4

The voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2
1.3 INDUCTANCE
Inductance is the property of a coil that opposes any change in the amount of current flowing through it. If
the current in the coil is increasing, the self-induced emf is set up in such a direction so as to oppose the rise
of current. Similarly, if the current in the coil is decreasing, the self-induced emf will be in the same direction
as the applied voltage.
Inductance is defined as the ratio of flux linkage to the current flowing through the coil. The practical unit
of inductance is henry and is represented by the symbol H. A coil is said to have an inductance of one henry
if a current of one ampere when flowing through it produces flux linkages of one weber-turn in it.
 1.3 Inductance 1.3

The inductance of an inductor depends on the following factors.

(i) It is directly proportional to the square of the number of turns.
(ii) It is directly proportional to the area of cross section.
(iii) It is inversely proportional to the length.
(iv) It depends on the absolute permeability of the magnetic material.
Hence,
N 2A
L∝
l
N 2A
L=μ
l
where l is the mean length, A is the cross-sectional area and m is the absolute permeability of the magnetic
material.
1. Current–Voltage Relationships in an Inductor We know that
di
v L
dt
Expressing inductor current as a function of voltage,
1
di = v dt
L
Integrating both the sides,
i(t ) t
l
∫ di =
L ∫0
v dt
i(0)

t
1
L ∫0
i( t ) = v dt i(0)

The quantity i(0) denotes the initial current through the inductor. When there is no initial current
through the inductor,
t
1
L ∫0
i( t ) = v dt

2. Energy Stored in an Inductor Consider a coil of inductance L carrying a changing current I. When
the current is changed from zero to a maximum value I, every change is opposed by the self-induced emf
produced. To overcome this opposition, some energy is needed and this energy is stored in the magnetic
field. The voltage v is given by
di
v L
dt
Energy supplied to the inductor during interval dt is given by

di
dE = v i dt = L i dt L i dt
dt
1.4 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Hence, total energy supplied to the inductor when current is increased from 0 to I amperes is
I I
1 2
E ∫ ddEE ∫ L i di 2
LI
0 0

Example 1.3 An inductance of 3 mH has a current i 5(1 − e 5000t

). Find the corresponding volt-
age and the maximum stored energy.

Solution L = 3 mH
i 5(1 e −5000 t )
di d
v L = 3 × 10 −3 ⎡⎣5(1 − e −5000 ) ⎦ = 3 × 10 −3 (5 × 5000
5000 t ⎤
0 e −5000t
5000
5000t
) 75 e 5000 t
dt dt
I max i(∞) = 5(( − e −∞∞ ) = 5 A
1 1
Emax 2
L I max = × 3 × 10 −3 × ( ) 2 = 37.5 mJ
2 2

Example 1.4 A current waveform is applied to a 2 H inductor. Draw the voltage waveform for
Fig. 1.3.

i (A)

t( s)
0 2 4 6 8

Fig. 1.3
di
Solution v L
dt
(a) For 0 2,
(6 − 0 ) v( V)
v = 2× =6V
( 2 − 0)
6
(b) For 2 < t < 6,
(6 − 6 )
v = 2× =0
( 6 − 2) t ( s)
0 2 4 6 8
(c) For 6 8,
( 0 − 6)
v = 2× = −6 V −6
(8 − 6)

The voltage waveform is shown in Fig 1.4. Fig. 1.4

 1.3 Inductance 1.5

Example 1.5 A voltage waveform shown in Fig. 1.5 is applied across a 1 H inductor. Draw the
current waveform.
v ( V)

t ( s)
0 1 2 3

Fig. 1.5
t
1
L ∫0
Solution i= v dt i(0)

(a) For 0 1,
v =1
t
1
1 ∫0
i d i(0) = [t ]t0
1dt
dt 0 t

i(1) = 1 A
(b) For 1 t 2,
v=0
t
1
1 ∫1
i 0 ddt i(1) = 0 + 1 = 1 A i ( A)

i( 2) = 1 A
(c) For 2 3,
v =1 2
t
1
1 ∫2
i dt i( 2) = [t ]t2 1 t − 2 + 1 = t − 1 1

i(3) = 3 − 1 = 2 A t ( s)
0 1 2 3 4

The current waveform is shown in Fig. 1.6. Fig. 1.6

Example 1.6 A voltage waveform shown in Fig. 1.7 is applied across a 2 H inductor. Draw the
current waveform.
v ( V)

3
2

t ( s)
0 2 4 6 8
−1

Fig. 1.7
1.6 Network Analysis and Synthesis

t
1
L ∫0
Solution i= v ( t ) + i( 0)

(a) For 0 2,
v=2 i ( A)
t
1
2 ∫0
i 2 ddt i(0) = 0.5[2tt ]t0 0 t
3.5
i( 2) = 2 A

(b) For 2 8,
1.5
3
v t + 3 = − 0.5t + 3 t ( s)
6 0 2 4 6 8
t
1
2 ∫2
i ( 0.5t + 3) dt
dt + i( 2) Fig. 1.8
t
⎡ t2 ⎤
= 0.5 ⎢ − 0.5 + 3 ⎥ + 2 = 0.5
5[[ −0 5 2 + 3t + 0.5 × 2 − 3 × 2] + 2 = 0.5[ −0.25
0.25 2
3 5] 2
⎣ 2 ⎦2
i(8) 0.55[[ 0.25(64) 3(8) 5] 2 = 3 5 A

The current waveform is shown in Fig. 1.8.

Example 1.7 The following current waveform i(t) is passed through a series RL circuit with
R 2 Ω and L 2 mH . Find the voltage across each element and sketch the same.

i ( A)

t (ms)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

−5

Fig. 1.9

Solution
(a) Voltage across the resistor of 2 Ω
vR Ri
Voltage across the resistor is a trapezoidal waveform with a peak value of 10 V.
(b) Voltage across the inductor of 2 mH
di
vL L
dt
 1.4 Capacitance 1.7

For 0 1 ms, i ( A)

⎛ 5−0 ⎞
vL = 2 × 10 −3 ⎜ = 10 V 5
⎝ 1 × 10 −3 − 0 ⎟⎠
For 1 s 3 ms, t (ms)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
⎛ −5 − 5 ⎞
vL = 2 × 10 −3 ⎜ =0 −5
⎝ 3 × 10 − 1 × 10 ⎟⎠
−3 −3
vR ( V)
For 3 s 5 ms, 10

⎛ 5−5 ⎞
vL = 2 × 10 −3 ⎜ = −10 V
⎝ 5 × 10 −3 − 3 × 10 −3 ⎟⎠ 0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8
t (ms)

For 5 ms < t < 7 ms, −10

vL ( V)
⎛ −5 + 5 ⎞
vL = 2 × 10 −3 ⎜ =0
⎝ 7 × 10 −3 − 5 × 10 −3 ⎟⎠ 10

For 7 ms < t < 8 ms, t (ms)

0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8
⎛ 0+5 ⎞
vL = 2 × 10 −3 ⎜ = 10 V
⎝ 8 × 10 −3 − 7 × 10 −3 ⎟⎠
−10

The voltage waveforms are shown in Fig 1.10. Fig. 1.10

1.4 CAPACITANCE
Capacitance is the property of a capacitor to store an electric charge when its plates are at different potentials.
If Q coulombs of charge is given to one of the plates of a capacitor and if a potential difference of V volts is
applied between the two plates then its capacitance is given by
Q
C=
V
The practical unit of capacitance is farad and is represented by the symbol F. A capacitor is said to have
capacitance of one farad if a charge of one coulomb is required to establish a potential difference of one volt
between its plates.
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the following factors.
(i) It is directly proportional to the area of the plates.
(ii) It is inversely proportional to the distance between two plates.
(iii) It depends on the absolute permittivity of the medium between the plates.
Hence,
A
C∝
d
A
C=ε
d
where d is the distance between two plates, A is the cross-sectional area of the plates and e is absolute
permittivity of the medium between the plates.
1.8 Network Analysis and Synthesis
1. Current–Voltage Relationships in a Capacitor The charge on a capacitor is given by
q = Cv
where q denotes the charge and v is the potential difference across the plates at any instant.
We know that
dq d dv
i= = Cv = C
dt dt dt
Expressing capacitor voltage as a function of current,
1
dv = i dt
C
Integrating both the sides,
v(t ) t
1
∫ dv
C ∫0
i dt
v( )
t
1
C ∫0
v(t ) = i dt v( )

The quantity v (0) denotes the initial voltage across the capacitor. When there is no initial voltage on
the capacitor,
t
1
C ∫0
v(t ) = i dt

2. Energy Stored in a Capacitor Let a capacitor of capacitance C farads be charged from a source of
V volts. Then current i is given by
dv
i C
dt
Energy supplied to the capacitor during interval dt is given by
dv
dE = v i dt = v C dt
dt
Hence, total energy supplied to the capacitor when potential difference is increased from 0 to V volts is
V V
1
E ∫ ddEE ∫ C v dv 2
CV 2
0 0

Example 1.8 A voltage is defined by

⎧0 t<0
⎪
v(t ) = ⎨2t 0 t < 2s
⎪4 e −(t( t )
t > 2s
⎩
and is applied to the 10 μ F capacitor. Find i(t).

dv
Solution i C
dt
 1.4 Capacitance 1.9

For t < 0,
i=0
For 0 2 s,
v 2t
d
i = 10 × 10 −6 ( 2tt ) = 20 μ A
dt
For t 2 s,
v 4 e − ( t − 2)
d
i = 10 × 10 −6 [4ee − ( t 2)
] 0 0 6[ e ( t − 2)
] = −40 e − ( t −2) μ A
dt

Example 1.9 A voltage waveform shown in Fig. 1.11 is applied to the capacitor. Draw the current
waveform.
v (V )

4 C=2F

t (s)
0 1 2 3 4
−2

Fig. 1.11
dv
Solution i C
dt
(a) 0 1
At t 0, v = 2 V
At t 1, v = 2 V
dv ⎛ 2 − 2⎞
i C = 2⎜ =0
dt ⎝ 1 − 0 ⎟⎠
(b) 1 t 2
At t 1, v = 2 V
At t 2, v = 4 V
dv ⎛ 4 − 2⎞ i (A )
i C = 2⎜ =4A
dt ⎝ 2 − 1 ⎟⎠
(c) 2 t 4 4
At t 2, v = 4 V t (s)
0 1 2 3 4
At t 4, v = −2 V
dv ⎛ −2 − 4 ⎞ ⎛ −6 ⎞ −6
i C = 2⎜ ⎟⎠ = 2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = −6 A
dt ⎝ 4−2 2

The current waveform is shown in Fig. 1.12. Fig. 1.12

1.10 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 1.10 A voltage waveform shown in Fig. 1.13 is applied to the capacitor. Draw the current
waveform.
v (V)

C = 1000 μF
50
≈
t (s)
0 2 4 5 6
≈
−50

Fig. 1.13
Solution
(a) 0 2
At t 0, v = 0 V i (A)
At t 2, v = 50 V
25 × 10−3
dv ⎛ 50 − 0 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
i C = 10 −3 ⎜ = 10 −3 ⎜ ⎟ = 25 × 10 −3 A
dt ⎝ 2 − 0 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ t (s)
0 2 4 5 6
(b) 2 5
At t 2, v = 50 V
−33.33 × 10−3
At t 5, v = −50 V
dv ⎛ −50 − 50 ⎞ ⎛ −100 ⎞
i C = 10 −3 ⎜ = 10 −3 ⎜ = −33.33 × 10 −3 A
⎝ 5 − 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
Fig. 1.14
dt
(c) 5 6
At t 5, v = −50 V
At t 6, v = −50 V
dv ⎛ −50 + 50 ⎞
i C = 10 −3 ⎜ =0
dt ⎝ 6 − 5 ⎟⎠

The current waveform is shown in Fig. 1.14.

Example 1.11 A current waveform shown in Fig. 1.15 is applied to a 0.1 F capacitor. Draw the
voltage waveform.
i (A)

1
t (s)
0 1 2 3 4

−2

Fig. 1.15
 1.4 Capacitance 1.11

t
1
C ∫0
Solution v= i dt v(0)

(a) For 0 1,
i=2
t
1
0 1 ∫0
v d v(0) = 10[2tt ]t0
2 dt 0 20 t

v(1) = 20 V
(b) For 1 t 2,
i =1
vC (V)
t
1
0 1 ∫1
v dt v(1) = 10[t ]1t 20 10(t − 1) + 20
30
v( 2) = 10( 2 − 1) + 20 = 30
3 V
(c) For 2 t 4, 20

i = −2
t t (s)
1 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 ∫2
v dt v( 2) = 10[ −2tt ]t2 30 10( 2t + 4) + 30
−10

v( 4) = 10( −2 × 4 + 4) + 30 = −10 V
The voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 1.16. Fig. 1.16

Example 1.12 A current with periodic waveform shown in Fig. 1.17 is applied to a series RLC
circuit with R = 1 W, L 1 mH and C μ F.
F Sketch the voltage across each element.
i (A)

t (ms )
0 1 2 3 4

Fig. 1.17
Solution
(a) Voltage across the resistor of 1 Ω
vR R i
Voltage across the resistor is a triangular waveform with peak value of 2 A and slope 2 103.
(b) Voltage across inductor of 1 mH
di
vL L
dt
For 0 1 ms,
⎛ 2−0 ⎞
vL = 1 × 10 −3 ⎜ =2V
⎝ 1 × 10 −3 − 0 ⎟⎠
For 1 s 2 ms,
⎛ 0−2 ⎞
vL = 1 × 10 −3 ⎜ = −2 V
⎝ 2 × 10 −3 − 1 × 10 −3 ⎟⎠
1.12 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Voltage across the inductor is a square waveform.
(c) Voltage across capacitor of 100 μF
t
1
C ∫0
vC = i dt v(0)

For 0 1 ms,
2
i t = 2000t
10 −3
1
t
⎛
4 2000t
2⎞

∫ + = ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 10 t
7 2
vC 2000 t dt 0 1 0
100 × 10 −6 0 ⎝ ⎠
7
vC ( 10 3 ) 2
((1 10 V
For 1 s 2 ms,
2
i t + 4 = −2000t + 4
10 −3
t
1
vC ∫ 000t + 4)dt + v(1 ms) = 10 4 ( −1000
( 2000 2
+ 4 − 3 × 10 −3 ) + 10
100 × 10 −6 1 ms
= 10 4 ( −1000
1000 2
+ 4 ) − 20
vC ( 2 = ⎡ −1000( 2 × 10 −3 ) 2 + 4( 2 × 10
4
1 −3 ) ⎤⎦ − 20 = 20 V
⎣
Voltage across the capacitor keeps rising continuously. The voltage waveforms are shown in Fig. 1.18.
i (A)

t(ms)
0 1 2 3 4
v R (V)
2

t(ms)
0 1 2 3 4
v i (V)
2
t(ms)
0 1 2 3 4
−2

v c (V)

20

10

t(ms )
0 1 2 3 4

Fig. 1.18
 1.4 Capacitance 1.13

Example 1.13 Draw the waveform for iR iL , iC for the network shown in Fig. 1.19 (a) when it is
excited by a voltage source having a waveform shown in Fig. 1.19 (b).
v (V)

10
iR iL iC

v (t) 10 Ω 5H 2F t (s)
0 2 4 6

−10
(a)

Fig. 1.19
Solution
(a) Current through the resistor of 10 Ω
v
iR =
R
Current through the resistor is a rectangular waveform with a peak value of 1 A.
(b) Current through the inductor of 5 H
t
1
L ∫0
iL = v dt i(0)

For 0 2, v (V)
v = 10
t
1 10
5 ∫0
iL 0 dt i(0) = 0.2[10tt ]t0 0 2t
t (s)
0 2 4 6
iL ( 2) = 2( 2) = 4 A
−10
For 2 t 4,
i R (A)
v = −10
1
t
1
5 ∫2
iL 0 dt i( 2) = 0.2[ −10t ]t2 +4 t (s)
0 2 4 6
−1
= 0.2( −10t 20) 4 2t + 8
iL ( 4) 2( 4) 8 = 0
i L (A)
(c) Current through the capacitor of 2 F
dv 4
iC C
dt
For 0 2, t (s)
0 2 4 6
⎛ 10 − 10 ⎞
iC = 2 ⎜ =0
⎝ 2 − 0 ⎟⎠ i C (A)

For 2 t 4, t (s)
0
⎛ −10 + 10 ⎞
iC = 2 ⎜ =0
⎝ 4 − 2 ⎟⎠
The current waveforms are shown in Fig. 1.20. Fig. 1.20
1.14 Network Analysis and Synthesis

1.5 SOURCES
Source is a basic network element which supplies energy to the networks. There are two classes of sources,
namely,
1. Independent sources
2. Dependent sources
1.5.1 Independent Sources
Output characteristics of an independent source are not dependent on any network variable such as a current
or voltage. Its characteristics, however, may be time-varying. There are two types of independent sources:
1. Independent voltage source
2. Independent current source
1. Independent Voltage Source An independent voltage
source is a two-terminal network element that establishes a
specified voltage across its terminals. The value of this voltage
at any instant is independent of the value or direction of the V v (t)
current that flows through it. The symbols for such voltage
sources are shown in Fig. 1.21.
The terminal voltage may be a constant, or it may be some
specified function of time. (a) (b)
2. Independent Current Source An independent current Fig. 1.21 Symbols for independent
source is a two-terminal network element which produces a voltage source
specified current. The value and direction of this current at any
instant is independent of the value or direction of the voltage that
appears across the terminals of the source. The symbols for such
current sources are shown in Fig. 1.22.
I i (t)
The output current may be a constant or it may be a function
of time.
1.5.2 Dependent Sources
(a) (b)
If the voltage or current of a source depends in turn upon some other
voltage or current, it is called as dependent or controlled source. The Fig. 1.22 Symbols for independent
dependent sources are of four kinds, depending on whether the current source
control variable is voltage or current and the controlled source is a
voltage source or current source.
1. Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS) A
voltage-controlled voltage source is a four-terminal
network component that establishes a voltage vcd between
two points c and d in the circuit that is proportional to a a + +
c

voltage vab between two points a and b. +

vab mvab vcd
−
The symbol for such a source is shown in − −
Fig. 1.23. b d
The (+) and (−) sign inside the diamond of the
component symbol identifies the component as a
voltage source. Fig. 1.23 Symbol for VCVS
vcd = m vab
The voltage vcd depends upon the control voltage vab and the constant m, a dimensionless constant
called voltage gain.
 1.6 Some Definitions 1.15

2. Voltage-Controlled Current Source icd

(VCCS) A voltage-controlled current source is a a c
+ +
four-terminal network component that establishes a
vab gmvab vcd
current icd in a branch of the circuit that is proportional
− −
to the voltage vab between two points a and b. b d
The symbol for such a source is shown in
Fig. 1.24.
The arrow inside the diamond of the component Fig. 1.24 Symbol for VCCS
symbol identifies the component as a current source.
icd = gm vab
The current icd depends only on the control voltage vab and the constant gm, called the transconductance
or mutual conductance. The constant gm has dimension of ampere per volt or siemens (S).
3. Current-Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS) A iab
current-controlled voltage source is a four-terminal a c
+ +
network component that establishes a voltage vcd between +
r iab vcd
two points c and d in the circuit that is proportional to −
− −
the current iab in some branch of the circuit. b d
The symbol for such a source is shown in
Fig. 1.25.
vcd = r iab Fig. 1.25 Symbol for CCVS
The voltage vcd depends only on the control current
iab and the constant r called the transresistance or
mutual resistance. The constant r has dimension of
volt per ampere or ohm (Ω).
iab icd
4. Current-Controlled Current Source a c
+ +
(CCCS) A current-controlled current source is a b iab
four-terminal network component that establishes a
− −
current icd in one branch of a circuit that is proportional b d
to the current iab in some branch of the network.
The symbol for such a source is shown in
Fig. 1.26. Fig. 1.26 Symbol for CCCS
icd = b iab
The current icd depends only on the control current iab and the dimensionless constant b, called the current gain.

1.6 SOME DEFINITIONS

1. Network and Circuit The intercon-
R L R L
nection of two or more circuit elements (viz.,
voltage sources, resistors, inductors and
capacitors) is called an electric network. If the C V C
network contains at least one closed path, it is
called an electric circuit. Every circuit is a net-
work, but all networks are not circuits. Figure (a) (b)
1.27(a) shows a network which is not a circuit
and Fig. 1.27(b) shows a network which is a Fig. 1.27 (a) Network which is not a circuit
circuit. (b) Network which is a circuit
1.16 Network Analysis and Synthesis

2. Linear and Non-linear Elements If the resistance, inductance or capacitance offered by an element
does not change linearly with the change in applied voltage or circuit current, the element is termed as linear
element. Such an element shows a linear relation between
voltage and current as shown in Fig. 1.28. Ordinary resistors, I
capacitors and inductors are examples of linear elements.
A non-linear circuit element is one in which the
current does not change linearly with the change in
applied voltage. A semiconductor diode operating in the t
en t
curved region of characteristics as shown in Fig. 1.28 is m en
Ele m
l e
common example of non-linear element. ar rE
ne ea
Other examples of non-linear elements are voltage- Li n
Li
dependent resistor (VDR), voltage-dependent capacitor n-
No
(varactor), temperature-dependent resistor (thermistor), light-
0 V
dependent resistor (LDR), etc. Linear elements obey Ohm’s
law whereas non-linear elements do not obey Ohm’s law.
3. Active and Passive Elements An element Fig. 1.28 V-I characteristics of linear
which is a source of electrical signal or which is capable and non-linear elements
of increasing the level of signal energy is termed as active element. Batteries, BJTs, FETs or OP-AMPs
are treated as active elements because these can be used for the amplification or generation of signals. All
other circuit elements, such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, VDR, LDR, thermistors, etc., are termed
passive elements. The behaviour of active elements cannot be described by Ohm’s law.
4. Unilateral and Bilateral Elements If the magnitude of current flowing through a circuit element
is affected when the polarity of the applied voltage is changed, the element is termed unilateral element.
Consider the example of a semiconductor diode. Current flows through the diode only in one direction.
Hence, it is called an unilateral element. Next, consider the example of a resistor. When the voltage is
applied, current starts to flow. If we change the polarity of the applied voltage, the direction of the current
is changed but its magnitude is not affected. Such an element is called a bilateral element.
5. Lumped and Distributed Elements A lumped element is the element which is separated physically,
like resistors, inductors and capacitors. Distributed elements are those which are not separable for analysis
purposes. Examples of distributed elements are transmission lines in which the resistance, inductance and
capacitance are distributed along its length.
6. Active and Passive Networks A network which contains at least one active element such as an
independent voltage or current source is an active network. A network which does not contain any active
element is a passive network.
7. Time-invariant and Time-variant Networks A network is said to be time-invariant or fixed if its
input–output relationship does not change with time. In other words, a network is said to time-invariant,
if for any time shift in input, an identical time-shift occurs for output. In time-variant networks, the
input–output relationship changes with time.

1.7 SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATIONS OF RESISTORS

I R1 R2 R3
Let R1 R2 and R3 be the resistances of three resistors
connected in series across a dc voltage source V as shown in
Fig. 1.29. Let V1 V2 and V3 be the voltages across resistances V1 V2 V3
R1 R2 and R3 respectively.
In series combination, the same current flows through
each resistor but voltage across each resistor is different. V
Fig. 1.29 Series combination of resistors
 1.7 Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistors 1.17

V V1 + V2 V3
RT I = R1 I + R2 I + R3 I
RT R1 + R2 R3
Hence, when a number of resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is the sum of all the
individual resistance.

1. Voltage Division and Power in a Series Circuit

V
I=
R1 + R2 + R3
R1
V1 R1 I = V
R1 + R2 + R3
R2
V2 R2 I = V
R1 + R2 + R3
R3
V3 R3 I = V
R1 R2 + R3 I1 R1
Total power PT P1 + P2 P3
= I 2 R1 + I 2 R2 + I 2 R3 I I2 R2

V12 V22 V32

= + + I3 R3
R1 R2 R3
Figure 1.30 shows three resistors connected in parallel across
a dc voltage source V. Let I1 I 2 and I 3 be the current flowing
V
through resistors R1 R2 and R3 respectively.
In parallel combination, the voltage across each resistor is Fig. 1.30 Parallel combination
same but current through each resistor is different. of resistors
I = I1 + I 2 I 3
V V V V
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
R1 R2 R3
RT =
R2 R3 + R3 R1 + R1 R2
Hence, when a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance
is equal to the sum of reciprocals of individual resistances.
2. Current Division and Power in a Parallel Circuit
V RT I R1 I1 R2 I 2 R3 I 3
V R I R2 R3
I1 = = T = I
R1 R1 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
V R I R1 R3
I2 = = T = I
R2 R2 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
V R I R1 R2
I3 = = T = I
R3 R3 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
1.18 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Total power PT P1 + P2 P3
= I12 R1 + I 22 R2 + I 32 R3
2 2 3
V V V
= + +
R1 R2 R3
R1 R2
Note: For two branch circuits, RT =
R1 R2
V RT I R1 I1 R2 I 2
V R I R2
I1 = = T = I
R1 R1 R1 R2
V R I R1
I2 = = T = I
R2 R2 R1 R2

Example 1.14 Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.31.

A B
10 Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω

Fig. 1.31
Solution Marking all the junctions and redrawing the network (Fig. 1.32),

A B
10 Ω C 10 Ω D 10 Ω

(a)

D
A

10 Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω

B
C
(b)

Fig. 1.32
RAB = 10 � 10 � 10 = 3.33 Ω

Example 1.15 Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.33.
6Ω
A

8Ω 10 Ω

B
12 Ω
Fig. 1.33
 1.7 Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistors 1.19

Solution Marking all the junctions and redrawing the network (Fig. 1.34),

6Ω D
A C A

8Ω 10 Ω 8Ω 6Ω 10 Ω 12 Ω

B D B
12 Ω C
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.34

RAB = 8 � 6 � 10 � 12 = 2.11 Ω

Example 1.16 Find the equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.35.

2Ω 15 Ω
B
A
10 Ω
8Ω

20 Ω 10 Ω

30 Ω 40 Ω

Fig. 1.35

Solution Marking all the junctions and redrawing the network (Fig. 1.36),
2Ω C 15 Ω
B
A 2Ω C, E 2Ω
10 Ω B B
8Ω

F D 25 Ω 50 Ω 50 Ω 12.5 Ω

20 Ω 10 Ω
A A
8Ω D, F 8Ω

30 Ω E 40 Ω (b) (c)
(a)

Fig. 1.36
RAB = 22.5 Ω

Example 1.17 What is the resistance between the terminals A and B in network of Fig. 1.37 when
the potential difference between C and D is zero?
1.20 Network Analysis and Synthesis
C

R
R R
A

B D
R

Fig. 1.37
Solution When the potential difference between C and D is zero, the resistor connected between C and D
is shorted. Hence, the points C and D are at same potential.
Redrawing the network (Fig. 1.38),
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.39),
R

A C, D R
2
R A

R R R
2

B B

Fig. 1.38 Fig. 1.39

R R
RAB = + =RΩ
2 2
Example 1.18 Determine the current delivered by the source in the network of Fig. 1.40.

2Ω 2Ω

4Ω

2Ω 2Ω
2Ω 3Ω
30 V

1Ω 1Ω

Fig. 1.40
 1.7 Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistors 1.21

Solution The network can be simplified by series–parallel reduction technique (Fig. 1.41).
4Ω

2Ω

4Ω
2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω
30 V 3Ω 30 V 1.5 Ω
3Ω
1Ω 1Ω
(a) (b)

3.5 Ω
2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 1.27 Ω
30 V 30 V

1Ω 1Ω
(c) (d)

30 V 2Ω 2.27 Ω 30 V 1.06 Ω
I

(e) (f)

Fig. 1.41

30
I= = 28.3 A
1 06

Example 1.19 Find the current delivered by the source in the network of Fig. 1.42.

2Ω 2Ω

2Ω 2Ω
4Ω 4Ω

4Ω

5Ω 2Ω 2Ω
50 V 3Ω
2Ω

1Ω 1Ω

Fig. 1.42
1.22 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution The network can be simplified by series–parallel reduction technique (Fig. 1.43).

4Ω 4Ω
4Ω 2Ω
4Ω 2Ω

4Ω 4Ω
2Ω 5Ω 2Ω
50 V 5Ω 2Ω 3Ω 50 V 2Ω 1.5 Ω
3Ω

1Ω 1Ω
(a) (b)

2Ω
5Ω 2Ω
50 V 2Ω 1.5 Ω

1Ω
(c)
3.5 Ω

2Ω 1.27 Ω
50 V 5Ω 2Ω 50 V 5Ω 2Ω

1Ω 1Ω
(d) (e)

5Ω 2.27 Ω 50 V 0.88 Ω
50 V 2Ω
I

(f) (g)

Fig. 1.43

50
I= = 56.82
82 A
0 88
Example 1.20 Three equal resistors of 30 W each are connected in parallel across a 120 V dc sup-
ply as shown in Fig. 1.44. What is the current through each of them (a) if one of the resistors burns out, or
(b) if one of the resistors gets shorted?
+ I1 I2 I3

120 V 30 Ω 30 Ω 30 Ω

Fig. 1.44
 1.7 Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistors 1.23

Solution
(a) If one of the resistors burns out, it will act as an open circuit (Fig. 1.45).

+ I1 I2 I3
I3 = 0
120 120 V 30 Ω 30 Ω
I1 I2 = =4A
30
−

Fig. 1.45
(b) If one of the resistors gets shorted, the effective resistance becomes zero (Fig. 1.46).

+ I1 I2 I3

120 V 30 Ω 30 Ω
I1 I2 = 0
−

Fig. 1.46

Example 1.21 A lamp rated at 100 V, 75 W is to be connected across a 230 V supply. Find the value
of resistance to be connected in series with the lamp. Also find the power loss occuring in the resistor.
Solution The network is shown in Fig. 1.47.
V1 100 P1 = 75 W, V = 230 V

I R
L

100 V

230 V

Fig. 1.47
(a) Value of resistance
Rated current of the lamp
P1 75
I= = = 0.75
75 A
V1 100
Lamp will operate normally on 230 V supply if the current flowing through the lamp remains the rated
current, i.e., 0.75 A.
Voltage across the resistor R
V2 = 230 − 100 = 130 V
130
R= = 173.33 Ω
0 75
(b) Power loss occurring in the resistor
V22 (130) 2
P2 = = = 97.55 W
R 173.33
1.24 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 1.22 A 100 V, 60 W lamp is connected in series with a 100 V, 100 W lamp and the combi-
nation is connected across 200 V mains. Find the value of the resistance that should be connected in parallel
with the first lamp so that each lamp may get the rated current at rated voltage.

Solution The network is shown in Fig. 1.48.

R
V1 = 100 V
P1 = 60 W
L1 L2
V2 = 100 V
P2 = 100 W
100 V 100 V
V = 200 V
Rated current of the lamp L1
200 V
P 60
I1 = 1 = = 0.6
6A Fig. 1.48
V1 100
Rated current of the lamp L2
P2 100
I2 = = =1A
V2 100
Let R be the value of resistance that should be connected in parallel with the lamp L1 so that rated current
flows through the lamp L1.
Current through resistor R
I = 1 − 0.6 = 0.4 A
V1 100
R= = = 250 Ω
I 04

Example 1.23 A 100 V, 60 W lamp is connected in series with a 100 V, 100 W lamp across 200 V
supply. What will be the current drawn by the lamps? What will be the power consumed by each lamp and
will such a combination work?
Solution The network is shown in Fig. 1.49. L1 L2

V1 100 P1 = 60 W
V2 100 P2 = 100 W 100 V 100 V

V = 200 V 200 V
(a) Current drawn by the lamps
Fig. 1.49
Resistance of the lamp L1
V12 (100) 2
R1 = = = 166.67
67 Ω
P1 60
Resistance of the lamp L2
V22 (100) 2
R2 = = = 100 Ω
P2 100
Current drawn by the lamps
V 200
I= = = 0.75 A
R1 R2 166.67 + 100
 1.7 Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistors 1.25

(b) Power consumed by the lamps

Power consumed by the lamp L1 I 2 R1 = (0.75) 2 ×166
166.67 = 93.75 W
Power consumed by the lamp L2 I 2 R2 = (0.75) 2 × 100 = 56.25 W

If a 100 V, 60 W lamp draws a power of 93.75 W, its filament will be overheated and will burn out.
Hence, such a combination will not work.

Example 1.24 A resistor R is connected in series with two lamps of 12 V, 9 W across a 300 V
supply. Find the value of R so that both the lamps operate at rated conditions. If one of the lamps is short
circuited, find the current through the circuit and the power dissipited in each lamp.
Solution The network is shown in Fig. 1.50. L1 L2 R

V1 V2 = 12 V
12 V 12 V v3
P1 P2 = 9 W
V = 300 V 300 V

(a) Value of R Fig. 1.50

Rated current of lamps L1 and L2

P1 P2 9
I= = = = 0.75 A
V1 V2 12
Resistance of the lamps L1 and L2
V12 V22 (12) 2
R1 R2 = = = = 16 Ω
P1 P2 9
Voltage across the resistor R
V3 = 300 − 12 − 12 = 276 V
V3 276
R= = = 368 Ω
I 0 75
(b) Current through the circuit if the lamp L2 is short circuited
If the lamp L2 is short circuited, resistance across terminals of L2 is zero. If the new current is I′ then
= I ′(16 + 368)
I ′ = 0.78 A
(c) Power dissipated in each lamp if the lamp L2 is short circuited
Power dissipated in the lamp L1 ( I ′ ) 2 R1 = (0.78) 2 16 9.73 W
Power dissipated in the lamp L2 = 0

30
Example 1.25 A dc arc has voltage/current relation expressed by V 44 +. It is connected in
I
series with a resistor across a 100 V supply. If the voltage across the arc and the resistor are equal, find the
ohmic value of the resistor.
1.26 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution The network is shown in Fig 1.51. I R

V = 100 V
V1 V2 v1 v2
V V1 + V2 = 100
V1 V2 = 50 100 V

For a dc arc, Fig. 1.51

30
V1 = 44 +
I
30
50 = 44 +
I
I =5A
Ohmic value of the resistor
V2 50
R= = = 10 Ω
I 5
Example 1.26 Find the voltage VAB in the network as shown in Fig. 1.52.

10 Ω 30 Ω

10 V
A B

20 Ω 40 Ω

Fig. 1.52
Solution The resistors of 10 Ω and 20 Ω are in series. Similarly, the resistors of 30 Ω and 40 Ω are in series.
By voltage-division rule,
20
VA = 10 × = 6 67 V
10 + 20
40
VB = 10 × = 5 71 V
30 + 40
VAB VA VB = 6.67 − 5.71 0.96 V

1.8 SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION OF INDUCTORS

Let L1 L2 and L3 be the inductances of three inductors connected i L1 L2 L3
in series across an ac voltage source v as shown in Fig. 1.53. Let
v1 v2 and v3 be the voltages across inductances L1 L2 and L3 v1 v2 v3
respectively.
In series combination, the same current flows through each
inductor but the voltage across each inductor is different. v
v = v1 + v1 + v3
Fig. 1.53 Series connection of
di di di di
LT = L1 + L2 + L3 inductors
dt dt
d dt dt
LT L1 + L2 L3
 1.8 Series and Parallel Combination of Inductors 1.27

Hence, when a number of inductors are connected in series, the equivalent inductance is the sum of all the
individual inductances.
i1 L1
Figure 1.54 shows three inductors connected in parallel
across an ac voltage source v. Let i1 i2 and i3 be the current
i2 L2
through each inductance L1 L2 and L3 respectively. i
In parallel combination, the voltage across each inductor
i3 L3
is same but the current through each inductor is different.
i i1 + i2 i3

1 1 1 1
LT ∫ v ddt = L1 ∫ v dt + L2 ∫ v ddt + L3 ∫ v dt v

1 1 1 1 Fig. 1.54 Parallel connection of inductors

= + +
LT L1 L2 L3

L1 L2 L3
LT =
L1 L2 + L2 L3 + L3 L1
Hence, when a number of inductors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent inductance
is equal to the sum of reciprocals of individual inductances.

Example 1.27 Find an equivalent inductance between terminals A and B in the network of Fig. 1.55.
8H
2H 1H
A B

8H

Fig. 1.55
Solution The network can be simplified by series–parallel reduction technique (Fig. 1.56).
2H 4H 1H
A B

(a)

7H
A B
(b)

Fig. 1.56
LAB = 7 H

Example 1.28 Find an equivalent inductance of the network shown in Fig 1.57.
4H

5H 4H 2H 3H 3H
A B
4H 5H

Fig. 1.57
1.28 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution The network can be simplified by series–parallel reduction technique (Fig. 1.58).
5H 1.33 H 2H 3H 3H
A B
5H

(a)
5H 1.33 H 5H 3H
A B
5H

(b)

5H 1.33 H 2.5 H 3H
A B
(c)

11.83 H
A B

(d)

Fig. 1.58
LAB = 11.83 H

1.9 SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS

Let C1 C2 and C3 be the capacitances of three capacitors connected in series across an ac voltage source v as
shown in Fig 1.59. Let v1 v2 and v3 be the voltages across capacitances C1 C2 C3
C1 C2 and C3 respectively.
In series combination, the charge on each capacitor is same but
v1 v2 v3
voltage across each capacitor is different.
v = v1 + v2 + v3
1 1 1 1
CT ∫ dt =
id
C1 ∫ i dt +
C2 ∫ i ddt +
C3 ∫
i dt v

Fig. 1.59 Series combination of

1 1 1 1
= + + capacitors
CT C1 C2 C3
C1C2C3
CT =
C1C2 + C2C3 + C3C1
Hence, when a number of capacitors are connected in series, the reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance
is equal to the sum of reciprocals of individual capacitances.
1. Voltage Division in a Series Circuit
Q CT V C1V1 C2V2 C3V3
Q CT V C2 C3
V1 = = = V
C1 C1 C1C2 + C2C3 + C3C1
Q CT V C1 C3
V2 = = = V
C2 C2 C1C2 + C2C3 + C3C1
Q CT V C1 C2
V3 = = = V
C3 C3 C1C2 + C2C3 + C3C1
 1.9 Series and Parallel Combination of Capacitors 1.29

Figure 1.60 shows three capacitors connected in parallel across i1 C1

an ac voltage source v. Let i1 i2 and i3 be the current through each
capacitance C1 C2 and C3 respectively. i i2 C2
In parallel combination, the voltage across each capacitor is same
but current through each capacitor is different. i3 C3
i i1 + i2 i3
dv dv dv dv
CT = C1 + C2 + C3
dt dt
d dt dt
v
CT C1 + C2 C3
Fig. 1.60 Parallel combination of
Hence, when a number of capacitors are connected in parallel, the
capacitors
equivalent capacitance is the sum of all the individual capacitance.

Example 1.29 What is the equivalent capacitance between terminals A and B in the network of
Fig. 1.61.
2 μF
1 μF
A 2 μF 2 μF B

Fig. 1.61

Solution The network can be simplified by series–parallel reduction technique (Fig. 1.62).

2 μF
1 μF 3 μF 1 μF
A 1 μF B A B

(b)
(a)

0.75 μF
A B

(c)
Fig. 1.62
C AB = 0.75 μF

Example 1.30 Find the equivalent capacitance for the network of Fig. 1.63.
4 μF

2 μF 3 μF 3 μF 5 μF
A B
2 μF

Fig. 1.63
1.30 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution The network can be simplified by series–parallel reduction technique (Fig. 1.64).
4 μF

2 μF 1.5 μF 5 μF 2 μF 5.5 μF 5 μF
A B A B
2 μF 2 μF

(a) (b)

1.47 μF 5 μF 3.47 μF 5 μF
A B A B
2 μF

(c) (d)

2.05 μF
A B
(e)

Fig. 1.64
C AB = 2.05
05 μF

Example 1.31 What is equivalent capacitance between terminals A and B in the network of
Fig. 1.65?
6 μF 4 μF
A

4 μF
2 μF

B
6 μF

Fig. 1.65
Solution The network can be simplified by series–parallel reduction technique (Fig. 1.66).
6 μF 8 μF 6 μF 6 μF
A A A

2 μF 2 μF 3.429 μF 5.429 μF
6 μF
B B B
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.66
 1.9 Series and Parallel Combination of Inductors 1.31

CAB = 2.85 μF

Example 1.32 What is equivalent capacitance between terminals A and B in the network of Fig. 1.67?

3 μF
A

6 μF
3 μF 3 μF 6 μF

Fig. 1.67

Solution The network can be simplified by series–parallel reduction technique (Fig. 1.67).

3 μF
A A

3 μF 9 μF 3 μF 2.25 μF
6 μF 6 μF

B B

(a) (b)

3 μF 8.25 μF

B
(c)

Fig. 1.68

CAB = 11.25 μF

Example 1.33 A combination of four capacitors is shown in Fig. 1.69. Find the value of C to obtain
an equivalent capacitance of 0.5 mF.

C 0.2 μF

0.6 μF 0.8 μF

Fig. 1.69
1.32 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution
(C + .6)(0.2 + 0.8)
Ceq = = 0.5
C + 0.6 + 0.2 + 0.8
C C + 0.8
0.5 C = 0.22
C = 0.4 μF
F

1.10 STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION

When a circuit cannot be simplified by normal series–parallel reduction technique, the star-delta transformation
can be used.
Figure 1.70 (a) shows three resistors RA, RB and RC connected in delta.
Figure 1.70 (b) shows three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in star.

1 1

R1
RC RB

R2 R3

2 3 2 3
RA
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.70 (a) Delta networks (b) Star Network

These two networks will be electrically equivalent if the resistance as measured between any pair of
terminals is the same in both the arrangements.

1.10.1 Delta to Star Transformation

Referring to delta network shown in Fig. 1.70 (a), the resistance between terminals 1 and 2
RC ( RA RB )
= RC � ( RA RB ) =
RA RB + RC
Referring to the star network shown in Fig. 1.70 (b), the resistance between terminals 1 and 2 = R1 R2 .
Since the two networks are electrically equivalent,

RC ( RA + RB )
R1 R2 = ...(1.1)
RA RB + RC
R ( R + RC )
Similarly, R2 R3 = A B ...(1.2)
RA RB + RC
R ( R + RC )
and R3 R1 = B A ...(1.3)
RA RB + RC
Subtracting Eq. (1.2) from Eq. (1.1),
RB RC − RA RB
R1 R3 = ...(1.4)
RA RB + RC
 1.10 Star-delta Transformation 1.33

Adding Eq. (1.4) and Eq. (1.3),

RB RC
R1 =
RA RB + RC
RA RC
Similarly, R2 =
RA RB + RC
RA RB
R3 =
RA RB + RC

Thus, star resistor connected to a terminal is equal to the product of the two delta resistors connected to
the same terminal divided by the sum of the delta resistors.

1.10.2 Star to Delta Transformation

Multiplying the above equations,
RA RB RC2
R1 R2 = ...(1.5)
( RA RB + RC ) 2

RA2 RB RC
R2 R3 = ...(1.6)
( RA RB + RC ) 2

RA RB2 RC
R3 R1 = ...(1.7)
( RA RB + RC ) 2
Adding Eqs (1.5), (1.6) and (1.7),
RA RB RC ( RA + RB RC ) RA RB RC
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 = =
( RA RB + RC ) 2 RA RB + RC
= RA R1 = RB R2 = RC R3
Hence,
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 R2 R3
RA = = R2 R3 +
R1 R1
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 R3 R1
RB = = R1 R3 +
R2 R2
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 R1 R2
RC = = R1 R2 +
R3 R3
Thus, delta resistor connected between the two terminals is the sum of two star resistors connected to the
same terminals plus the product of the two resistors divided by the remaining third star resistor.
Note: (1) When three equal resistors are connected in delta (Fig. 1.71), the equivalent star resistance is given by
RΔ RΔ R
RY = = Δ
RΔ RΔ RΔ 3
RΔ 3RY
1.34 Network Analysis and Synthesis
A
A

RY
RΔ RΔ

RY RY

B C B C
RΔ
Fig. 1.71 Equivalent star resistance for three equal delta resistors
(2) Star-delta transformation can also be applied to network containing inductors and capacitors.

Example 1.34 Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.72.
4Ω

4.5 Ω
4.5 Ω

A 3Ω 3Ω B

7.5 Ω 7.5 Ω

3Ω

Fig. 1.72
Solution Converting the two delta networks formed by resistors of 4.5 Ω, 3 Ω and 7.5 Ω into equivalent
star networks (Fig. 1.73 and Fig. 1.74),
4Ω

R3 R4

R1 R6
A B

R2 R5

3Ω

Fig. 1.73

4Ω

0.9 Ω 0.9 Ω
4.5 × 7.5
R1 R6 = = 2.25
5Ω 2.25 Ω 2.25 Ω
4.5 + 7.5 + 3
A B
7 5×3
R2 R5 = =1 5Ω
4.5 + 7.5 + 3 1.5 Ω 1.5 Ω
4 5×3
R3 R4 = =09Ω
4.5 + 7.5 + 3 3Ω

Fig. 1.74
 1.10 Star-delta Transformation 1.35

Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.75),

5.8 Ω

A B
2.25 Ω 2.25 Ω

6Ω
(a)

2.25 Ω 2.95 Ω 2.25 Ω

A B
(b)

7.45 Ω
A B
(c)

Fig. 1.75

RAB = 7 45 Ω

Example 1.35 Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.76.
10 Ω

A B
C D
10 Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω

10 Ω

Fig. 1.76
Solution Redrawing the network (Fig. 1.77),

10 Ω
10 Ω

A 10 Ω B

10 Ω 10 Ω

Fig. 1.77

Converting the delta network formed by three resistors of 10 Ω into an equivalent star network (Fig. 1.78
and Fig. 1.79),
1.36 Network Analysis and Synthesis

C C
10
Ω
R2 3 10 Ω
10 Ω
10
R1 Ω
3
A B A B

10
R3 10 Ω Ω 10 Ω
3

D D

Fig. 1.78 Fig. 1.79

10 × 10 10
R1 R2 = R3 = = Ω
10 + 10 + 10 3
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.80),
40
Ω
3 10 20
10 Ω Ω
Ω 3 3
3
A B A B
(b)
40
Ω
3
(a)
10 Ω
A B
(c)

Fig. 1.80

RAB = 0 Ω

Example 1.36 Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.81.

6Ω
1.5 Ω
9Ω

4Ω 3Ω
B C
1Ω

Fig. 1.81
 1.10 Star-delta Transformation 1.37

Solution Converting the star network formed by resistors of 3 Ω, 4 Ω and 6 Ω into an equivalent delta
network (Fig. 1.82 and Fig. 1.83),
A A

9Ω 1.5 Ω 9Ω 1.5 Ω

13
R1 R2 18 Ω

.5
Ω
R3 9Ω

B C B C
1Ω 1Ω

Fig. 1.82 Fig. 1.83

6 4
R1 = 6 4 + = 188 Ω
3
6 3
R2 = 6 3 + = 133.5 Ω
4
4 3
R3 = 4 3 + =9Ω
6

Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.84),

RAB = 6 � (1.35 + 0.9) 6Ω 1.35 Ω

= 6 � 2.25
B C
= 6 Ω 0.9 Ω

Fig. 1.84

Example 1.37 Find an equivalent resistance between A and N by solving outer delta ABC in Fig. 1.85.

2Ω
12 Ω 12 Ω

2Ω 2Ω
B C
12 Ω

Fig. 1.85
1.38 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution Converting outer delta ABC into a star network (Fig. 1.86),
A A
4Ω
2Ω

4Ω 4Ω 2Ω 2Ω
12 × 12 N M
RY = = Ω
12 + 12 + 12
B C B C

Fig. 1.86
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.87),
2Ω M 2Ω M
A A
2Ω 2Ω
4Ω 6Ω 6Ω
4Ω

4Ω 2Ω
N
N
(a) (b)

2Ω M
A A
A

4Ω 3Ω 4Ω 5Ω 2.22 Ω

N N N

(c) (d) (e)

Fig. 1.87

RAN = . Ω

Example 1.38 Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.88.

4Ω 41 Ω 15 Ω

2Ω 6Ω 15 Ω 4Ω

6Ω 17 Ω 11 Ω
A B

Fig. 1.88
 1.10 Star-delta Transformation 1.39

Solution The resistors of 2 Ω and 4 Ω and the resistors of 4 Ω and 11 Ω are connected in series (Fig. 1.89).
41 Ω 15 Ω

6Ω
6Ω 15 Ω
15 Ω

6Ω 17 Ω

A B
Fig. 1.89
Converting the two outer delta networks into equivalent star networks (Fig. 1.90),
41 Ω

2Ω 5Ω
6 6
RY1 = =2Ω 2Ω 5Ω
6 6 6 A B
15 × 15
RY2 = =5Ω 2Ω 17 Ω
15 + 15 + 15 5Ω

Fig. 1.90
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.91),
48 Ω

A B
2Ω 5Ω
24 Ω
(a)
2Ω 16 Ω 5Ω
A B
(b)

23 Ω
A B
(c)

Fig. 1.91
RAB = 3 Ω

Example 1.39 Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.92.
15 Ω 20 Ω
A
25 Ω
30 Ω

45 Ω 35 Ω

B
40 Ω
Fig. 1.92
1.40 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution Drawing the resistor of 30 Ω from outside (Fig. 1.93),
15 Ω 20 Ω
A

25 Ω
35 Ω 30 Ω
45 Ω

B
40 Ω

Fig. 1.93
Converting the delta network formed by resistors of 20 Ω, 25 Ω and 35 Ω into an equivalent star network
(Fig. 1.94),
15 Ω
A

20 × 35
R1 = = 8 75 Ω R2 R1
20 + 35 + 25 45 Ω
30 Ω
20 × 25
R2 = = 6 25
5Ω R3
20 + 35 + 25 B
40 Ω
35 × 25
R3 = = 100.94
9 Ω
20 + 35 + 25
2 Fig. 1.94
Redrawing the network (Fig. 1.95),
15 Ω 6.25 Ω 8.75 Ω
A

10.94 Ω
45 Ω 30 Ω

40 Ω

Fig. 1.95
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.96),
15 Ω 6.25 Ω
A

45 Ω 50.94 Ω 38.75 Ω

B
(a)

15 Ω 6.25 Ω 15 Ω
A A

45 Ω 22.01 Ω 45 Ω 28.26 Ω

B B
(b) (c)

Fig. 1.96 Continued

 1.10 Star-delta Transformation 1.41

15 Ω
A A

17.36 Ω 32.36 Ω

B B
(d) (e)

Fig. 1.96
RAB = 32.36 Ω

Example 1.40 Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.97.
10 Ω 20 Ω 5Ω
A
5Ω 15 Ω

10 Ω 25 Ω
2Ω

B
5Ω 30 Ω

Fig. 1.97
Solution The resistors of 5 Ω and 25 Ω and the resistors of 10 Ω and 5 Ω are connected in series (Fig. 1.98).
10 Ω 20 Ω
A

5Ω 15 Ω
30 Ω
15 Ω

2Ω

B
30 Ω

Fig. 1.98
Converting the delta network formed by the resistors of 20 Ω, 5 Ω and 15 Ω and 15 Ω into an equivalent
star network (Fig. 1.99),
10 Ω
A
20 × 5
R1 = = 25Ω R1
20 + 5 15 R2
30 Ω
20 × 15 15 Ω
R2 = =75Ω R3
20 + 5 15
5 15
R3 = = 1.8875
5Ω
20 + 5 15 2Ω
B
30 Ω

Fig. 1.99
1.42 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Redrawing the network (Fig. 1.100),

10 Ω 2.5 Ω 12.5 Ω
A A
7.5 Ω
1.875 Ω
37.5 Ω
3.875 Ω
15 Ω 30 Ω 15 Ω
2Ω

B B
30 Ω 30 Ω
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.100

Converting the delta network formed by the resistors of 3.875 Ω, 37.5 Ω and 30 Ω into an equivalent star
network (Fig. 1.101),

12.5 Ω
3.875 × 37.5 A
R4 = = 2 004 Ω R4
3.875 + 37.5 30
3.875 × 30
R5 = = 1.63 Ω 15 Ω B
3.875 + 37.5 30 R6
37.5 30 R5
R6 = = 15.76 Ω
3.875 + 37.5 30
Fig. 1.101

Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.102),

12.5 Ω 2.04 Ω 14.54 Ω

A A
15.76 Ω 15.76 Ω
B B

15 Ω 1.63 Ω 16.63 Ω

(a) (b)

7.76 Ω 15.76 Ω 23.52 Ω

A B A B
(c) (d)

Fig. 1.102

RAB = 23.52 Ω
 1.10 Star-delta Transformation 1.43

Example 1.41 Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.103.
A

6Ω 4Ω

3Ω 5Ω

5Ω 8Ω 4Ω

Fig. 1.103
Solution Converting the star network formed by the resistors of 3 Ω, 5 Ω and 8 Ω into an equivalent delta
network (Fig. 1.104 and Fig. 1.105),
A A
6Ω 4Ω 6Ω 4Ω

R1 9.875 Ω

R2 R3 15.8 Ω 26.33 Ω
5Ω 4Ω 5Ω 4Ω

B B

Fig. 1.104 Fig. 1.105

3 5
R1 = 3 5 + = 9.875 Ω
8
3 8
R2 = 3 8 + = 15.8 Ω
5
5 8
R3 = 5 8 + = 26.33 Ω
3
The resistors of 15.8 Ω and 5 Ω and the resistors of 26.33 Ω and 4 Ω are connected in parallel (Fig. 1.106),
A
6Ω 4Ω

9.875 Ω

3.8 Ω 3.47 Ω

B
Fig. 1.106
1.44 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Converting the delta network into a star network (Fig. 1.107),
A A
6Ω 4Ω
6Ω 4Ω

2.19 Ω 2Ω
R4 R6

0.77 Ω
R5
B
B

Fig. 1.107
3.8 × 9.875
R4 = = 2.199 Ω
3.8 + 9.875 + 3 47
3.8 × 3.47
R5 = = 0 77 Ω
3.8 + 9.875 + 3 47
3.47 9.875
R6 = =2Ω
3.8 + 9.875 + 3 47
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.108),
4Ω 2Ω
0.77 Ω
A B

6Ω 2.19 Ω
(a)
6Ω
0.77 Ω
A B

8.19 Ω
(b)
3.46 Ω 0.77 Ω
A B
(c)

4.23 Ω
A B
(d)

Fig. 1.108
RAB = . 3 Ω
 1.10 Star-delta Transformation 1.45

Example 1.42 Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network of Fig. 1.109.

6Ω 4Ω

A
5Ω 3Ω

4Ω 8Ω

Fig. 1.109
Solution Converting the star network formed by the resistors of 3 Ω, 4 Ω and 5 Ω into an equivalent delta
network (Fig. 1.110),
5Ω 3Ω
R3
5 4
R1 = 5 4 + = 15
5.67 Ω 4Ω
3
3 4
⇒ R1 R2
R2 = 3 4 + =94Ω
5
5 3 (a) (b)
R3 = 5 3 + = 11.75 Ω
4 Fig. 1.110
Similarly, converting the star network formed by the resistors of 4 Ω, 6 Ω and 8 Ω into an equivalent delta
network (Fig. 1.111),
6Ω 4Ω
6 8 R6
R4 = 6 8 + = 26
6Ω
4 8Ω

R5 = 4 8 +
4 8
= 17
7.33 Ω
⇒ R4 R5
6
6 4 (a) (b)
R6 = 6 4 + = 13 Ω
8
Fig. 1.111
These two delta networks are connected in parallel between points A and B (Fig. 1.112).
13 Ω

A
11.75 Ω
26 Ω 15.67 Ω 9.4 Ω 17.33 Ω

B
A
6.17 Ω
Fig. 1.112
. Ω
9.78

The resistors of 9.4 Ω and 17.33 Ω are in parallel with a short. Hence, the B
equivalent resistance of this combination becomes zero. Fig. 1.113
1.46 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Simplifying the parallel networks (Fig. 1.113),
RAB = 6.17
17 � 9.78 = 3 78 Ω

Example 1.43 Determine the current supplied by the battery in the network of Fig. 1.114.

4Ω 6Ω

6Ω

4Ω 6Ω

50 V 2Ω

Fig. 1.114

Solution Converting the delta network formed by resistors of 6 Ω, 6 Ω and 6 Ω into an equivalent star
network (Fig. 1.115),

4Ω 2Ω

2Ω

4Ω 2Ω

50 V 2Ω

Fig. 1.115
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.116),

6Ω
2Ω 3Ω 2Ω 5Ω

I
6Ω

50 V 2Ω 50 V 2Ω 50 V 2Ω
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.116
 1.10 Star-delta Transformation 1.47

50
I= = 7.14 A
5+ 2

Example 1.44 Calculate the current flowing the 10 W resistor in Fig. 1.117.

180 V
F

8Ω 4Ω 30 Ω 17 Ω

34 Ω
A
B D

12 Ω 12 Ω 30 Ω 13 Ω

C E
10 Ω

Fig. 1.117

Solution Between terminals A and B resistors of 8 Ω and 4 Ω are connected in series. Similarly, between
terminals F and E, resistors of 17 Ω and 13 Ω are connected in series (Fig. 1.118),

180 V F

30 Ω
12 Ω 34 Ω
A 30 Ω
B D

12 Ω 30 Ω
12 Ω

C E
10 Ω

Fig. 1.118

Converting delta ABC and DEF into an equivalent star network (Fig. 1.119),

180 V

34 Ω

4Ω 10 Ω
4Ω 10 Ω

4Ω 10 Ω

10 Ω

Fig. 1.119
1.48 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.120),
180 V 180 V

I 48 Ω I

I′
4Ω 10 Ω 4Ω 16 Ω 10 Ω
24 Ω
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.120

180
I= =6A
4 + 16 + 10
By current division rule,

48
I′ I 24 Ω = I 0Ω = 6× =4A
24 + 48

Example 1.45 Find the current supplied by the battery in the network of Fig. 1.121.
40 Ω 20 Ω

50 Ω

10 Ω 30 Ω

15 V 5Ω

Fig. 1.121

Solution Converting the star network formed by resistors of 40 Ω, 20 Ω and 50 Ω into an equivalent delta
network (Fig. 1.122 and Fig. 1.123),

40 × 20 R1 76 Ω
R1 = 40 + 20 + = 76 Ω
50
R2 190 Ω
40 × 50 R3 95 Ω
R2 = 40 + 50 + = 190
90 Ω
20
10 Ω 30 Ω 10 Ω 30 Ω
20 × 50
R3 = 20 + 50 + = 95
9 Ω
40
15 V 5Ω 15 V 5Ω

Fig. 1.122 Fig. 1.123

 1.10 Star-delta Transformation 1.49

The resistors of 190 Ω and 10 Ω and the resistors of 95 Ω and 30 Ω are connected in parallel (Fig. 1.124).
76 Ω

9.5 Ω 22.8 Ω

15 V 5Ω

Fig. 1.124
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.125),
76 Ω 22.67 Ω

15 32.3 Ω I
I= = 0.542 A
22.67 + 5

15 V 5Ω 15 V 5Ω
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.125

Example 1.46 Find an equivalent inductance between terminals A and B in the network of Fig. 1.126.
6H
A
2H 2H

6H
6H

2H

Fig. 1.126
Solution Converting the star network formed by inductors of 2 H, 2 H and 2 H into an equivalent delta
network (Fig. 1.127),
6H
A

6H
6H 6H 6H 6H

Fig. 1.127
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.128),
3H
A A A

3H 3H 3H 6H 2H

B B B
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.128
1.50 Network Analysis and Synthesis

LAB = 2 H

Example 1.47 Determine the capacitance between terminals A and B in the network of Fig. 1.129.

2 μF 4 μF

A 3 μF B

1 μF 5 μF

Fig. 1.129
Solution Converting delta network formed by capacitors of 2 μF, 1 μF and 3 μF into an equivalent
star network [Fig. 1.130 (a)],
1 2 2 μF 4 μF
C1 = 1 + 2 + = 3.667 μ F
3
C1 C3
1 3 A 3 μF B
C2 = 1 3 + = 5.5 μ F C2
2
2 3 1 μF 5 μF
C3 = 2 3 + = 11 μ F
1
(a)
Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.130),

11 μF 4 μF

3.67 μF 2.93 μF
A B 3.67 μF
A B

5.5 μF 5 μF
2.62 μF
(b) (c)

3.67 μF 5.55 μF 2.21 μF

A B A B
(d) (e)

Fig. 1.130

C AB = 2.21 μF

Example 1.48 If the combined capacitance of network shown is 5 μF, find capacitance C in the
network of Fig. 1.31.
 1.11 Source Transformation 1.51

2 μF 1 μF 3 μF 3 μF

4 μF

1 μF 1 μF 2 μF C

Fig. 1.131
Solution The capacitors of 1 μF and 1 μF and the capacitors of 1 μF and 3 μF are in parallel (Fig. 1.132),

2 μF 4 μF 3 μF

4 μF 2 μF
C
2 μF

Fig. 1.132
Replacing star network formed by capacitors of 4 μF, 4 μF
and 2 μF into an equivalent delta network (Fig. 1.133), 1.6 μF
2 μF 3 μF
4 4 C3
C1 = = 1 6 μF C1 0.8 μF
4 4 2 C
2 μF
4 2 C2 0.8 μF
C2 C3 = = 0 8 μF
4 4 2

Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.134), Fig. 1.133

3.6 μF 3 μF

0.6 μF 3C
2.8 μF C 1.575 μF 0.8 μF
3+C

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.134
3C
1.575 + 0.8 + =5
3+C
3C
= 2.625
3+C
C = 21 μF
1.11 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
A voltage source with a series resistor can be converted into a equivalent current source with a parallel
resistor. Conversely, a current source with a parallel resistor can be converted into a voltage source with a
series resistor as shown in Fig. 1.135.
1.52 Network Analysis and Synthesis

R
V
⇔I= R
V R

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.135 Source transformation

Source transformation can be applied to dependent sources as well. The controlling variable, however
must not be tampered with any way since the operation of the controlled sources depends on it.

Example 1.49 Replace the given network of Fig. 1.136 with a single current source and a resistor.
A

10 A 6Ω

5Ω
20 V

Fig. 1.136

Solution Since the resistor of 5 Ω is connected in parallel with the voltage A A

source of 20 V it becomes redundant. Converting parallel combination 60 V
of current source and resistor into equivalent voltage source and resistor 80 V
(Fig. 1.137), 6Ω
By source transformation (Fig. 1.138), 6Ω
A 20 V
B B
13.33 A 6Ω
Fig. 1.137

Fig. 1.138

Example 1.50 Reduce the network shown in Fig. 1.139 into a single source and a single resistor
between terminals A and B.
A

1A 2Ω 2Ω
4V

3Ω 1Ω
6V 3V
B

Fig. 1.139
 1.11 Source Transformation 1.53

Solution Converting all voltage sources into equivalent current sources (Fig. 1.140),
A

1A 2Ω 2Ω 2A

2A 3Ω 1Ω 3A

Fig. 1.140

Adding the current sources and simplifying the network (Fig. 1.141),
A

1Ω 3A

. Ω
0.75 1A

Fig. 1.141

Converting the current sources into equivalent voltage sources (Fig. 1.142),
A A
3V
3.75 V
1Ω

1.75 Ω
0.75 Ω
0.75 V B B

Fig. 1.142

Example 1.51 Replace the circuit between A and B in Fig. 1.143 with a voltage source in series
with a single resistor.

5Ω 6Ω
3A
30 Ω 50 Ω
20 V

Fig. 1.143
1.54 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution Converting the series combination of voltage source of 20 V and a resistor of 5 Ω into equivalent
parallel combination of current source and resistor (Fig. 1.144),

3A 30 Ω 50 Ω 4A 5Ω 6Ω

Fig. 1.144

Adding the two current sources and simplifying the circuit (Fig. 1.145),

7A 30 || 50 || 5 || 6 = 2.38 Ω

Fig. 1.145

By source transformation (Fig. 1.146),

2.38 Ω
A

16.67 V

Fig. 1.146

Example 1.52 Find the power delivered by the 50 V source in the network of Fig. 1.147.

3Ω
5Ω

2Ω
50 V 10 A 10 V

Fig. 1.147

Solution Converting the series combination of voltage source of 10 V and resistor of 3 Ω into equivalent
current source and resistor (Fig. 1.148),
 1.11 Source Transformation 1.55

5Ω
10 A 2Ω 3.33 A 3Ω

50 V

Fig. 1.148

Adding the two current sources and simplifying the network (Fig. 1.149),

5Ω
13.33 A 1.2 Ω

50 V

Fig. 1.149
By source transformation (Fig. 1.150),

5Ω 1.2 Ω
I
50 V 16 V

Fig. 1.150

50 − 16
I= = 5.48 A
5 + 1.2

Power delivered by the 50 V source = 50 × 5.48 = 274 W

Example 1.53 Find the current in the 4 W resistor shown in network of Fig. 1.151.
6V

5A 2Ω 2A 4Ω

Fig. 1.151

Solution Converting the parallel combination of the current source of 5 A and the resistor of 2 Ω into an
equivalent series combination of voltage source and resistor (Fig. 1.152),
1.56 Network Analysis and Synthesis
2Ω 6V

10 V
2A 4Ω

Fig. 1.152
Adding two voltage sources (Fig. 1.153),
2Ω

4V
2A 4Ω

Fig. 1.153
Again by source transformation (Fig. 1.154),

2A 2Ω 2A 4Ω

Fig. 1.154
Adding two current sources (Fig. 1.155),

4A 2Ω 4Ω

Fig. 1.155
By current-division rule,
2
I4 Ω = 4 × = 1.33 A
2 4

Example 1.54 Find the voltage across the 4 W resistor shown in network of Fig. 1.156.
3Ω 2Ω 1Ω

6V 6Ω 3A 4Ω

Fig. 1.156
 1.11 Source Transformation 1.57

Solution Converting the series combination of the voltage source of 6 V and the resistor of 3 Ω into
equivalent current source and resistor (Fig. 1.157),
2Ω 1Ω

2A 3Ω 6Ω 3A 4Ω

Fig. 1.157

By series–parallel reduction technique (Fig. 1.158),

2Ω 1Ω

2A 2Ω 3A 4Ω

Fig. 1.158
By source transformation (Fig. 1.159),
2Ω 1Ω 1Ω

2Ω 4Ω
4Ω 4Ω
3A 3A

4V 4V

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.159 (continued)

1Ω 1Ω 4Ω 1Ω
I

1A 4Ω 3A 4Ω 4A 4Ω 4 Ω 16 V 4Ω

(c) (d) (e)

Fig. 1.159

16
I= = 1.78 A
4 +1+ 4

Voltage across the 4 Ω resistor = 4 = 4 × 1.78 = 7.12 V

1.58 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 1.55 Find the voltage at Node 2 of the network shown in Fig. 1.160.

1 50 Ω 2
I
100 Ω

15 V 100 Ω
+ 10 I
−

Fig. 1.160

Solution We cannot change the network between nodes 1 and 2 since the controlling current I, for the
controlled source, is in the resistor between these nodes. Applying source transformation to series combination
of controlled source and the 100 Ω resistor (Fig. 1.161),

1 I 50 Ω 2 1 I 50 Ω 2

15 V 0.1 I 100 Ω 100 Ω 15 V 0.1 I 50 Ω

1 I 50 Ω 2 50 Ω

+
15 V 5I
−

Fig. 1.161

Applying KVL to the mesh,

15 − 50 I − 50 I − 5 0
15
I= = 0.143 A
105

Voltage at Node 2 = 15 − 50 I = 15 − 50 × 0.143 = 7.86 V

1.12 SOURCE SHIFTING

Source shifting is the simplification technique used when there is no resistor in series with a voltage source
or a resistor in parallel with a current source.

Example 1.56 Calculate the voltage across the 6 Ω resistor in the network of Fig. 1.162 using
source-shifting technique.
 1.12 Source Shifting 1.59

3Ω
2

4Ω 3 1Ω
1 4

+
2Ω 6Ω Va
18 V
−

Fig. 1.162

Solution Adding a voltage source of 18 V to the network and connecting to Node 2 (Fig. 1.163), we have

2 3Ω

4Ω 3 1Ω
1 4

18 V
+
2Ω 6Ω Va
18 V −

Fig. 1.163

Since nodes 1 and 2 are maintained at the same voltage by the sources, the connection between nodes 1
and 2 is removed. Now the two voltage sources have resistors in series and source transformation can be
applied (Fig. 1.164).

18 V 3Ω

18 V 4Ω 1Ω

2Ω 6Ω Va
−

Fig. 1.164

Simplifying the network (Fig. 1.165),

1.60 Network Analysis and Synthesis
18 V 3Ω
18 V 3Ω

4.5 A
4.5 A 1Ω
1Ω
1.33 Ω
+
4Ω
2Ω 6Ω Va
− 6Ω
− +
Va
(a) (b)

18 V 3Ω Va

5.985 V 3Ω 2.33 Ω
1.33 Ω 1Ω 6Ω

18 V 5.985 V

6Ω
− +
Va
(c) (d)

Fig. 1.165

Applying KCL at the node,

Va 18 Va − 5.985 Va
+ + =0
3 2 33 6
Va = 9.23 V

Exercises
1.1 Find the resistance between terminals A and B 1.2 Find the resistance between terminals A and B
in the network of Fig. 1.166. in the network of Fig. 1.167.
24 Ω 4Ω

4Ω 4Ω

A 8Ω 8Ω
4Ω
B 8Ω
4Ω

8Ω 8Ω A 4Ω B

Fig. 1.166 Fig. 1.167

[4 Ω] [2.67 Ω]
 Exercises 1.61

1.3 Find the equivalent resistance between 1Ω 2Ω 2Ω

A
terminals A and B in the network of
Fig. 1.168.
3Ω 3Ω 2Ω
12 Ω 40 Ω 60 Ω
A B
B
2Ω 2Ω

Fig. 1.168 Fig. 1.172

[8 Ω] [3 Ω]
1.4 What is the equivalent resistance between 1.8 Find the equivalent resistance between A and
terminals A and B of the networks shown in B in the network of Fig. 1.173.
Fig. 1.169? 6Ω 1Ω
A
A A
4Ω
6Ω 6Ω 6Ω 5Ω
4Ω 3Ω

B B B
3Ω 3Ω
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.173
Fig. 1.169 [5 Ω]
[(a) 0 (b) 0] 1.9 Find the equivalent resistance between A and
1.5 Find the equivalent resistance between terminals B in the network of Fig. 1.174.
A and B in the network of Fig. 1.170.

4Ω 4Ω 40 Ω 60 Ω
12 Ω
A B

20 Ω 30 Ω
4Ω 4Ω A B
100 Ω

Fig. 1.170 Fig. 1.174

[4 Ω] [25 Ω]
1.6 Find the equivalent resistance between terminals 1.10 Find the equivalent resistance between A and
A and B in the network of Fig. 1.171. B in the network of Fig. 1.175.
4Ω A
A
4Ω
R 2R R

4Ω
B 2R 2R
4Ω
B
Fig. 1.171 R
[4 Ω]
Fig. 1.175
1.7 Find the equivalent resistance between terminals ⎡4 ⎤
⎢ 7 R⎥
A and B in the network of Fig. 1.172. ⎣ ⎦
1.62 Network Analysis and Synthesis
1.11 Find the equivalent resistance between A and A
B in the network of Fig. 1.176. 3Ω 6Ω

20 Ω
3Ω

10 Ω 45 Ω 20 Ω
A B
20 Ω 3.25 Ω 2.5 Ω
B
Fig. 1.176
[17 Ω] Fig. 1.179
[3.5 Ω]
1.12 Find RAB by solving the outer delta (X-B-Y)
only in the network of Fig. 1.177. 1.15 Find the equivalent resistance between terminals
A and B in the network of Fig. 1.180.
Y

1Ω 1Ω
5Ω 7Ω
A
5Ω 5Ω

3Ω 2Ω 3Ω 3Ω
X B
9Ω
3Ω
Fig. 1.177
1Ω 1Ω
[1.41 Ω]
5Ω

1.13 Find the equivalent resistance between A and Fig. 1.180

B in the network of Fig. 1.178.
[1.82 Ω]
3Ω
1.16 Find the equivalent resistance between
2Ω 2Ω the terminals A and B in the network of
A Fig. 1.181.

8Ω 6Ω 3Ω 8Ω 9Ω
2Ω B

3Ω 6Ω 9Ω 5Ω
B

Fig. 1.178 A
6Ω 4Ω 4Ω
[2.625 Ω]
Fig. 1.181
1.14 Find the equivalent resistance between [10.32 Ω]
the terminals A and B in the network of
1.17 Find the equivalent resistance between A and
Fig. 1.179.
B in the network of Fig. 1.182.
 Exercises 1.63

6Ω 3Ω 1.21 Determine the power supplied to the network

A B
in the network of Fig. 1.186.
6Ω
6Ω 6Ω

9Ω
6Ω 6Ω
3Ω 6Ω
Fig. 1.182 100 V
[4.59 Ω]
1.18 Find the equivalent resistance between A and 6Ω 3Ω
B in the network of Fig. 1.183.
5Ω 2Ω 9Ω
A
Fig. 1.186
4Ω [4705.88 Ω]
4Ω 2Ω
2Ω 1.22 Replace the given network with a single
4Ω voltage source and a resistor.
4Ω
B 2Ω
2Ω 5A 2Ω 3Ω 10 A 2Ω 2Ω
10 V
Fig. 1.183
[6.24 Ω]
Fig. 1.187
1.19 Determine the current I in the network of [8.6 V, 0.43 Ω]
Fig. 1.184.
1.23 Use source transformation to simplify the
I 4Ω 3Ω network until two elements remain to the left
of terminals A and B.
4Ω 5Ω 6 kΩ 3.5 kΩ
50 V 6Ω 2Ω 8Ω A
2Ω
2 kΩ 3 kΩ 20 mA 12 kΩ
Fig. 1.184
[8.59 A]
1.20 Find the voltage between terminals A and B in B
the network of Fig. 1.185. Fig. 1.188
A
[88.42 V, 7.92 k Ω]
1.24 Determine the voltage Vx in the network of
Fig. 1.189 by source-shifting technique.
1Ω 3Ω
1Ω 2Ω
1A 2Ω 1Ω
Vx

2Ω 1Ω
2V 2Ω 5Ω
B 1Ω

Fig. 1.185
[0.56 V] Fig. 1.189
[1.129 V]
1.64 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Objective-Type Questions
1.1 A network contains linear resistors and ideal A
voltage sources. If values of all the resistors 10 V 5V
are doubled then the voltage across each
resistor is
10 Ω 4Ω
(a) halved
(b) doubled B
(c) increased by four times
(d) not changed Fig. 1.191
1.2 Four resistances 80 Ω, 50 Ω, 25 Ω, and R are (a) 5 V source in series with a 10 Ω resistor
connected in parallel. Current through 25 Ω
(b) 1 V source in series with a 2.4 Ω resistor
resistor is 4 A. Total current of the supply is
10 A. The value of R will be (c) 15 V source in series with a 2.4 Ω resistor
(a) 66.66 Ω (b) 40.25 Ω (d) 1 V source in series with a 10 Ω resistor
(c) 36.36 Ω (d) 76.56 Ω 1.6 Consider the star network shown in Fig. 192.
The resistance between terminals A and B
1.3 A delta connected network with its wye- with C open is 6 Ω, between terminals B and
equivalent is shown in Fig.190. The resistances C with A open is 11 Ω and between terminals
R1, R2 and R3 (in ohms) are respectively. C and A with B open is 9 Ω, then resistacne
A A RA, RB and RC will be
A
R1
5Ω 30 Ω
RA
R2 R3

B C B C RB RC
15 Ω

Fig. 1.190 B

(a) 1.5, 3, 9 (b) 3, 9, 1.5 C

(c) 9, 3, 1.5 (d) 3, 1.5, 9 Fig. 1.192
1.4 If each branch of a delta network has resistance
(a) RΑ = 4 Ω, RΒ = 2 Ω, RC = 5 Ω
3 R, then each branch of the equivalent wye
network has resistance (b) RΑ = 2 Ω, RΒ = 4 Ω, RC = 7 Ω
R (c) RΑ = 3 Ω, RΒ = 3 Ω, RC = 4 Ω
(a) (b) 3 R (d) RΑ = 5 Ω, RΒ = 1 Ω, RC = 10 Ω
3
R
(c) 3 3R (d) 1.7 A 10 V battery with an internal resistance of 1
3 Ω is connected across a nonlinear load whose
1.5 Viewed from the terminal AB, the network V-I characteristic is given by 7 V 2 2V .
of Fig.1.191 can be reduced to an equivalent The current delivered by the battery is
network of a single voltage source in series
(a) 0 (b) 10 A
with a single resistor with the following
parameters (c) 5 A (d) 8 A
 Answers to Objective-Type Questions 1.65

1.8 If the length of a wire of resistance R is 4 8

uniformly stretched to n times its original (c) A (d) A
15 15
value, its new resistance is
1.10 The current waveform in a pure resistor at 10
(a) nR (b)
R Ω is shown in Fig. 1.194. Power dissipated in
n the resistor is
R
(c) n2R (d) i
n2
1.9 All the resistances in Fig. 1.193 are 1 Ω each. 9
The value of I will be

t
0 3 6
I
Fig. 1.194

1V (a) 7.29 W (b) 52.4 W

(c) 135 W (d) 270 W
1.11 Two wires A and B of the same material and
Fig. 1.193 length L and 2L have radius r and 2r respectively.
The ratio of their specific resistance will be
1 2 (a) 1 : 1 (b) 1 : 2
(a) A (b) A
15 15 (c) 1:4 (d) 1:8

Answers to Objective-Type Questions

1.1. (d) 1.2. (c) 1.3. (d) 1.4. (a) 1.5. (b) 1.6. (b) 1.7. (c)
1.8. (c) 1.9. (d) 1.10. (d) 1.11. (b)