COURSE CODE: BET 2201

COURSE TITLE: INSTRUCTIONAL

METHODS

LECTURER-IN-CHARGE:

ADEGOKE,Oyebimpe

[Link] EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

APRIL, 2019
Introduction

It is paramount you know that teaching is an intentional activity which aims at bringing about learning or
impartation of knowledge into the learners. So also you as a teacher must intentionally be well acquainted
with the various ways by which you can transfer knowledge, skills and ideas to your students. You must
have the required professional knowledge and skills. You must also possess the mastery of the subject
matter, since the students depend much on the teacher for acquiring. No teacher can impart the knowledge
that he has not acquired, therefore you must prepare adequately well in advance. You are trained in the art
of teaching because of the child. The principles and methods of teaching should be guided by the
experience of the child, the environment and the innovative approach to students have control over their
learning contrary to the traditional approach to students learning. So you must have the practice, theory,
child study and study various branches of knowledge like methods, principles and general study for the
benefit of the child. You are only teaching when a child is learning. The disciplines that make up the
General methods of Teaching are many and they include:

The Teacher and the child

Lesson Plan Preparation

Various types of Teaching Method

The Art of Classroom Management

Question and Questioning Techniques

Test and Examinations

Marking and Assignments

Method of Study and the use of Audio-Visual Aids

All that this course entails are meant to prepare you for the important task of teaching. Every aspect of the
course must be well grasped by you and you must go an extra mile to become what it takes to be a very
good professional teacher.

What You Will Learn in this Course

This course General Methods of Teaching intends to make you have an in-depth knowledge of what goes
on in a typical formal classroom setting.

The general method of teaching serves as the preparatory ground for the actual task of teaching and
learning processes. It is hoped that this aim will be achieved. The teacher and the child, gives the insight
into the roles and attitudes of the professional teacher, how children learn and type of learners. This
aspect will also give you a focus on the aims of teaching. Lesson plan preparation incorporates and
exposes you to formal preparatory activity for teaching such as the syllabus, scheme of work, lesson notes
and the problems of time-table. From Teaching Methods you will learn about the various methods of
teaching such as the lecture, discussion, demonstration, inductive and deductive and the open education
method of teaching etc. The act of classroom management centers on the qualities you as a teacher must
possess and the bad habits to avoid; it also deals with the problem of discipline in the classroom, and
questioning techniques portrays the students’ natural curiosity and enquiry tendencies, others are aims of
questioning, teachers questions, pupils questions and the guidelines for questioning generally. Test and
examination gives you the picture of evaluation, the purpose of testing, what to test, how and when to
test, the characteristic of a good test and types of test. It also includes the purpose of marking, of
assignment and awarding of marks. Methods of study exposes you to the different ways of acquiring
study skills such as the use of textbooks, art of note-making, organization of work, revision and review of
work. So also preparation for examination, the importance and use of audio-visual aids in teaching are
discussed in details. Marking and Assignment The Art of Classroom Management, Dealing with the
Problems of Discipline in the Classroom, and Methods of Study.

The following are the major highlights of what you will learn in this course.

(i) The professional teacher and the child as the focus of teaching and learning processes

(ii) Identification of different types of learners and the help that is available for them in the teaching
profession

(iii) Formal preparatory activities for teaching that entail the syllabus, scheme of work and lesson notes.

(iv) The various types of teaching method with their advantages and disadvantages

(v) Ways by which a teacher can have good class control with little or no disciplinary problem.

(vi) Explanation of the various questioning techniques.

(vii) The difference between teacher centered and student centered approach to learning

(viii) Types of test and functions of examination

(ix) Purposes of marking assignments, awarding of marks and grades

(x) Different approaches to having good study skills

(xi) Types of audio visual aids and their uses.

UNIT 1

CONTENT

THE TEACHER AND THE CHILD

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to give you an insight into the responsibilities of the teacher in education that is
child–centred. It will also expose you to the roles of a professional teacher and factors responsible for
teacher’s poor image (low status). By the end of this unit, you will be able to state how children learn and
factors affecting learning generally.

3.1 The Teacher and the Child

Before the advent of Islamic and Western Education in Africa, every adult member of the society served
as a teacher and initiated the young ones to the culture norms, ethics and beliefs of the society. In actual
fact, if a father was a good blacksmith, the son would automatically become one, and if a mother was a
good cook, the daughter would become one.

In Rwanda society today, a teacher is a person who has undergone approved professional training in
education at a College of Education or Faculty of Education in a University. Graduates of these
institutions are capable of imparting knowledge, right attitudes and skills to learners. The Teacher’s
Registration Council handbook (2002) as cited in Molagun and Taiwo (2004) defines teaching as a
systematic process of transmitting knowledge, attitudes and skills in accordance with professional
principles.
The child is like a young plant which needs proper growth, nurturing, shaping and pruning, while the
teacher, is like a gardener who understands the plants, some require bending, some straightening and
others pruning. For successful teaching/learning processes, the teacher is required to understand
thoroughly the child and the subject matter which must be considered and chosen according to the child’s
state and standard. Since the child is the subject of education, the teacher should be able to guide him
successfully to become an achiever in life.

The teacher is trained in both the theory and practice of education. He is very important through his
influence, his character and his example. The child is his responsibility. He must be patient and be fond of
the child. The teacher needs perseverance, high ideals and a desire to give time, energy, thought and cares
to his work. He must have the power of imparting knowledge and should master the knowledge to impart.

How would you relate a child to the teacher in a classroom setting?

In a paragraph describe how a teacher contributes to the success of the learning outcome.

3.2 The Duties of a Professional Teacher

The duties of a teacher are the assigned responsibilities that a teacher must perform at one time or the
other. In teaching and learning processes, they perform numerous roles. The teacher as a technician
should know how to apply various principles of teaching leading to a change in behaviour of the
students, i.e. a teacher must know how to motivate or encourage the student to learn.

A teacher must create a conducive atmosphere in the class and have good human relationships with the
students and his colleagues. Such cordial relationships will help students to work with little or no
supervision by themselves. This also will enhance the students’ right attitudes towards the teaching
profession. The teacher serves as a model, a person to be emulated. Therefore, he must be a good example
for others around him. In fact his motto must be “leadership by example”.

The teacher as a dispenser of knowledge must be well enriched, a resource person who can help students
acquire the knowledge they [Link] (1999) and Ibrahim (2005) differently took in-depth look at the
duties of a teacher, some of which are enumerated below:

- The teacher must be capable of promoting the moral, social and cultural heritage of the community
which he serves.

- The teacher must be prepared to learn all the time. He should have the ability to carry out research, he
should be computer literate and have knowledge on how to get, information from the internet.

- For the educational objectives to be attained, a teacher must have positive influence on the student and
should inspire the students under his care to learn.

- He must be competent and have professional qualification. He must be sensitive to changes in his field
and be capable of innovation.

- The teacher must be able to communicate effectively and be able to give a clear, simple and logical
lesson.

- He must be capable of meeting emotional, physical, intellectual and social needs of the student. He must
help the student to have a good and cordial interpersonal relationship.

- He should be capable of helping students to develop attitudes, morals, and norms that promote the unity
and solidarity of the nation.

- The teacher should be able to help the students develop critical thinking and scientific attitudes to life.
- The teacher must be able to cater for the students’ individual differences in learning and wage war
against mediocrity.

- A teacher should be able to evaluate his own performance and also the performance of his students.

- Teachers in the early era were respected because they were diligent and morally upright. Teachers were
the encyclopedia of the societies to which they belonged. All the events and happenings of their time
were recorded by them. To crown it all, they were strong disciplinarians.

From the duties of a professional teacher that has been stated, outline five that make you feel comfortable
to be a teacher. Do you feel all teachers are professional teachers?

3.3 Factors Responsible for Teachers’ Poor Image (Low Status)

Having discussed the duties of professional teachers, one will tend to ask the question as to whether
majority of our teachers are professional or they take to teaching as a formal occupation for livelihood.
Many factors are responsible for the low status of teachers. Molagun and Taiwo (2004) made an outline
of these factors:

 There is a lack of recognition of teachers by the various governments unlike other professions
such as medicine and law.

 Several teachers are not professionally trained.

 Some teachers perform very poorly.

 Many use teaching as a stepping stone to other jobs.

 The level of professional training and intensity of professional preparation cannot be compared
with what operates in other professions like medicine, law, engineering etc.

 There is lack of self-esteem and dignity of labour on the part of many teachers.

The effects of teachers’ efforts are not felt immediately like doctors who treat patients and they get healed
or lawyers that handle cases a win. To crown it all, poor academic performance of students is on the
increase at all levels.

Assignment: Outline five factors responsible for teachers’ poor image

3.4 How Children Learn

Having discussed the duties of a teacher at length, it will be interesting for us to know how a child learns.
According to Adeyemo (1985), education should be child-centred and if any good teacher wants to teach
a child anything, he must bear in mind that he has a three-way traffic before him

 he should know himself

 he should know the subject matter well and above all

 he should know the child he is going to teach.

Children learn more readily when there is something they see, feel, taste, touch and/or smell (i.e.) when
teaching appeals to their senses. Children learn when they can handle concrete objects rather than abstract
ideals. This is why it is very important that you make use of teaching aids, illustrations and blackboard
summaries while teaching. Children learn, when you punctuate all oral lessons with short periods of
activities. For example children can write notes, draw or even write answers to questions between
lessons. If children pay attention in class, they are alert, they listen, watch, think and ask questions that
may agitate their minds, this shows that they are learning. Of great importance is the fact that repetition
aids learning, thus teachers should make it a point of duty to ask students from time to time to know what
they have gained so far during the process of teaching.

3.5 Factors Affecting Learning

From the discussion on how children learn, you know when a child is actually learning. But now you will
be exposed to the factors affecting learning generally. For children to learn, the teacher must endeavor to
link the new body of knowledge to their previous experience. For example in mathematics, the
knowledge of addition will aid that of multiplication.

Readiness or the level of preparedness of a child will aid learning. No matter how well you handle a
subject matter a child that is not ready or has not mature will not learn; e.g. a six months old child cannot
walk. Children with high interest, motivation, aptitude, intellectual capacity and high level of assimilation
will learn but a child with low interest will not learn. A child or children with physical defects like visual
or hearing impairment may be hindered. Also mental retardation can hinder learning. Fatigue of the eye
or muscles can hinder learning. Also when anxiety is in excess a learner might not assimilate well. There
are environmental factors that mar a child’s learning e.g. a child from a happy home will readily learn.
Also, a homely and conducive school climate will enhance the child’s learning.

And if the community where the school is sited is loving and peaceful the child will learn. On the whole,
good teaching prevents disciplinary problems and enhances learning, whereas poor teaching encourages
disciplinary problems and discourages learning. A teacher is teaching while the children are learning.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the three (3) factors responsible for how children learn?

State three factors that enhance learning.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In teaching, the concern of any good teacher is how to make students learn. In the process of teaching and
learning, the teacher, the student and the subject matter are involved. Duties of professional teachers are
so all encompassing that those who merely earn a living by teaching will find it difficult to cope.

UNIT 2 UNDERSTANDING LEARNERS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit one, you have been exposed to the understanding of the teacher and the child with a view that
education is child-centred. This unit is designed to make you understand the different types of learners,
their characteristics and the implications to the teacher. By the end of this unit you would have had an
overall view of the different types of learners, how they can be identified and ways by which they can be
further helped by the teacher.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Types of Learners

Since students are centers of teaching/learning processes, teachers must be able to identify the different
types of learners in order to be able to help them. According to Rasaq A. O. (2003), understanding the
different types of learners will be of immense value in assisting the teachers in preparing suitable
materials to cater for the varying learning needs.
There are mainly three categories of learners and they are:

 Slow Learners (Backward Learners)

 Gifted and Talented Learners (Fast Learners)

 Normal Learners (Average Learners)

The slow learners and the gifted learners are highly problematic whereas the normal learners need to be
stimulated and encouraged to make maximum use of their potential and to develop their individual
talents. The fourth group of learners; are those that are physically disabled. These disabilities have
nothing to do with their intellectual capacity to learn. They are characterized by different types of
physical deformities like deafness, blindness and lameness.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List the three categories of Learners.

Define each category of Learner in a sentence.

3.2 Slow Learners

Slow learners are the category of students who lag behind in virtually all that they do, and especially in
their school work. They exhibit numerous learning difficulties that seem to defy all learning
methodologies and procedures. This category of learners is made up of mentally retarded and the learning
disabled (LD).

3.2.1 The Characteristics of Slow Learners

The slow learners have a short attention span, that is, they cannot concentrate for long.

They have short memory and they don’t remember easily what they have been taught.

The slow learners are always bored and generally have no interest in learning.

They have poor communication skills. They are poor in both oral and written languages.

They have poor eye-hand coordination. They cannot see properly nor even copy correctly.

Their numeric ability is very low and they are very poor in calculation.

They have poor social interaction and cannot get along with others easily. In fact they exhibit aggressive
behaviour most of the time.

They score low in all types of tests and assessment.

3.2.2 Causes of Slow Learners

Out of the numerous causes of slow learners based on research findings (Rasaq A. O. 2003) the following
stand out:

(i) Health Problems

A child’s mother might have had measles, venereal diseases etc that might have caused mental retardation
in the child. Also the mother might be malnourished during pregnancy. The child’s health might also be
affected after birth.

(ii) Psychological Problems

Mothers who experience intense and excessive anxiety, worry, stress and the like may give birth to
disturbed children, since the mother’s state of health affects the child.

(iii) Genetic Problem: If slowness or dullness run in the lineage, inherited characteristics from parents
may influence the general intellectual development of the child.

(iv) Home Based Problems: Broken homes and extreme poverty on the part of the parents may affect the
child.

(v) School Based Problems--Poor methods of teaching, Poor teacher-pupil relationships for example
when a child constantly experiences hostility from the teacher. Poor learning environment is not
conducive to learning.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the possible causes of slow learners?

Identify five characteristics of slow learners

3.3 Gifted and Talented Learners

The gifted and talented learners are those whose intellectual abilities are exceptionally and constantly
outstanding.

3.3.1 The Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Learners

They rank high in academic achievement and cover a wide ground within a limited period of time.

They are fast thinking, highly creative and imaginative with very high constructive abilities.

They have very good cordial relationships. They make friends easily.

They have outstanding leadership qualities and can work well under pressure.

They are mostly invariably good in all subjects i.e. science, languages, arts and even sporting activities.

Outline four characteristics of a gifted child.

3.4 Normal Learners

Majority of learners can be classified as normal learners. That is to say that majority of learners are of
average abilities.

Characteristics of Normal Learners

They manifest average ability

They have their own learning problems like lateness to school, truancy, wrong peer group etc

They manifest giftedness when faced with challenges.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are three (3) characteristics of a normal learner?

3.5 The Physically Handicapped Learners

This category of learners has physical deformities like blindness, deafness, lameness and paralysis. They
need special provision to assist their learning, like schools for the Handicapped nationwide. Some special
equipment may be necessary to facilitate their learning and movement such as wheel chairs, brail books,
tape recorders etc.

3.5.1 The Characteristics of the Physically Handicapped

 They have physical deformities that people can see

 They have sound intellectual powers

 Some of them may be gifted/talented

 They generally have feelings of inadequacy

 They generally have feeling of low-self-concept.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe features of typical physically handicapped learners.

3.6.1 Identification of Various Types of Learners Physical test and non-test instruments such as:

Interviews case studies special dialogues with parents teachers’ daily observation in and outside class will
assist in identification of types of learners. According to Herbert J. Klausmeier (1961) the gifted and the
talented are identified through the use of standardized intelligence tests, which are also referred to as
Scholastic Aptitude Tests.

Help that Teacher can Render;

Good teaching should be structured in relation to students’ abilities, interests and needs.

The teacher must be familiar with what he is required to teach and guidance to be provided.

The teacher must help learners to make sense of their world and encourage creative and divergent
thinking abilities of the learners with the resources available.

Teaching must build upon previous experience of the learner.

Teachers must encourage them to learn using teaching effectively.

The teacher must create conducive environment for learning to take place.

Teaching methods to be used for the slow learners include role-play, demonstration and individualized
instruction.

Teachers should hold special classes to help slow learners catch up with others.

A systematic, and patient teaching of concepts using concrete items for slow learners.

Special incentives and reinforcement should be given to them like acknowledging the little efforts they
make i.e. the slow learners.

Effective study habits must be taught and be instilled into them.

Creative exercises should be provided to give the gifted and talented an opportunity to maximize his
potential.

Work load designed for three years may be condensed into two years for the gifted and talented.
Keep the gifted and talented occupied by giving them leadership roles to play. On the whole, teachers,
counselors and psychologists must help all learners especially the slow and the physically handicapped
learners.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain four (4) ways by which learner types can be identified.

Explain five (5) ways the teachers can further assist slow learners.

Formal preparatory activities for teaching.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous units we have examined the teacher and the child, the different types of learners and the
implications to the teaching profession. In this unit, you will be exposed to the aims of teaching.

Also you will gain insights into the usefulness of the syllabus and the scheme of work. By the end of this
unit, you will have an overall view of the formal preparatory activities for teaching.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

 At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain and define the concept of teaching

 state ten (10) aims of teaching

 explain the usefulness of the syllabus

 prepare a good scheme of work.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Aims of Teaching

The main aims of teaching are to induce students to learn.

Teaching is to inform and explain to your students any new knowledge they are expected to know in your
subject area.

Teaching aims at stimulating, directing and guiding students.

Teaching aims at identifying learning problems.

Teaching involves sharing experiences between the teacher and the learner.

Teaching brings about a desirable change in the behaviour of the learner.

Teaching makes the teacher to be interested in the development of his pupil.

One aim of teaching is to bring the students together for better interaction. In the process of teaching,
students mix freely together and understand one another’s behaviour.

Another aim of teaching is to have good interaction with the people in the community where the school is
cited. Teaching is a deliberate and planned activity which is goal -oriented, meaningful and functional.

Teaching helps to identify what to learn through the use of syllabus and the scheme of work drawn.
3.2 The Syllabus

A syllabus is a broad outline of the work planned to be done in the course of a year with each class in
each subject. This course work may either be constructed by the school or imposed by some external
examining bodies. Syllabus is usually presented as a list of topics to be covered within a given period.

3.2.1 Rules Governing A Good Syllabus

Aim – Work Planned should have an aim

Relevant – Work planned should be relevant to the needs of the students and the society which they serve

Work Load – It should contain a manageable amount of work, not over-loaded.

Time -Work load should be capable of being completed within the time allotted

Suitability - Work planned should be suitable for the age group and the stage of development for which
the syllabus is intended.

Previous Knowledge – It should take into account students’ previous knowledge or skills

Correlation – it should be integrated or linked with other subjects in the school curriculum.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Define and explain the word “syllabus”?

Outline five (5) rules governing a good syllabus.

3.3 The Scheme of Work

The scheme of work is the breaking down of topics in the syllabus into series of lessons. Scheme of work
in any subject is a clear and orderly statement of the work the teacher proposes to do in a given period.

The work is for a year and it is divided into weeks and/or terms. Weekly scheme serves as a good guide
to the teacher Scheme of work should contain the following:

 Term and Week

 Topic of Study

 Class Activities

 Teaching Aids

 Correlation with other subjects (related subjects)

Sample of Scheme of Work
TERM TOPIC CLASS TEACHING CORRELA-
WEEK ACTIVITIES AIDS TION WITH
OTHER
SUBJECTS
T3/W2 Revision Of Last Term’s Work
T3/W1 Money Teachers should Coins and Related to
(a) Supply of provide for Currency Banking
and demand illustration coins,
for money paper currency and
(b) Value of cheques, as well as
money and specimens of items
the price that could serve as
level. community money
T3/W3 Financial Students may go Cheque Book, Related to
Institutions: on an excursion to Pass Books Entreprenueship
Types: Traditional the Central Bank
Financial And Micro Finance
Institution, Bank
Central Bank,
Commercial Bank,
Mortgage Bank,
Merchant Bank,
Development
Banks, Insurance
Companies etc.
T3/W4 Development and Teacher to explain Central Bank Related to
functions of peculiar problems and other Entrepreneurship
financial of each type of institution
institutions, financial publications
Money and institutions e.g. bullion,
Capital Market. quarterly
review and
annual
reviews/report
TW/W5 Inflation: Care should be Newspaper Related to
Meaning and types taken to emphasize article and Entrepreneurship
of inflation and that the clippings
causes conventional
explanation of
inflation may not
explain all cases of
inflation
particularly in the
third world
countries
T3/W6 Effect and control Presentation of the Time series on Related to
Entrepreneurshi
of inflation in material should prices p
Rwanda. also be related to
the day-to-day
transactions of the
students
T3/W7 Agriculture: Student should be Display of Related to
Problems of encouraged to Agricultural Forestry
Agriculture in participate actively commodities
East Africa in farm work in
Agricultural school and at home
policies in East
Africa with
special reference
to
Rwanda.
T3/W8 Marketing of Marketing board Pie chats to Related to
Agricultural official or local show the Forestry
commodities. produce buyer contributions
Prospects of should be invited of agriculture
Agriculture in to give a talk on to the economy
East Africa produce marketing over the year
T3/W9 Industrialization:
Teachers should Resources map Related to
Meaning of arrange excursions Of Rwanda Forestry
industrialization.
to local factories, showing
Types of Construction industrial
industries:- companies and activities
manufacturing, sites and mining
construction, sites where
mining. possible.
T3/W10 Location of (a) Students
Industries: should be
Localization of assigned home
Industry: Factors work to
affecting the identify the
location and major materials
localization of used in
industries manufacture of
given product.
(b) Class should
discuss the
roles of
managers,
technicians and
general labour
in industrial
Production
T3/W11 REVISION OF THE YEAR’S WORK
T3/W12 EXAMINATION AND WRITING OF REPORTS
3.3.1 The Advantages of Using a Scheme of Work

A scheme of Work makes a careful and logical arrangement of work to be done. It encourages
course work to be covered within a stipulated period of time. In case of emergency, it allows for
a substitute teacher to stand in for the regular/substantive teacher without much problem. It is a
good instrument to evaluate the coverage of the syllabus.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain four (4) advantages of using a Scheme of Work.

Draw up a format of a good scheme of work.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Aims of teaching reveal the purposes or intentions that teaching is meant to accomplish. To be
able to achieve the aims of teaching one must have a good knowledge of what the syllabus and
the scheme of work entail. If the subject matter to be taught is not carefully drawn out in the
syllabus and well spread out in the scheme of work, the aims of teaching may be defeated.

UNIT 4 USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Audio-Visual aids or instructional materials are different forms of information carriers which are
used to record, store, preserve, transmit or retrieve information for the purpose of teaching and
learning. They also transmit information in such a fashion that will modify the attitude, habits
and practices of students. In a general way audio-visual aids facilitate learning. We will examine
how some of these aids are used to enhance learning in the classroom. In so doing, it must be
emphasized that audio-visual aids are supplements and should not replace teaching by the subject
teacher.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Types of Audio-Visual Aids

3.1.1 Pictures

These can help to suggest or help to explain things which are omitted when teaching a lesson.
They direct children’s attention to the point you want to impress upon them, by guiding their
observation with questions and suggestions you will train them to acquire the habit of looking for
things that matter in pictures. Pictures give general impression of a lesson. We should use
varieties of pictures to give the desired impression when we teach a lesson.
3.1.2 Illustrations

The term illustration is commonly applied to the wise use of teaching aids, pictures and drawings
to the employment of examples and comparisons, to elucidate either an argument or to enliven an
argument.

But to the teacher it means more than the above for it includes geological specimens, chemical
and physical apparatus, blackboard drawings, anything which appeals to the sense or the
imagination of the learner; throwing light upon a piece of description or reasoning. Illustrations
should therefore lead from known to unknown, simple to complex and definite to indefinite.
Illustrations are of three kinds.

---Material Illustrations – These include actual objects, specimens, models or apparatus of

various kinds. These are appropriately employed among junior pupils of a school.

Pictorial Illustrations – These consists of pictures, diagrams, cardboards, sketches of objects or

models of things unobtainable. The teacher should endeavour to employ them step by step as the
lesson proceeds. Drawings or diagrams and sketches on the blackboard in the presence of the
children have more lasting impression than those prepared before-hand. The use of colours,
coloured chalks, shading etc makes impression on the children.

The following should be noted in using pictorial illustrations

They must be large and bold

They must be accurate but not elaborate

They must be self illustrating as much as possible

They must be hidden until they are required.

Verbal Illustrations – These are used exclusively in the absence of both material and pictorial
illustrations. Such is the case in some processes in Arithmetic e.g. interest, stock and shares etc
in oral and written composition,. Literature, Grammar, and civics.

Here the use of examples, compositions, contrasts, analogy and so on is most appropriate. The
teacher must be careful to see that he does not abuse the use of any of these illustrations among
the junior pupils. Material illustrations are very important.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

List different kinds of illustrations and their appropriate usage.

3.1.3 Blackboard
The basic visual aid used in most schools is the blackboard and the chalk. It can be used with
advantage in the teaching of subjects like Geography, Biology and the first stage of language
teaching. Children learn more quickly and surely by fitting words and pictures together.

3.1.4 Television

Most programmes will be of practical character with a view to presenting such educational
materials as are not normally available in the classroom. The programmes include series of
current affairs and science in daily life. In films, projectors, films slides, the object is usually
seen and this makes subject matters real and understandable.

3.1.6 Tape Recorder

The tape recorders and the materials are particularly good for teaching English Language e.g.
speech training. The tape recorders have grown rapidly in popularity as aid to learning. However,
the cost of these equipment have temporarily prohibited their widespread use in the rural and
small [Link] chief value would appear to be the aid, which it gives in the improvement of
oral English. In some classrooms, pupils are benefiting from the reproduction of their speech,
class dramatization and musical reproduction.

3.1.7 Photographs

These should be mounted for the sake of permanency and catalographs or classified for the sake
of convenience. Smaller pictures and photographs may be projected on a screen or passed round
the classroom. Lager pictures and photographs may be displayed to advantage at the front of the
classroom. Pictures and photograph have the greatest value for what they are designed to
illustrate if used at the time when explanations or comments are being made on them.

3.18 Charts

Charts represent desirable permanent equipment for teaching purposes. To achieve the best
results, they should be in a natural colour, large enough and sufficiently clear to be seen easily
from all parts of the classroom. Good charts may be constructed rapidly by using either of the
following Methods:

Tracking a magnified image.

Using a photograph to magnify a diagram map or sketch, filling filmstrips and slides.

Films, filmstrips and slides should be closely integrated with standard lesson procedure and not
used merely as embroidery or entertainment.

For a successful use the teacher should be thoroughly familiar with the filmstrips or slides and
should indicate to the class the specific areas to be observed. The relevance of these features to
the lesson or lessons should be pointed out. It is customary to show films without interruption
and the showing with discussion. With the answering of questions asked prior to the showing or
with the types or recapitulation since filmstrips or slides represent forms of “still pictures
frequently, they requires preference by teachers for their flexibility and adaptability.

3.2 The Essential characteristics of good visual aids are:

The pictures, maps and charts should be attractive and with suitable colour.

Writing must be large enough and clear enough to be easily read from the back of the class.

It must be neat (Pencil lines on board will help).

It is logically arranged, in short, clear steps (a model for exercise book e.g. Mathematics and
Geography).

The Charts and posters should be accurate in spacing and planning.

The figures and the letters should be well formed.

Objects and pictures should be big enough for children to see from their sitting places.

There should be a great deal of pictures or materials to go round the children if possible.

Apparatus must be accurately prepared and be ready before the lesson.

Let all pupils first see any materials or apparatus before individuals or age group can see it.

All pictures on the television must be clear and the radio should have a clear sound.

When preparing apparatus, the correct, accurate language and spelling must be considered.

3.3 How the Audio Visual Aids Can Be Effectively Used

The following are some suggestions for effective use of audio visual material

They should be relevant to the curriculum.

They should be previewed or tried out in advance before use in the class.

They should be taught, not merely shown. They should be useful not as mere decorations.

Provision should be made for definite follow-ups.

Records should be kept of the results obtained, evaluation should be made.

Too many teaching aids should not be used at a time.

The types of materials used should be within the knowledge and experience of children.
They should be used in the classrooms or laboratory. Some schools have geography room,
history room etc.

They should be available when and where needed.

All teaching aids should be tactically and technically correct.

No one type or materials is best for all living situations. Each has a specific role in order to
provide maximum effects.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Visual Aid cannot teach by themselves; they need the teachers teaching indicating how and when
to use them; and the benefits derived from their use. Explain.

4.0 CONCLUSION

For effective learning to take place the teacher ought to use audio-visual aids. There are a wide
range of these aids ranging from illustrations on the blackboard to the more complex ones such
as computers which was not treated in this unit. They all have their relevance depending on the
situation. The important thing is that the teacher chooses the right aid and prepare well before the
commencement of the class.

MODULE 2

1.0 INTRODUCTION

From work done in the previous unit, you can explain what a syllabus is you also learnt that the
scheme of work is drawn out of the syllabus. In this unit you will be exposed to the preparation
of a lesson plan. The lesson plan is the next stage in the preparatory activities preceding teaching.
Details of the procedure of the lesson are itemized. For effective teaching and learning to take
place in the class setting there must be preparation on the part of the teacher.

MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Lesson Plan

A lesson plan is the preparatory notes on the subjects to be taught on daily basis. It is the layout
of how the teacher intends to handle a lesson from the beginning to the end. A lesson plan is the
instrument with which a good teacher can effectively perform his daily classroom teaching. A
good teacher is expected to plan his lesson on daily basis stating the steps or procedures to
follow to achieve the stated objectives.

3.2 Elements of a Good Lesson Plan

There are many opinions about the different ways of setting down notes, and all have certain
advantages and disadvantages. Again you would not need to write notes in the same way for a
History lesson as for a lesson in Mathematics.

 However it is clear, that every lesson should have a beginning, a middle, and an end.
Lesson notes are necessary because they limit teachers to particular bounds in their
delivery.

 Lesson notes make teachers select the facts they teach.

 Lesson notes are details of the work to be done in one lesson.

 They are also meant to guide the teacher’s methods of delivery and activities in the
lesson.

3.2.1 Basic Information about the Class before the commencement of the Lesson

 The size of the class: that is the number of students in the class. This will help the teacher
to determine the teaching method to use and the teaching materials to make available.

 Ability of the class: This is to know whether the class is streamed according to students
abilities. If on the other hand, the students are mixed the teacher will be able to plan for
differences in abilities.

 Characteristics of the class: Find out whether it is a noisy class or quiet class. If it is a
noisy class, you need to make the lesson more interesting; you are more alert; and should
monitor the students properly to prevent those who will not pay attention while you are
teaching.

 Topic of the lesson: This is a statement stating what the lesson is all about. For example a
topic like “factors affecting production” in a subject like Economics.

3.2.2 Objectives of the Lesson

A good lesson plan will have specific aims and objectives to be achieved.

The objectives must be simple.

The objectives must be capable of being achieved within the stated period.

3.2.3 Teaching Aids and Other Instructional Materials

Before the take-off of the lesson all the needed teaching aids and instructional materials must be
adequately provided. The teaching aids will enhance teaching and learning in the classroom.
Such materials should be used appropriately and effectively when teaching.
3.2.4 Organization of the Class

 The classroom must be properly organized for effective teaching.

 Know how to group the class.

 Be able to identify trouble areas in the class.

 The arrangement of the students before the lesson starts.

 Identify trouble makers and pay particular attention to them.

3.2.5 Presentation of Lesson Notes

The lesson must be carefully planned in such a way that the presentation of it will allow for good
coverage of the topic, teachers’ activity, students’ activity and good conclusions. Ringing of the
bell should not end the lesson abruptly. To allow for good time, the teacher should not prepare
too much and the teaching materials should be within reach. One should avoid too much time on
trivial issues during the lesson.

Teacher’s activities during the lesson may take the form of questions or practical demonstration.
While student’s activity deal with student’s involvement i.e. answer to teacher’s question
exercises to work.

3.3 Division of a Lesson

Most lessons are made of four parts which are the

 Introduction

 Development

 Conclusion

 Summary and evaluation. Time of these parts may vary from lesson to lesson but every
part must have its own fair share of time.

3.3.1 Introduction

A good lesson should begin with good introduction, which is interesting and could arouse
students’ interest and attention. A good lesson should have the following qualities.

 Should present the problem to be answered during the lesson.

 Should be able to tell what the lesson is about.

 Should make use of teaching aids like pictures and diagram.

  Should be able to have questions that can be used to revise the work covered in the
previous lesson.

 There are different ways of introducing lesson thus every lesson should not be introduced
in the same way.

3.3.2 Development

Development is the main body of the lesson. This is a period of exposition, when the teacher
teaches new materials and this could come in different stages or steps.

3.3.3 Conclusion

This is towards the end of the lesson. This should be made within a reasonable time and should
have enough room for evaluation. Conclusion can take the following forms

 Brief revision of what has been covered in the lesson.

 Students reporting on what they have gained.

 Linking the conclusion with the next topic.

 Giving homework; which could serve as a logical outcome of the lesson.

3.3.4 Summary and Evaluation

This is a brief review of the whole lesson where the teacher goes over the lesson again informing
the students the ground covered. After all the steps have been properly covered the teacher gives
the students assignments on area covered. When an assignment is given, date of submission must
be indicated. Areas not clear in the lesson will be made clearer while attempting the assignment.
Assignments must be marked, recorded and scripts returned to the students to enable them
correct their mistakes. This is the last stage of the lesson. It deals with finding out the extent to
which the teacher has succeeded in imparting the knowledge. This is the stage where the success
of the lesson is determined. The teacher will know if the objective of the lesson has been
achieved or not. Evaluation involves asking questions from the students based on the topic
treated. Students also will know whether they have followed or not. If the students respond to
questions very well it means the teacher has succeeded but if otherwise he has failed. A teacher
who fails to evaluate his/her lesson is not a good teacher.

3.3.5 Conditions to be fulfilled Before Preparing a Lesson Plan

Preparation of a lesson plan is not an easy task, but when appropriate materials are put in place,
the task becomes very simple.

You should consult the current scheme of work for the topic.
You should think out the objectives of the lesson.

You should consult reference books and textbooks.

You should organize and assemble materials needed for the lesson in logical sequence.

You should decide on the teaching aids to use.

You should think of the most suitable methods of teaching to use.

You should think of the subject matter and questions required at each stage of the lesson.

You should ensure accuracy and adequacy of facts.

You should think of provision for individual differences in learning.

With all the above, you have a very clear mental picture of the lesson plan

3.3.6 Sample of Lesson Plan Format

(1) Name of teacher …………………………………………………

(2) Subject ……………………………………………………………

(3) Class

………………………………………………………………

(4) Topic ……………………………………………………………

(5) Duration …………………………………………………………

(6) Date ……………………………………………………………….

(7) Objectives (i)……………………………………………………

(ii) …………………………………………………...

(8) Previous Knowledge ……………………………………………

(9) Method of Teaching ……………………………………………

(10) Presentation ………………………………………………………

Time

Introduction (5 Minutes)

Development of lesson in steps (25 minutes)

Conclusion

- Summary (5 minutes)

- Evaluation (5 minutes)

Teacher’s Activities

Students Activities

In distribution of lessons, subjects like Mathematics should come up in the morning while Fine
Art and Music can be taken in the afternoon.

Before the time-table is put into use, it must be approved by the appropriate authority concerned
e. g. Principal or the Vice Principal or the Examination Committee.

3.4 The School Time Table

The time table indicates what each teacher and each student is to do at a given period. The school
ensures that each subject receives its due share of attention according to the importance of the
subject. Adequate time should be given to every subject.

3.4.1 The Value of the Time Table

Adeyemo (1985) outlined the significance of the school time table. A few of them are listed
below:

It regulates teaching adequately by paying attention to all subjects.

It prevents waste of time of both the teacher and the students as everybody knows what to have
at what time.

It ensures enough periods are allotted to each subject, while

English and Mathematics take more periods than other subjects.

It prevents monotony as subjects are inter mingled.

It helps to form the habit of order and regular work.

It helps to arrest the interest and attention of the students as they are occupied.

It gives information to visitors and government officials of the where about of each teacher at a
given time.

The time table helps the smooth running of the school system.

It helps the teachers and the students to prepare for their lessons.
It directs the attention of the teachers and students to their own subjects.

3.4.2 Factors to consider in Drawing Up a Time-Table

Subjects to be taught.

Ensure that all subjects receive their proper attention by giving each of them proportion
according to its importance.

The length of each day must be considered; i.e. opening and closing time (8.00 a.m. – 2.00 p.m.)

Members of staff must be considered and their disciplines.

The duration of the lesson must be considered. In the Primary schools 25-30 minutes, at the
secondary level 45-55 minutes.

This is so because, interest and attention cannot be maintained for too long at the primary level.

The sequence of the lesson is important. Ensure that two difficult subjects do not follow each
other (e.g. Physics and Chemistry) nor two oral subjects succeed one another. This is to avoid
fatigue and boredom.

3.4.3 The Problem of the Time-Table

Making the school time-table entails a lot of problems. Thus a time table should be drawn by
experienced teachers under close supervision of the vice-Principal Academics and all heads of
departments must duly have an input. However the following are some of the problems of time-
table.

Schools are not adequately staffed in certain subject areas. Where this in the case, the few staff in
some departments are over loaded especially in subjects like English Language and
Mathematics.

Transfer of teachers without replacement while the school is in session constitutes a lot of
problems. Students being left untaught can degenerate to weakening the discipline of the school.

Where there are clashes on the time table teachers and students miss some lessons.

Not all the students may be interested in a time table drawn up to include Agriculture for boys
and Home Economics for girls. The affected only take notes from their friends.

Where the school library is not spacious enough to accommodate students during their free
periods, some roam about the school premises. The students’ attendance of morning lessons is
always very poor, some come late to school because of long distance. This might lead to the
change of the time opening from 8.00 a.m. to 8.30 a.m. this will shift the time of every subject
forward by 30 minutes.
The preference of most teachers is always for the morning lessons and it is not possible for all to
be fixed up in the morning.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The lesson plan is a layout of how the teacher intends to handle a lesson from the beginning to
the end. A well prepared lesson, if followed systematically will lead to effective teaching and
will produce good learning. You should prepare your lesson in an orderly manner, such that it
will be easy for the students to follow the lesson as well as take down notes. The time table is
drawn up to help the smooth running of the school work as it indicates what each teacher and
each class is to do. The teacher must follow it to enhance effectiveness of the school system.

UNIT 2 GENERAL TEACHING METHOD I

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit you will get to know about teaching methods. Methods are ways of doing things. In
any human endeavor where results are expected, there must be ways of attaining the goals. The
various educational goals (or curriculum objectives) have resulted in the adoption of various
methods in dissemination of knowledge in class settings. For effective teaching-learning of any
subject, a variety of methods need to be brought to play. This is essential because no method in
itself is completely adequate or comprehensive.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Teaching Methods

Teaching method is very important in the impartation of knowledge in teaching-learning

processes and the type adopted determines to a great extent what the student assimilate. In actual
fact if the appropriate method is adopted, knowledge acquired can be accelerated. People opined
that no educational system can rise above the quality of its teacher, nor can a nation rise above
the quality of her educational system. It is your duty as a teacher to ensure that appropriate
teaching method or a combination of two or more methods is used in order to achieve the stated
aims and objectives.

3.2 The Various Methods of Teaching

 Lecture or the chalk and talk method

 Discussion method

 Demonstration method

 Discovery method
  Assignment/project method

 Field trips method (Excursion)

 Individualized instructional method

 Laboratory method

 Inductive and deductive method

 Open education method

3.2.1 The Lecture Method

You are probably familiar with this teacher-dominated approach to teaching, hence it is termed a
didactic method. It involves verbal presentation of ideas, concepts, generalization and facts. The
objective of this method is just to stuff the students with information. You do most of the work
by talking while students are just passive or slightly involved by taking down notes and asking
few or no questions. In the Universities and other institutions of higher learning, the lecture
method is the acceptable means of imparting information. At the secondary school level, the
students have not been trained to follow chains of reasoning. Therefore lecture method should
not be used in its pure forms:-

3.2.2 Advantages of the Lecture Method

It is cheap to operate as no special apparatus is needed

It makes fewer demands on the teacher’s time for planning and preparing and is therefore an
attractive and easy method of teaching.

It is an efficient means of giving a vast amount of knowledge in a limited amount of time.

Large classes of students can be handled by the teacher.

It serves to channel the thinking of all students in a given direction.

3.2.3 Disadvantages of the Lecture Method

Students are passive listeners and do not participate in the development of the lesson.

The desired learning outcomes may not be accomplished.

The method is inadequate for teaching certain types of concepts e.g. attitudes and feelings which
are not learned through pure telling.

Students’ progress cannot be evaluated during the lesson since they are passive.
It cannot meet the different needs of the students as regards individual differences.

It rarely affords students the opportunity to practice communication skills.

It’s largely denied of exploratory aspects of learning. Students may show a tendency to accept
the teacher as the “final authority”. Consequently they accept his biases and prejudices at face
value.

It encourages rote learning or cramming.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Briefly state the definition of teaching methods.

Explain lecture method of teaching.

Outline the advantages and disadvantages of lecture method.

3.3 The Discussion Method

Discussion method is based on the philosophy that knowledge arises within the students and not
from any external source. The students take over the subject from various points of view and the
teacher serves as a moderator.

3.3.1 Advantages of the Discussion Method

Students maintain a high degree of mental alertness to develop clear thinking.

Interest is maintained and a feeling of confidence; as students learn to express themselves freely.

Students learn through discussion method owing to active participation and involvement in the
lesson.

Discussion method provides good practice for problem-solving.

It provides the teacher with information about the students which can aid in a better
understanding of the students.

Teaching by discussion leads to positive attitudinal change because a student may find his or her
own values and beliefs challenged by the views of fellow students.

3.3.2 Disadvantages of the Discussion Method

A lot of time would be wasted before the students arrive at satisfactory answers.

Discussion method cannot be used so often as it does not allow for easy coverage of the syllabus.
In most cases, most students do not participate in the lesson because they do not know or know
little about the topic of the lesson. They may even be shy or fearful.

Students who have no background of the topic being discussed may become bored or
disinterested in the lesson.

Since the attention span of the students (young ones) is very short, they cannot maintain high
level of attention.

Some Guidelines to the Discussion Method

The topic to be discussed and the teacher’s questions should meet the level of the students.

The topics for discussion should be within students’ background.

The teacher (you) should not allow some students to dominate the topic under discussion.

You should treat all remarks as being serious and reject the irrelevant comments that do not fit
into the discussion. You should, however, do this gracefully.

You should avoid vague questions.

You should summarize frequently in order to guide your students towards understanding the
main concepts and principles of the topics under discussion.

At the end of the lesson ensure that anyone who leads the discussion has the ability to break
down the whole topic into smaller units.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain discussion method of teaching.

List the advantages and disadvantages of discussion method of teaching.

Outline the guidelines of discussion method of teaching properly or expertly, since the teacher is
supposedly more competent than most students.

3.4 The Demonstration Method

In demonstration method, you the teacher will do a display or exhibition while the students
watch. It typically involves showing students the correct use of science apparatus, illustrating a
technique (for example, using chloroform to anaesthetize toads or guinea pigs) performing an
“experiment” which is either dangerous, risky, difficult or expensive for individual students use.

Demonstration method can be used in the drilling of shorthand outlines, manipulation of various
office equipment could be demonstrated by the teacher during office practice lesson. Sometimes
demonstrations can be performed by students either individually or in groups. Also in trades like
sewing, weaving, barbing, pot making and the like demonstration method is best adopted using
the teaching learning processes.

3.4.1 Advantages of the Demonstration Method

It is an inexpensive method since only the demonstrator needs materials.

It shows how something is accomplished properly or expertly, since the teacher is supposedly
more competent than most students.

Demonstration method is especially beneficial in the areas of skills and attitudes.

The proficiency displayed reduces the length of trial and error time.

It can reduce hazards e.g. breakage and accidents before students embark on individual or group
work with materials involved.

A good demonstration method holds the learners attention thus facilitating learning by giving
students the opportunity to see and hear what is actually happening.

3.4.2 Disadvantages of the Demonstration Method

The assumption made that all the students see and hear equally well does not necessarily follow.
Visibility of details of what is being demonstrated is not assured in large classrooms or in
circumstances where extremely small objects are used. Where the demonstration is restricted to
the teacher alone, students will be denied the opportunity to acquire manipulative skills in
handling of the materials and apparatus

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain demonstration method of teaching.

State the advantages and disadvantages of demonstration method of teaching.

3.5 Discovery Method

Discovery method is a teaching strategy which enables students to find the answers themselves.
It is a learner centred approach hence it is called a heuristic method. It is of two types, notably,
the guided discovery and the unguided discovery. In the guided discovery, the teacher (you)
guides the students to discover for themselves solutions to given problems by providing them
with general principles, but not the solution to the scientific problem. The unguided discovery
type involves the students discovering for themselves both the general principles and solution to
a scientific problem. It is sometimes called the pure discovery.

3.5.1 Advantages of the Discovery Method

Discovery method, whether it is the directed type or undirected, makes the student an active
participant rather than a mere passive recipient.

Since the method poses a challenge for the student to discover the information or knowledge for
himself, retention of any information or knowledge so discovered will be increased.

The training acquired in finding out things for oneself independently can be applied to new
learning and problem solving.

Discovery method brings home to pupils their notions of the nature of scientific evidence,
students learnt that answers to questions can often be obtained from investigations they can carry
out for themselves.

Discovery method helps students develop manipulative skills and attitudes which constitute one
of the fundamental objectives of science teaching.

Since discovery operates at the highest levels of the cognitive domain, it encourages analytical
and synthetic thought as well as intuitive thinking.

3.5.2 Disadvantages of the Discovery Method

Discovery method is time consuming and progress is comparatively slow. Apparatus have to be
set up and result(s) of the investigation awaited.

The method leaves open the possibility of not discovering anything. Students may end up
discovering things other than what was intended to be discovered. This could be highly
demoralizing to them particularly if great effort has been expended.

The method is expensive considering the equipment and materials needed.

Discovery method is only good for a small class where effective teacher supervision is possible.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define discovery method of teaching.

List the advantages and disadvantages of discovery method of teaching.

3.6 The Project Method

The Project Method of teaching centers on an assignment of interest undertaken by an individual

student or a group or a whole class. In this method, the students are guided when necessary.

3.6.1 Advantages of the Project Method

Since emphasis is on doing by the student, opportunity is provided to develop his initiative as
well as greater understanding of how to learn.
Motivation to work is high since it is based on the natural interests of students. It thus offers
opportunity for creative ability particularly for specialy talented students.

It gives students specific areas to work on sometimes with acquisition of some new skills and
attitudes.

Group project afford opportunity for developing leadership and organizing abilities.

3.6.2 Disadvantages of the Project Method

Projects are very time-consuming and what is ultimately learned may not justify the expense,
efforts and time put in to complete the project.

Students often get sidetracked particularly if they lack good grasp of facts necessary in carrying
out the projects.

It may be difficult to determine the extent to which the individual has participated.

It is difficult to choose a project that will interest all the students in the class at one time.

It favours the independent students, those without independent study skills may suffer.

Some students may not participate in the project work at all.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

State the definition of project method of teaching.

Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of project method of teaching.

4.0 CONCLUSION

From the foregoing you would have noted that every teaching method has its advantages and
disadvantages. You should also note that each of these methods has a part to play in the
promotion of effective transmission of knowledge by teachers and assimilation of the same by
students. You the teacher must take time to reflect on your own time in the Secondary School
and which method left any meaningful impact on your life. You should spend time helping the
students to feel the impact of teaching and learning and not just merely go through the motions
of “teaching”, completing the syllabus or doing your duty.

UNIT 3 GENERAL TEACHING METHOD II

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is a continuation of unit 5 which centers on five teaching methods. A teacher is trained
in the art of teaching because of the child. The principles and methods of teaching should be
guided by the experience of the child, the environment and by innovative approach to learning.
In this unit you will be exposed to additional five methods of teaching such as field trip,
individualized instruction, laboratory, inductive and deductive and open education. The
advantages and disadvantages of each method will be highlighted too.

3.2.1 The Field Trip

This method involves taking learners on an excursion outside the classroom for the purpose of
making relevant observation for the purpose of obtaining Technological and Vocational
Information. Field trip as a method can be used in teaching Business Studies, Sciences and some
art subjects like Kinyarwanda, History, etc.

3.2.2 The Advantages of the Field Trip

It allows the students to engage fully in the activities of the study.

It sharpens the students’ observational abilities.

It helps to add reality to and verify how the area of coverage operates in practice.

Field trip is useful in developing all senses of the students.

It provides opportunity for students to identify ways of spending leisure time profitably.

Things that cannot be brought to the classroom can be observed and studied e. g. ecological
succession, oceans, etc.

Through direct contact with different occupations provided by field trips students learn and
develop an appreciation of the “world” of work outside of the school in relation to school work.

Experience gained during a field trip can motivate students to read about what they have
observed, so as to harmonize actual field experiences with information gathered from textbooks.

3.2.3 Disadvantages of the Field Trip

Arranging a good field trip necessitates careful planning. Not only does it consume a
considerable amount of time, but transportation arrangements are often difficult and may be
expensive.

Class supervision may prove difficult since students tend to move round.

If not properly planned and organized, the field trip becomes a waste of time and resources and
takes away from valuable learning activities.

Even after the most thoughtful preparation and planning, accidents can and do occur in field
trips.

A field trip may create conflicts with other classes.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Define field trip method of teaching.

Outline the advantages and disadvantages of field trip method of teaching.

3.3 The Individual Instructional Method

This method is a programmed instruction in which the learning programmes are presented in
carefully structured steps and the steps depend on the individual student and the nature of
materials to be learned. For example the pace of learning depends on individual students.

3.3.1 Advantages of the Individualized Instructional Method

It allows the student to go at his own pace.

It makes the student to participate.

It gives the teacher quick knowledge of individual student i.e. whether the lesson is understood
or not, since test is usually given at the end of every lesson.

It can be used effectively to make up for lack of background by particular member of the class.

It reduces a student’s anxiety as he depends on himself.

3.3.2 Disadvantages of the Individualized Instructional Method

It is time consuming.

It is highly demanding of equipment and materials.

It requires very little or no interaction among the students.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

3.4 The Laboratory Method

This is an activity method designed to be carried out by an individual student or a group of

students for the purpose of making personal observations from experiments in which students
can get conclusions by themselves.

3.4.1 Advantages of the Laboratory Method

Learning through this method extends and reinforces theoretical learning through reality.

Laboratory method offers students the opportunity to develop scientific attitudes such as
objectivity, critical thinking, carefulness, open mindedness etc.
Because the method implies learning by doing students tend to be more interested because of
active involvement.

Students become familiar with how scientific knowledge is acquired by performing experiments,
recording observations and results, summarizing data and drawing conclusions.

Through laboratory method, the student learns how to handle apparatus and other instruments,
thereby developing manipulative skills.

Laboratory method promotes problem solving and self-reliance.

Getting involved in laboratory activities can also enable students to learn much about the inter-
relationship between science and technology.

3.4.2 Disadvantages of the Laboratory method

It can be expensive if separate equipment and materials have to be provided.

It is time-consuming because of the careful planning and preparation required.

Acquisition of skills which results from exposure to the laboratory method, is of questionable
value as objectives for some of the students who will have little use of them later.

It is an inefficient practice of teaching where ordinary telling method or simple demonstration is

perfectly adequate.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Define laboratory method of teaching. Where it is normally applied?

Enumerate the advantages and the disadvantages of laboratory method of teaching.

3.5 Inductive and the Deductive Methods

3.5.1 The Inductive Method

The inductive method of teaching begins with particular examples and from the examination of
the examples, definition are established. The teacher tries to draw out from the student the
already acquired knowledge. This is done through questioning. Also the teacher tries to relate the
knowledge gained is one subject area to another through description of similarities.

3.5.3 Characteristics of the Inductive Method

It proceeds from the known to the unknown.

It proceeds from the particular to the general.

It proceeds from the concrete to the abstract.

It is an analytic method or process.

It is a method of discovery.

3.5.3 The Deductive Method

In deductive method a statement or a rule or formula is given. From this rule or formula, the
teacher begins to work back to a particular case. For example a formula in mathematics; That is
the whole is given and the students are made to see the parts that build it up.

3.5.4 Characteristics of the Deductive Method

It starts from the general rule and proceeds to the particular.

It is a dogmatic assertion like Christian creed.

It is a method of instruction whereby the general rule is at first vague to the pupils, but it
becomes clearer after the teacher has skillfully and fully expressed it.

It proceeds from indefinite to definite.

3.6.7 Comparison between the Inductive and Deductive Methods.

INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE
i. It proceeds from the particular It proceeds from
to a general Laws or
general law or definition definitions to particular
cases
ii. It leads the students to a new knowledge It does not necessarily
lead to new knowledge
Iii It is a method of discovery It is a method of
Explanation and
Verification
iv. It is a Method of mental training It is The method of
telling or instructing
or
education
v. It is slow and sure because It is quicker but no
the always reliable, the
knowledge has to be obtained leaner utilizes the
form Knowledge which
 direct examination of particular others have obtained
cases before him, but he may

but it is thoroughly grasped not be able to apply it

to new cases
Vi It fosters self-reliance on the pupils and It does not foster self-

thus enables them to use what they have reliance

learnt previously to establish new facts

Vii It is a safe method It is not a safe method

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

It does not foster self-reliance

It is not a safe method

List ten (10) characteristic of inductive and deductive methods of teaching.

3.6 Open Education

Open Education is that system of education which attempts to make education accessible to all in
a flexible mode such that learner learn at their own pace and in a place convenient for them use
specially prepared self-learning materials may also make use of electronic media like radio,
television, audio-visual materials, telephones, computers, etc.

This educational system opens door of educational opportunity to all and sundry, regardless of
age, sec, race, distance etc; in particular. The target groups and learners in an open educational
system. Choices available to an Open system learner include:

Choice of where to learn – whether at home, in the library, place of work or some other place
without restriction of the formal school system.

The choice of when to learn – as there is no imposed time for learners or time frame for
completion as obtained in the formal school system.

3.6.1 Advantages of Open Education

 Less time is wasted. The time and the expenses of traveling to and from classroom or
training centers are eliminated.

 Open education ensures that the learners avoid unnecessary information.

  Since it is an individualized instruction, it affords learners the opportunity to learn at their
own pace.

 It leads to reduction in cost of accommodation.

 Trainers and lecturers have much more time to devote to other things.

 It makes education available to more people who would never have pursued formal
education.

Through open education, time off from job or duty may be [Link] pressure is exerted on
school facilities. ( classrooms, hostels, toilets etc). It ensures that there is no forum for student
riot as learners are not together.

3.6.2 Disadvantages of Open Education

Students miss out on the help they could have had from fellow students in a group study.

It is difficult to evaluate learners as compared with the conventional school system.

Where means of communication are not well developed, provision of two-way communication
between learners and the open institution may be difficult.

4.0 CONCLUSION

There is no end to the various ways by which human beings learn. More methods of teaching are
yet to be unfolded. Teacher-dominated and students dominated approaches to teaching are two
ends of the spectrum from which a balance must be struck in order to be able to evaluate
teaching and learning processes. Efforts should be made to choose adequate and appropriate
methods in line with the curriculum objectives.

QUESTIONS AND QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES

1.0 INTRODUCTION

As teachers, we use many different strategies to help students learn. One of the most common
strategies is teacher exposition. This is a teacher – centred approach because knowledge is
presented to students in a more or less final form. Often these lessons (or parts of lessons) are
supported by chalkboard summaries diagrams and the textbook. In exposition lessons, the task of
students is to understand and remember the information. Enquiry learning is a more student –
centred approach. Enquiry learning involves students in the active and careful analysis of a
situation or problem – in the light of different sorts of information available to them. In enquiry
learning, students use their own thinking skills to make their own generalization or conclusions –
and thus are actively involved in generating “knowledge” in forms that are meaningful to them.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Questioning Techniques

The way you use questions with your students can have a big effect on lesson. Here are some tips
to help you get the most out of your questions.

1. The first questions you ask are very important. Get students attention and arouse interest from
the start of the lesson.

- Start with a question on the board to focus them, arouse curiosity or give them a puzzle to
solve.

For example: what is a couch potato?

(a) A type of vegetable?

(b) A piece of furniture?

(c) A type of person?

Note: A couch potato is someone who watches Television or video for long hours.

Prepare the question you need to ask to elicit the vocabulary or language in which to practice.
Working it through in your mind before-hand helps you teach more effectively – plan
thoroughly.

Do your questions get the answers you need? Check them again before the lesson

2. Give Students time to answer

3. In our keenness to get on with eliciting information or checking comprehension we do not

always allow students enough time to reply. Remember that the answer is on the tip of your
tongue but not on theirs. First they must process your question. Studies show that giving students
“thinking-time has the following result:”

---Students were more willing to volunteer answers.

“I don’t know” responses decreased.

Students accuracy improved and the length of their replies too.

The teacher became more effective questioners.

Don’t be afraid of silence-wait at least 3 seconds for them to think and formulate a response

4. Allow students to help each other

---If a student cannot answer your question do not wait in silence and humiliate them.

Rephrase your question or ask them a further question to lead them towards the information you
need.

Encourage others to suggest answer.

Allow answers to be whispered to help – make this rule clear at the start of the activity.

Do not settle for one correct response. Get suggestions from students involving the whole class.

5. Tailor the question to your aims

6. Select the questions carefully and use them wisely.----If you would like students to discuss a
topic or an issue it is best to use open-ended questions. Like what? How? Direct questions like.
Do you like going to the market? This will not generate much language. It is only a Yes or No
response.

“Be wary of asking too many questions in a discussion.

“What made you think that?”

“What is the opposite of this question?

“You are correct. The answer to this question is false. What would be needed to make it right??”

--Rephrase questions. Try repeating your question in a slightly different manner

--Reword your original question into smaller parts.

Change the infection in your voice when repeating the original question

3.2 The Next Key is to ACTUALLY LISTEN to Your Tutees Response

This sounds easy, but it is harder than you may think. Listening is an acquired skill. In normal
conversation, we don’t really listen to others.

We hear what they say but don’t listen carefully enough to “read between the lines” in order to
be an effective tutor, you have to slow down and concentrate on what your tutee is saying. Is
he/she grasping the concept? Can he/she explain it easily or does it take some effort? Is his/her
body language saying anything? In order to get the answers to these and other questions you
must listen carefully and observe purposefully.

The question can be passed over to others. Encourage as many contributions as possible “what
do you think …? Francine. Do you agree with Fortunee? Hesitate before answering your own
questions or you will dominate and risk inhibiting student talk.
3.3 Questions and Listening

It is just as important (if not more important) for the tutor to guide the tutee in doing most of the
explaining. This will reinforce learning of the tutee and help the tutee identify problem area.

(a)-Ask Open-ended questions

By passing questions that require more than a Yes/No response you encourage the tutee to start
thinking.

 “Where do you think we should start?”

 “What are the steps involved in working this problem?”

 “What is the definition”?

(b) Ask probing questions

--Probing questions follow up on a student’s contribution

“What will happen if what you said is true”

3.4 Tutee Summaries

Along with listening it is very important to spur your students into giving a summary of what has
been covered. If steps are involved in finding the solution, make sure that all the steps are
included (in the right order) by your Tutee or student when summarizing. Try to encourage more
than a parroting of the steps. Sometimes, having the tutee say the steps in his/her words will
decrease the tendency to parrot response. If concepts are involved have the tutee paraphrase the
ideas in his/her own words.

The simple summary will help you determine if you will move on to another topic or need to stay
with the present one. If the summary is difficult for students, stay where you are until he/she can
repeat with ease. Use the questioning techniques to guide the tutee to the correct answer if he/she
has gotten some of the steps out of order.

3.5 Other Types of Questions

1. The Brain storm questions

2. The focal question

4.0 CONCLUSION

How a teacher makes use of questions in the classroom makes a lot of difference in the result he
gets. With the aid of questions the teacher can stimulate the students to work harder. The
students also develop confidence in themselves if this aspect of teaching is handled well by the
teacher.

UNIT 2 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS IN THE CLASSROOM

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit you will learn how to use the question and answer method in the classroom. It is
natural for people to be curious. It is natural for people to ask questions because such may be
designed to provoke thought. It may be used as aid to review. Questioning may be used to test
weaknesses and the subsequent application of remedial measures. It can also be used to mention
strength.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Question and Answer

The question and answer method is sometimes referred to as the Socratic Method because that is
where it takes its root. Socrates the Greek philosopher was involved in the sue of questions to
probe his students’ competence and capability to be involved in intellectual discourse.
However, note that Socrates was dealing with mature students (men), who by today’s
educational system are postgraduates. With this at the back of our minds knowing that we are
dealing with teenagers and adolescents we shall refer to this method as the question and answer
method.

Question and answer method is one of the most common methods used by secondary school
teachers. The pattern typically begins with the teacher asking a question and then recognizing
one student who answers. Next the teacher reacts verbally in some way, to the students’ response
and asks a question of another student who then responds. (see Farell and Farmer, 1980).

As in the case with the lecture method, the teacher may write something on the chalkboard and
sometimes the students takes notes. Thus, the working definition for Question and Answer
method is “the teacher asks a question one student answers; the teachers reacts and asks another
question which is responded to by a second student and so forth. Many teachers believe question
and answer method is a method that enables the teacher to find out who knows what. Only one
student responds at a time, a sample of only one student out of several students.

Question and answer method is extremely valuable as a way to guide development thinking to
stimulate creative problem solving, to initiate discussion and to stimulate and guide recall of
requisites needed for the day’s lesson. The type of question posed, the preamble to the question
posed and the variety of ways used to encourage and accept responses are all skills that make the
difference between thoughtful and dull sequences.

3.2 Aims of Questions

1. Questions find out the past that needs further treatment and practice.

2. Questions enable the teacher to read his pupils minds, and make the pupil to express what they
have understood in the lesson.

3. Questions make pupils think and find out things which they otherwise might not bother about.

4. Teachers use questions as a means of making contact with their pupils.

5. Questions develop understanding of the pupils and encourage them to reason out matters for
themselves.

6. By means of questioning a teacher is able to test the knowledge of a child so that gaps may be
filled in and misconceptions righted.

7. Questions help pupils to build up their ideas in the way the teacher wants.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the relevance of questions and answers in the classroom?

What are the aims of questioning?

3.2.1 Kinds of Questions

1. Presentation or Teaching Questions – These are questions used when the lesson is in its prime
stage, i.e. when the teacher is actually demonstrating or explaining the processes and he aims to
impart the knowledge to his pupils. They serve to make alert both the teacher and the pupils to
the subject matter.

2. Pause Questions – Are used because they provide a useful break in the lessons to assure a
teacher that pupils are attentively following the lessons.

3. Guide Questions – These are asked to direct the children’s special attention to some important
points in the lessons. Such questions help to secure careful observation, skillful correlation and
accuracy.

4. Summary Questions – These are asked to help to review what has been taught. Through the
answers given to these questions by the children the teacher assesses his own failure and success.
The teacher should frame the questions in such a way that logical answers should be raised in the
children.

5. Drill Questions – These should be asked at the beginning or at the end of the lesson and should
not take too long a time, say five minutes. Such questions serve to encourage the children to be
alert e.g. mental sums in Arithmetic.
3.3 The Principles Which a Teacher Should Observe When Asking Oral Questions

 Questions must be clear and definite in meaning and wording.

 Questions should always deal with essentials. They should be so put as to help the whole
class when at work.

 Questions should stimulate real thought, questions suggesting the answers should be
avoided e.g. did Abraham show much faith when he offered his son? Yes)

 Questions should be asked before a pupil is called upon to answer. Such a procedure
keeps all pupils active, thus assisting in the diagnosis of difficulties – discovery of
weaknesses.

 Questions should be distinctly given and must be audible to the class, but not shouted.

 Questions should be carefully prepared before-hand and they should be put in a logical
order.

 Never repeat your questions. If you do, your pupils will get into the habit of waiting to
hear you the second time. Ask once only so that they may listen all the time. Questions
should not be repeated because a pupil fails to understand it because of inattention, the
question may be repeated.

 Avoid leading questions – leading questions result sometimes from poor ability to think
and to phrase questions. In Social Studies, such questions are blunders e.g. Pericles was
banished from Athens, was he not?

 Avoid questions that will admit different answers e.g. what do you see in the compound?
A child may see trees, another; a sheep, and all will be right. A question that admits many
answers is vague e.g. what is the most important thing you notice about the object?

 Questions which will involve simultaneous or chorus answers should be avoided; they
may be used occasionally to drill in certain facts and to brighten up a class.

 Questions in a class should be carried on in a sociable spirit, the teacher is to look at his
class and talk to them as friend to friend.

 The objects of the questions should be clear and definite. If the objective is not clear, then
the question is vague, general and unfair to the pupils. It indicates laziness, inexact
thinking or no preparation by the teacher.

 Do not ask corroborative questions – those ending in “isn’t it”, “Aren’t they ” such are
really of little value. Avoid questions which will need “yes” or “No”, they encourage
guessing.
  Do not use elliptical questions such as “Kigali is the capital of ………….. ? That leads to
little mental effort.

3.4 Characteristics of Good Questions

It is commonly heard especially among junior teachers such questions as “Didn’t you hear what I
said? ” The teacher being angry unnecessarily; repeats his questions. The children are threatened;
the questioner is annoyed, there is a muddle and no good answer comes from the pupils.

Who is at fault? It is the teacher’s fault in most cases. The question may not be clear, inaudible
or it may be bad repetition. To avoid these mistakes therefore the following should be noted:

1. Clearness – Children should understand questions if correct answers are expected from them.
The words with which the questions are framed should be familiar to the children, and they
should be stated clearly. Good questions are the outcome of good thinking and precise
expression. Precise expression could only be successfully attained if it is cultivated in speech
generally. Hence, the importance of speech training in the infant and lower classes.

2. Definiteness – The question should limited the field for generalization. As a rule the
question requiring “YES” or “NO” should as far as possible avoided, so also is the elliptical
form of question such do encourage children to guess work.

3. Interest – Questions should be interesting. They should provoke enthusiasm and thirst for
knowledge.

4. Fair Distribution – Questions should be fairly distributed. The teacher should see to it that
his questions give encouragement to those of his pupils who are modest or shy or those who are
too lazy to think. Questions may be graded according to the capacity of the different members of
the class.

Questions should be asked in rotation. Every child should feel he could be called upon at any
moment and that is why questions should be abruptly directed to the inattentive and the careless.

Sufficient time must be allowed for a thoughtful answer but this does not mean that the teacher
should allow time to be wasted by the dull members of the class.

3.5 Students’ Questions

It is the characteristic of a good teacher to allow his pupils to ask questions. Their questions need
not be asked privately on only the subjects taught in the school all the time, but also on general
matters which help to develop the intelligence of the children. Usually the distribution of
questions should be as wide as possible. When a teacher is dealing with the whole class, pausing
to give time for consideration is desirable before asking a specific pupil to answer. This permits
consideration of the question by the whole class. When a pupil’s name precedes the questions,
the challenge to the remaining members of the class is diminished (Question, pause and name).
3.6 Answers

The treatment of answers is as important as the treatment of questions. The relevance of the
answers depends much on the nature of the questions. The qualities of good questions are the
teacher’s sole concern but those of answering depend both upon the teacher’s and the pupils.
Good answers are indication of successful teaching and ability to put questions to their pupils in
a suitable manner. They also show keen interest and attention on the part of the pupils. They are
really tests of intelligence on the part of the teacher as well as his pupils. An incorrect answer
may reveal ignorance in which case it should be rejected outright. But should incorrectness be
due to grammatical mistakes and carelessness, the particular pupils should be led to correct
himself and should he fail to do so, other members of the class should be asked to help. The
teacher’s own correct answer should be the last resort. The pupils who make the wrong answer
should be made to repeat the correct sentences or statement.

3.6.1 Superfluous Answers

Let the child repeat the question and discover for himself the superfluity of the answer. Though
the teacher should not be satisfied but with best answer, yet he should give credit to honest
efforts to answer his question. All good answers should receive some words of commendation
from the teacher. All inattentive and thoughtless answers should be fairly refused without any
signs of ridicule because children are very sensitive to ridicule and sarcastic expressions. Such
expressions may dampen the child’s enthusiasm to answer further questions and make him shy to
do his best. It is wise to insist on asking every answer a complete sentence, although there are
some certain questions whose nature simply requires answers in YES or NO forms. Where the
teacher wishes the questions in a complete sentence and the child deviates, let the teacher ask the
child to put the answer in a complete sentence.

Characteristics of a Good Answer

1. It should be absolutely relevant to the question

2. It should be expressed very clearly in few words

3. It should be grammatically correct

4. It should be a good answer

5. It should not be superfluous

6. It should show a sense of intelligence.

3.8 The Treatment of Answers

The teacher does not only require skills in questioning, he must also be adept in dealing with
answers. Some teachers do not emphasize important features of a lesson topic by failing to make
use of answers given. The pattern of question answering should follow the lines of friendly
conversation. Some teachers demand rigid military standing position when answering questions.
If a child cannot answer correctly, he remains standing until a correct answer is given by a fellow
pupil. Other teachers feel that questions can be answered just as well as when the pupils are
sitting.

In a well-managed classroom the following suggestions have merits and are worthy of trial.

1. With few exceptions pupils should stand when giving answers. An erect, relaxed poison is
most desirable. If a pupil does not know that answer to a question, he should stand, courteously
indicating that he does not know and then resumes his seat.

2. Many, but not all answers should be given in a complete form. This is the teacher’s
opportunity to stress good enunciation and correct oral expression of junior pupils to express
their answers in sentence form.

3. Simultaneous answering should be discouraged. It tends to encourage slow or indifferent

pupils to hide their inadequacies and to discourage initiative.

4. It is not always wise for a teacher to accept immediately the first answer given. It is frequently
a good practice to ask a number of pupils for answers before indicating the correct response. This
encourages the habit of evaluating answers.

5. To repeat answers is a waste of time and energy. It encourages pupils in faulty habits, speech
and inaudible replies. If repetition for the sake of emphasis is desired, a pupils should be
requested to give the answer.

6. The teacher should always acknowledge an answer but avoid the use of stereotyped phrases
indicating approval of correct answers. Give credit for effort where effort is genuine. One would
not commend a pupil in Grade VI for trying to answer the question “what are 5 and 3?”

7. A pupil should be permitted to complete his answers without interception except he is

extremely verbose (too many words) and out of point.

8. If the answer to a question is not forthcoming, the teacher, after a brief pause, may either
rephrase or explain the point with which it deals.

9. Wrong answer – Wrong answers may be dealt with in one or two ways: If the purpose of the
question is the recall of factual materials the teacher should ask another pupil to answer. The first
pupil may then be required to repeat the information given in the correct answer.

- If the question asked calls for a judgment or decision, the teacher, when the incorrect answer is
given, may rephrase the question. By series of questions, the teacher may lead the pupils to give
the correct answer.
3.8.1 A Wrong Answer

Children who give wrong answers should never be left in any doubt that their answers are wrong.
Sometimes, it is possible without wasting time, to help a pupil to see where his answer is wrong.
The pupil who gives a wrong answer should be made to repeat the correct sentence or statement.

When a wrong answer is given, questions the child further about it, this will reveal where his
wrong notion lies and enables you to get to the root of his mistakes. It is good for the pupil who
gives the wrong answer to find out the mistake and correct it, provided that this does not waste
the time of the rest of the class.

3.8.2 A Partially Correct Answer

What does one do when a pupil gives an answer only partially correct? Partly correct answers
need not be refused, but its incompleteness should be pointed out and the rest of the answers
obtained if possible from the same pupil. Partly correct answers have frequency to be accepted,
but the necessary information can be supplied by others. In most cases, the pupils called first
should then be required to give the full answer.

If a child gives an answer that is partly correct, make use of the correct part and ignore the
wrong. Give him some encouragement and make him feel he can give good answers to your
questions. An answer which is only partly right may be used as a starting point and a correct and
complete answer gradually builds up from it by further questioning.

3.8.3 No Answer

What does one do when a pupil gives a wrong answer to a question. The teacher should let the
child repeat the question and discover for himself the mistakes in the answer; although the
teacher should not be satisfied but with the best answer yet, he should give credit to honest
efforts to answer his questions. If a pupil fails to produce an answer or the desired answer, the
teacher should go back a few steps to find out where the difficulty lies. He may find out that an
explanation of some part is necessary before the question can be answered.

When a teacher asks a question which no one in the class tries the answer he must understand at
once that he has chosen the wrong question or that he asked the question in a wrong way. The
teacher should think of some other ways of putting what he has in mind to the pupils. He should
prepare very well for the pupils, he should give sufficient time to think about the questions. The
wording of the questions should be direct, precise and expressed in clear language.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The use of questions in the classroom is an effective way of teaching. Like all teaching methods
the teachers should be familiar with the characteristics of good question and how to assess the
responses by the students what has been covered in this unit. The pitfalls to be avoided were also
highlighted.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

As a classroom teacher, you will be faced with numerous day to day decisions that you must
make concerning students. These decisions require that the teacher have knowledge of his
students’ aptitudes, achievements and personal development. Hence the teacher is usually faced
with some instructional decisions.

Due to the above the teacher needs to answer some questions through examinations and tests
(evaluation). Some of the questions are:

1. Is my teaching plan realistic for this particular group of students?

2. How should pupils be grouped for more effective learning?

3. What types of learning difficulties are pupils facing?

4. How should the pupils be graded?

5. How effective was my teaching.

3.1 Testing And Examination (Evaluation)

This is a process through which value judgment or decision is made from a variety of
observation and from the background of the evaluation. The process involves the outline,
obtaining and providing useful information which are to be employed in judgment decision
alternatives.

Evaluation goes beyond the task of testing or measurement. It involves quantitative descriptions
(measurement) and quantitative descriptions plus value judgment. Melurens and Leeman (1984)
considered evaluation as “the process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful intimation
alternatives. It refers to the agreement between performance and objectives.

3.2 Examination

It is generally agreed that examinations are not a true test of knowledge. There have been cases
where clever pupils have failed and the dull one passed. In the examination room a child may
become withdrawn and answer questions badly. Some develop fever in the examination room.
Others get very excited. All these make the child unsettled and his work in the examination is
thus affected.

3.2.1 The Functions of Examination

1. To find out what the child knows and the subject matter which he has learned imperfectly etc
in order to plan future work, or to allocate the child into a class or group.

2. It gives information about the individual children that might have escape observation in a
class.

3. To assess the efficiency of the teacher who taught him

4. To provide an incentive whereby the pupils and teachers are stimulated unto working

5. To make pupils work hard since he has something to think about

6. To enable the teacher to check upon the result of his work so that he can see where his
methods are bad and improve them. From what his pupils do he can know how best to direct
their learning.

3.2.2 Advantages of Examinations

1. It is helpful to the general work of the school.

2. Very frequently the preparation and recall required of the pupils who write the examination
will serve as an aid to retention

3. It provides pupils with practice in arranging arguments and facts in the most effective order

4. It gives the pupils ability to Marshall arguments logically and to arrange facts in their most
natural sequence, especially in the type of examination questions called the essay type. Such
questions have advantages and disadvantages.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What are the functions of Examination?

3.2.3 Disadvantages of Essay Questions

1. They waste the pupil’s time because not many of them could write essays.

2. Setting the paper is a skilled job. If the test is badly constructed it will not being out
originality, organizing ability to interpret information or apply principles but measures out only
rote knowledge and details. A well-constructed test can bring out these more desirable
characteristics.

3. A good deal of reading is required from its candidate.

4. Candidates tend to study or learn in details as they will have to reproduce details.
5. No account is taken of variety of expression. If literary style, variety of expression and hard
writing are to be examined, a separate paper should be set for this purpose.

6. The questions of such essay type examination are subjective.

7. These tests are somewhat artificial in their phrasing.

8. In two or three hours it is seldom possible to cover more than a small fraction of the total
information taught. This small sample also tends to reduce the reliability.

3.3 The Alternative Type of Examination

New type examination – questions are so set that only one word, phrase or sign gives the correct
answers. This is very good because the marking is objective and takes little time. The whole
syllabus can be covered by a paper containing say, 150 questions in one hour. The pupils spend
his time thinking and not writing. Questions are short and some examiners can score marks by
mere guesswork.

3.4 True-False Test

A number of statement, some true, some false are given with words “True or False against each.
The student underlines one of the two.

3.4.1 Guidelines for Setting a True or False Test

1. Provide the students with clear directions and an example of a correctly answered item.
Instruct him not to guess, if he has no idea of the correct answer. These instructions should
appear on the paper.

2. Do not use fewer than 120 items

3. Avoid double negatives

4. Avoid clues to the response e.g. the use of words such as “always”, “never”, “invariably”.

3.4.2 Advantages of True-False Test

1. A test of 100-150 items can be completed in less than an hour. Hence, there can be an
extensive sampling of the information taught.

2. The test is completely objective and can be quickly scored even by a person who knows
nothing of the subjects, provided that he has the key.

3.4.3 Disadvantages of the True-False Test

1. A considerable amount of time is required for the construction of the test.

2. Although the test may be used to measure ability in reasoning, in practice the items are usually
factual in nature. The use of the True-False test is not recommended.

3.5 Multiple Choice Questions

Example: In the following question, select the correct option by ticking the letter beside the
option you choose:

Which of the following best represents the meaning of Science of Psychology?

1. The brain

2. The mind

3. The soul

4. The intellect

5. Reasoning

Another well-known type of the multiple choice is the matching test type. A number of questions
and a number of responses are listed in different order, and the questions and responses have to
be filled together.

Example: The best conductor of electricity in the list is (1) glass, (2) wood, (3) silver (4)
aluminum, (5) Copper. The candidate writes the number of the correct response in the bracket.

3.5.1 Advantages of the Multiple Choice Test

(a) It is highly objective

(b) It can be quickly scored by anyone using a key

(c) It can be constructed so as to give extensive sampling

3.5.2 Disadvantages of Multiple Choice Test

1. The construction of the test requires much time

2. The test occupies much space

3. It is better adapted to the measurement of facts than to the measure of the ability to reason.

3.6 The Completion Test

A sample item:

The ___________________ is a powerful but low grade motivation for learning.

Directions for the construction of a completion test

1. Clear directions should be provided

2. If the test is the only examination used, it should contain a minimum of 100 items

3. The item should be constructed so that a word or a short brief phrase is necessary for each
completion

4. The use of “a” or “an” just before the blank should be avoided

5. Many blanks should not appear in each item. In a short item one or two are enough

6. The blanks should be of the same length

3.7 Hints on Objective Test

1. Build up a collection of items in your subject. Write them on filling cards, one on each card.

2. Do not mingle different types of objective items. Group similar items and divide your
examination into parts A, B, C.

3. Never give fraction marks for an item.

4. On an examination paper put the easiest items at the beginning and the hardest at the end.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The teaching – learning process needs to be regularly evaluated through tests and examinations
in order to motivate, determine the efficacy of instructional ability of the teacher and stimulate
all concerned to work harder.

UNIT 4

CONTENT

MARKING AND ASSIGNMENT

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Grading Practice

It is generally agreed that grades provide information on how well students are learning
(Erickson and Strommer; 1991). But grades also serve other purposes.

3.2 Functions of Grading

Scriven (1974) has identified at least six functions of grading.

1. To describe unambiguously the worth, merit, or value of the work accomplished.

2. To increase the capacity of students to identify good work, that is to improve their self-
evaluation or discrimination skills with respect to work submitted.

3. To stimulate and encourage good work by students

4. To communicate the teachers judgment of the student’s progress

5. To inform the teacher about what students have and haven’t learned.

6. To select people for rewards or continued education

For some students, grades are also a sign of approval or disapproval, they take them very
personally. Because of the importance of grades, teachers need to communicate to students a
clear rationale and policy on grading.

If you devise clear guidelines from which to assess performance, you will find the grading
process more efficient, and the essential functions – communicating the student’s level of
knowledge will be easier. Further, if you grade carefully and consistently, you can reduce the
number of students who complain and ask you to defend a grade. The suggestions below are
designed to help you develop clear and fair grading policies.

3.3 General Strategies

Grade on the basis of students mastery of knowledge and skills restrict your evaluations to
academic performance. Eliminate other considerations, such as class behaviour, effort,
classroom participation, personality traits or students interest in the course material as the basis
of course grade. If you count these non-academic factors, you obscure the primary meaning of
the grade, as an indicator of what students have learned. Avoid grading systems that put students
in completion with their classmates and limit the number of high grades. The normative systems,
such as grading on the curve, work against collaborative learning strategies that have been shown
to be effective in promoting student learning. Normative grading produces undesirable
consequences for many students such as reduced motivations to learn, debilitating evaluation
anxiety, decreased ability to use feedback to improve learning and poor social relationships. Try
not to over emphasize grades. Explain to your class the meaning of and basis for grades and the
procedures you use in grading. At the beginning of the term, inform students, in writing how
much tests, papers, home works and the final exam will count towards their final grade. Once
you have explained your policies avoid stressing Grades or excessive talk about grades, which
only increases students anxieties and decreases their motivation to do something for its own sake
rather than to obtain an external reward such as a grade (source: Allen and Rueter; 1990
Fuhrmann and Grasha 1983).
Keep students informed of their progress throughout the term. For each paper, assignment, mid
term or project that you grade, give students a sense of what their score means. Try to give a
point total rather than a letter grade. Letter grades tend to have emotional associations that point
total lack. Do show the range and distribution of point scores and indicate what level of
performance is satisfactory. Such information can motivate students to improve if they are doing
poorly or to maintain their performance if they are doing well. By keeping students informed
throughout the term, you also prevent unpleasant surprises at the end prevent unpleasant
surprises at the end. (Source: Lowman, 1984: Shea, 1990).

3.4 Minimizing Students’ Complaints about Grading of Assignment and Tests

1. Clearly state grading procedures in your course syllabus, and go over this information in class.
Students want to know how their grades will be determined, the weights of various tests and
assignments and the model of grading you will be using to calculate their grades: will the class
be graded on a curve or by absolute standards? If you intent to make allowance of extra credit,
late assignments, or revision of papers; clearly state your policies.

2. Set policies on late work. Will you refuse to accept any late work? Deduct points according to
how late the work is submitted? Handle late work on a case-by-case basis? Offer a grace period?

3. Avoid modifying your policies during the term. Midcourse changes may erode students’
confidence in your fairness, consistency, objectivity and organizational skills. If you must make
a change, give your students a complete explanation. (Source: Frisbie, Diamond, and Ory, 1979).

4. Provide enough opportunities for students to show you what they know. By giving students
many opportunities to show you what they know, you will have a more accurate picture of their
abilities and will avoid penalizing a student who has an off day at the time of a test. So in
addition to a final exam, give one or more midterms and one or two short papers. For less
attractive subject Strommer and Erickson recommend shorter tests or written assignments and
scheduling some form of evaluation every two or three weeks.

5. Consider allowing students to choose among alternative assignments. One instructor presents a
list of activities with assigned points for each that take into account the assignments’ educational
and motivational value, difficulty and probable amount of effort required. Students are told how
many points are needed for an A, a B or a C, and they choose a combination of assignments the
meets the grade they desire for that portion of the course.

6. Stress to students that grade reflect work on a specific task and are not judgments about
people. Remind students that a teacher grades only a piece of paper. You might also let students
know, if appropriate, that research shows that grades bear little or no relationship to measures of
adult accomplishment (Eble, 1988, P. 156).
7. Give encouragement to students who are performing poorly. If students are having difficulty,
do what you can to help them improve on the next assignment. If they do perform well, take this
into account when averaging the early low score with the later higher one (Source: Lowman,
1984).

8. Keep accurate reports of students’ grades. Your department may keep copies of final grade
reports, but it is important for you to keep a record of all grades assigned throughout the term, in
case a student wishes to contest a grade, finish an incomplete, or ask for a letter of
recommendation.

3.5 Making Effective use of Grading Tactics

1. Record results numerically rather than as letter grades, whenever possible. Tests, problem sets,
homework and so on are best recorded by their point value to assure greater accuracy when
calculating final grade (Source Jacobs and Chase, 1992).

2. Give students a chance to improve their grades by rewriting their papers. Many teachers
encourage rewriting but do not count the grades on rewritten papers as equivalent to those of
papers that have not been rewritten.

3. If many students do poorly on an assignment schedule another one on the same material a
week or so later. Devote one or more classes to reviewing the troublesome material. Provide I-
class exercise, homework problems or questions, practice quizzes, study group opportunities and
extra office hours before you administer the new exam. Though reviewing and retesting may
seem burdensome and time consuming, there is usually little point i n proceeding to new topics
when many of your students are still struggling. (Source: Erickson and Strommer, 1991).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What effective tactics would you adopt in the grading of Examination and assignments?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Grading or award of marks to assignment is more complex and intricate than it seems on the
surface. As teachers we need to use the grading of assignments in such a way that students will
not only know their areas of strengths and weaknesses but be spurred in to better work.

The Art of Classroom Management

Dealing with the Problems of Discipline in the Classroom

Methods of Study

THE ART OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit is designed to get you to understand of the major concepts of classroom management.
You will get to know what it means to manage and more specifically how this relates to your
professions which is teaching in a classroom setting. Essentially a manager in any organization is
responsible for goals accomplishment. Managers plan, organize, influence and control resources
in such a way as to ensure that the organization achieves its objectives.

There are many definitions of “management” in the literature but Certo (1985) has helped to
narrow down these numerous meanings into four namely:

1. As a process which managers follow to achieve goals.

2. As a body of knowledge, giving insight on how to manage.

3. As a term to describe individuals who guide and direct organizations.

4. As a term to designate a career devoted to the task of guiding and directing organizations.
Recently, the concept of management has been applied in school settings. The school exists as an
organization set up by society to serve certain ends, the principal one of which is to turn out
(produce) individuals, who would be able not only to read and write and calculate, but also to be
a useful citizen in the society (Cookey, 1969).

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Art of Classroom Management

As an effective classroom manager, you should be well prepared for lessons, anticipate
difficulties and react immediately before problem escalate and execute with “verbal deftness”. In
their report on Classroom management Wragg and Dooley (1984) highlighted five main areas:-

1. The establishment of good personal relationship with students.

2. Effective preparation of lessons

3. Organization of materials and students work during lessons

4. Specific pedagogic skills

5. Personal characteristics of the teacher

The teacher’s professional competencies which influence classroom management.

Under this topic you will get to know the following:

Knowledge of learner’s characteristics

The mastery of subject matter

Effective communication ability

Creating good rapports

Teacher’s personality

Effective management of instructional materials.

3.2 Knowledge of Learner’s Characteristics

Learner’s characteristics will include age, sex, attitude, socio-economic background, level of
influences, previous knowledge, interest and so on. The knowledge of the above will equip the
teachers to be able to understand student’s behaviours and performances. This will also make
him to assist the students more promptly and effectively and by so doing you will become friends
of the students and thus enjoy their cooperation and respect. The knowledge of children’s
psychological development, pretest, interviews and discussions with students helps the teacher to
know more of his students’ characteristics which will help him to determine the student’s interest
and ability more accurately.

3.1.1 The Mastery of the Subject Matter

An ill prepared teacher will not only embarrass himself but also lose self-respect. Students often
look unto the teacher as an authority in the subject matter he teaches. A good teacher should
prepare very well and know far more than he intends to cover. Students know when a teacher
does not know more of the subject and they often seize this opportunity to ridicule and embarrass
the teacher by asking questions and making counter-productive observations.

3.2.2 Effective Communication Ability

Successful teaching implies effective communication. Generally speaking good classroom

communication should include the following:

Explain ideas clearly

Pronouncing words distinctly and correctly

Writing legibly on the chalk board

Using instructional media correctly

The ability to express your thought and feelings accurately to the other person is very important
in human interpersonal communication process. As a teacher you should be learned in
communication skills to be able to teach successfully. The teacher is usually the source of the
message. He should therefore use simple but appropriate words for his message. He should also
select effective channel/medium of communication. In addition to these he should reduce or
eliminate communication barriers along the channel of communication. His writing should be
familiar to the students. In order to remove misinterpretation and ambiguities, instructional
media should be used to illustrate concepts.

3.2.3 Creating Good Rapport

The teacher should be able to create good rapport between the students and himself and among
the students themselves. In other words the teacher should create a friendly environment in the
classroom. When the teacher develops interest in the students they are likely to reciprocate by
loving and respecting the teacher“ Teachers can show friendliness by being consistently polite,
taking time to listen and avoiding situations that undermine student’s self concept” (Oyinloye G.
K. 1988).Being friendly with students, however is not to make one too intimate to the point of
developing an unhealthy relationship. Other important ways to build rapport with students is to
regard them not as empty vessels to be filled with knowledge, but as individual in their own
right. They must be given permission not only to consult with the teacher in the classroom alone,
but also outside it, when students have such free access to the teacher, it helps to narrow down
the psychological distance which normally exists between the teacher and the students.

3.2.4 Qualities of a good teacher

“The way the teacher dresses, speaks and conducts himself in front of his class will go a long
way in helping him to control the class effectively” (Bello, 1981). A well-dressed teacher will
command more respect than a shabbily dressed teacher. A teacher should dress moderately well
and not to call attention unduly to himself. He should therefore not be sensational. The teacher’s
dresses should be neat, simple and well-tailored. The choice of colour is important, therefore his
clothes, shoes, caps should be selected to complement each other. In short, there should be no
colour riot. The manner in which the teacher carries himself (deportment) whether smartly or
sluggishly, and the way he conducts himself whether with dignity or debasement (comportment),
portrays him to the students as either agile and business like or lazy and carefree. Mannerisms
such as foaming in the mouth, using of meaningless words, scratching of the body repeatedly,
could put the teacher to ridicule and earn him nick names from the students.

The attitude of the teacher to his work and the type of leadership he adopts are important as that
can affect control. A teacher that is always punctual to class will by his or her example
discourage late coming and truancy by students. The teacher’s leadership style whether
democratic, authoritarian or laissez fair is also important. For example, a democratic class where
the students take part in decision making process will be more acceptable to them than an
authoritarian class; but care must be taken by the teacher so that students do not abuse this
privilege and erode the authority of the teacher.

3.2.5 Effective Management of Instructional Materials

Instructional Materials are no doubt very useful in facilitating learning. It may however
constitute a problem if not handled properly. In the first place, production of these materials
should not be solely a teacher’s affair; students should be involved in the production of some of
the locally produced ones. Their involvement in the production will enable them to see the work
as their own creation and thus help in their preservation and storage.

Instructional Materials needed for the day should be selected and stored in such a way that the
teachers can easily lay his hand on them when needed. Great care needs be exercised to avoid
disruption of lesson by running here and there for instructional materials. This could result in a
rowdy or noisy classroom.

The class monitor or any student designated to be in charge of instructional materials can be
called upon to help in their display. Students could also be engaged in the arrangements and
fixing of apparatus for performing experiments. If the equipment is electrically operated, for
example electronics, teachers should have learned and mastered its operation before using it in
the classroom or otherwise bring in a person who knows how to operate it. If he fumbles with the
equipment in the presence of the students, it could undermine his effective control of the class.

Instructional materials need to be stored in places provided for them when not in use. They
should not be left in places that will make them visible to students and thus distract their
attention from the new and subsequent lessons. Charts may be left hanging on wall for some
days but could be removed when they are no more relevant to the students’ needs.

A class librarian could be appointed to be in charge of the class textbooks. He should be made to
distribute the textbooks to students during the class. A situation where students struggle for
instructional materials should not be tolerated and should be discouraged.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

--Define the following:

Management

Classroom Management

Enumerate and briefly explain:

Teacher’s professional competence

The mastery of the subject matter

Effective communication ability

Creating good rapport

Teacher’s personality

Effective management of instructional material.

Highlight in specific terms the relevance of each of the above to classroom management.

3.3 Classroom Management

Classroom management involves many interrelated and interdependent activities in management.

Such activities can be grouped under the following – planning, organizing, leading,
coordinating, directing, supervising and reporting. Specifically, physical resources must be
properly and efficiently utilized. Students must be properly arranged and carried along in the
teaching-learning process, while the performance of the students and the teachers must be
evaluated on regular basis. Management activities in the classroom are under the following
activities.

3.3.1 Classroom Planning

This is a systematic process of preparing for a lesson. It involves preparing a set of decisions in
advance about the classroom encounter. It is a process of addressing issues related to “what to
teach”, “how to teach”, “when to teach”, “with what to teach” in the most effective and efficient
manners possible. Classroom planning is a short term type of planning and the paper work on
this is referred to as the daily lesson plan.

3.3.2 Organizing

Organizing the students as well as the physical and material resources available in the classroom
demands your managerial skills and knowledge as a teacher. This involves the teacher’s ability
to anticipate classroom needs and ability to deal effectively with them at the appropriate time
(Fawant 1980) A class ought to be organized so that little opportunity as possible is afforded for
disruptions, noises and disorderly behaviours (Awoniyi, 1979). This may involve grouping
students or allo0wing a free activity class.

Classroom organization also involves the selection of competent class leaders, thus, the teacher
should watch out for leadership qualities in the students and help develop such qualities by
assigning certain duties to such students, as class monitor, group prefect etc. Developing students
for leadership role is part of education. Instructional materials should be arranged within the
reach of the students. These materials should be properly cared for and maintained to be in good
condition for use at all times. Since these materials are meant to be organized for optimal
utilization, safeguarding them or keeping them out of students’ reach could result into under-
utilization or wastage.

3.3.3 Leading

Leading in the classroom is the process of influencing the behaviour of the students to perform in
a manner which will help the class achieve its goals efficiently and effectively. A teacher is seen
as a person who because of rich or unusual experience or education or both in a given field is
able to contribute to the growth of other persons who come in contact with him (Good 1973).
Teacher behaviour patterns have been found to be significant determinants of students’ academic
performance (Morrison and McIntyre 1973).

For effective classroom management the teacher as a leader should:

1. Be warm, understanding and friendly rather than being aloof, egocentric and restricted.

2. Be responsible, business like and systematic rather than being evading, unplanned and
slipshod

3. Be stimulating and creative and imaginative rather than being dull and routinely.

The teacher should therefore be concerned with the development of students’ trait of self-
reliance, independent thought and cooperative activities right from the classroom setting.

3.3.4 Coordinating

Coordinating the efforts and activities of students by the class teacher is a crucial aspect of
classroom management activities. Coordinating is the systematic process of integrating and
synchronizing the class efforts to achieve the desired goals. This is a group-process coordination,
which is much more emphasized in the classroom than self-process coordinating, in which any
student may relate his activities to those of others by either collaborating, cooperating or
observation.

For effective coordination, you (teacher) must be able to translate your plan into activities
involving the students. The teacher is expected to apply theories of behaviour and development
(learnt in psychology) and techniques of teaching learnt in methodology to actual classroom
situations.

3.3.5 Directing

The teacher is the director of knowledge, who motivates, influence and guides the student’s
actions in the classroom towards the attainment of the lesson objectives. These are various
teaching or instructional techniques for teacher’s use. These include lecture method, questioning
method, group teaching, individual instruction, project method, activity method, story-telling
technique, play way method and non-graded instruction. Details of these techniques are beyond
the scope of this course. However, you should be conversant with these techniques to know
when and how to use them effectively. Any technique chosen must be relevant, appropriate and
adequate for the lesson.

To be an effective classroom director, the teacher must know the subject matter and must use
clear, fluent and appropriate language to communicate. Furthermore, the teacher must ensure
two-way directional communication, that is, communication from the teacher to the students and
vice-versa, in a free and democratic atmosphere.
3.3.6 Classroom Controlling

This is the process of ensuring that the objectives of the subject are achieved possibly with
minimum effort. This involves using expert knowledge and experience to oversee, evaluate and
improve the conditions and methods of doing things connected with the teaching-learning
process. This is also known as supervising (Nwankwo 1981) Controlling in the classroom
management enables the teacher to maintain order (rules and regulation) in the class. The teacher
assumes the role of a pacesetter, an innovator, an evaluator, a guidance-counsellor and indeed a
model to the students. He should, however, be loyal to his ideals and ideas, while he should
respect the beliefs, right, worth and dignity of the students. He should be approachable. For
instance, a teacher who comes late to the class or who chews (gum, groundnut etc) in the
classroom might find it difficult to check these activities among his students.

3.3.7 Evaluating

This is judging class activities in relation to the stated objectives. Evaluation depends on clearly
stated objectives and efficient instruments for measuring extent to which change has taken
place towards objectivities (Farrant 1980).

Evaluating students may be summative (which is meant for certification or grading of students at
the end of a course) formative (which is meant for a feedback on student progress through a
unit), or diagnostic (which is meant for determining prerequisite skills for placement).

Students could be evaluated using objective or subjective (essay) tests, self-report technique or
observational technique. The teacher must ensure that whatever method is used must be valid
(that is, the evaluating procedure should measure what it is intended to measure) and be reliable
(that is, it must be trust worthy and must not be doubtful)

3.3.8 Reporting

The teacher needs to give constant progress report of the students in his class. This would serve
as a means of promptly intimating the appropriate authorities, for instance, the school, the
parents, the employers, the scholarship or bursary award institutions and even the students
themselves with performances and problems in the classrooms so that necessary actions could be
taken for improvement. Teacher acts as information manager. In order to do this, the teacher
keeps adequate records of the student’s performance. The report form classroom manager (the
teacher) serves as a means of feedback in classroom management activities.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List the management activities of a teacher and explain two of them into details.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit we have covered some ground in the very important and wide subject of class
management. It is obvious that the purpose of classroom management is to ensure that the
students learn in a comfortable and conducive environment. The students, the teacher and the
physical aspects of the classroom are all involved. The teacher must therefore familiarize himself
with the various elements in the classroom such as ventilation, lighting etc and ensure they are
appropriate.

UNIT 2

CONTENTS

DEALING WITH THE PROBLEM OF DISCIPLINE IN THE CLASSROOM

1.0 INTRODUCTION

To be successful in all our undertakings as human beings, we need to be disciplined. Specifically

within the educational sector discipline must be maintained in the classrooms in order to produce
useful and productive citizens who will bring about the much desired development in our
society.

Therefore, we will be learning about how to deal with the problem of discipline in this unit.

in many different ways in different contents. Entomologically (its origin) the word “discipline is
derived from the Latin “discere” which means “to learn”. There is thus a close connection
between “discere” and discipulus” (meaning disciples), that is “one who learns from a master”.
Discipline also means “training”, learning” or “living under the rule of compulsion”. (Souper,
1976). The word may therefore be regarded (in the context of Souper’s definition) as a willing
submission to an authority for the purpose of learning something worthwhile. As an extension of
this meaning, subject areas are regarded as disciplines because learners subject themselves to the
structural processes in the chosen field. It is therefore not uncommon to find that experts in
certain fields have their personalities moudled so that they think and act in ways which instantly
suggest their disciplines.

Frequently, many people (especially lay people) use the term to mean use of force to ensure that
commands are carried out. Hence, this meaning equates discipline with punishment. Akinboye et
al (1981) defined discipline as a “strategy of training the child in the art of self-management”. In
this case discipline can be regarded as a process involving external persons or agents.

3.2 Externally Imposed Discipline versus Self-discipline

There are two broad types of discipline. External discipline consists of the influence that comes
upon us from our parents, teachers and peer group. They require us to be obedient, to be punctual
and to attend to our lessons regularly. They can punish us and compel us to behave properly
when we misbehave. Internal discipline or self -discipline is the control we exercise over
ourselves. It comes from within. We exercise self-discipline when we control our temper and
when we can do right things without being told. By means of external discipline, the teacher
should encourage self-discipline in his students. Order is external while good discipline is always
self-control. In the classroom, discipline may be measured by the extent to which the pupils are
self-controlled and willingly apply themselves to task assignment by the teacher. According to
Burton (1963) five forms of disciplines can be considered. They include

1. Laissez-Faire or permissive

2. Authoritarian

3. Democratic

4. Behaviour Modification and

5. Socio-Emotional climate.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Which is better, externally imposed discipline or self-discipline? Explain.

3.2.1 Laissez-faire or Permissive

This type of discipline refers to absence of any degree of imposition or external standard or
control on individual conduct. The learner is left to develop on his own. A teacher who chooses
this type of discipline may lack confidence in himself. He or she cannot take decisions and may
be generally weak. This type of discipline should be avoided as much as possible. In a
permissive class, misbehaviour should not be tolerated any more than it would be in a traditional
class.

3.2.2. Authoritarian

This is the opposite of the permissive. The discipline of this nature is rigid, excessive, arbitrary
and autocratic. The teacher who employs this kind of discipline may not want criticism. He
wants unquestioning obedience to order. Where this method is adopted, the learner’s initiative is
killed. Learning under this situation is deficient because the necessary conducive atmosphere for
learning is being hampered. The learners may develop hatred for the school and this may lead to
truancy. It is suggested that this pattern of discipline is avoided.

3.2.3 Democratic

The democratic approach is one that employs explanation, discussion and reasoning to help the
students understand how to develop control over their behaviours so that they will do the right
thing at the right time without any threat or punishment. While they are expected to behave in
certain ways, the emphasis here is the educational aspect instead of punitive aspect of discipline.
Punishment can be used but reward is stressed more than punishment. The key to a democratic
approach is the regular and frank group discussions. Teachers utilizing this approach acting the
role of leaders, guide the class in group discussions that focus on problems of concern.

Three products of that process have been identified.

1. The teacher and the students have opportunity to express themselves in a way on the issues to
be heard

2. The teacher and the students have an opportunity to know and understand one another better
and

3. The teacher and the students are provided with an opportunity to help one another.

The essential by-product of such group discussion is the opportunity that teachers have to
influence those values of their students that may differ from those considered more productive.
The democratic strategy encourages students.

3.2.4 Behaviour Modification

Discipline is always concerned with regulating or changing behaviour. That is to say that the
change can be brought about through the use of external stimuli or it can result from the
individual’s own purposive behaviour. Behaviour modification depends on external stimuli to
effect the desired changes in behaviour. Thus it depends on the students to change their
behaviour in order to receive definite reward. This model does not require students to think
through their behaviour at a very high level, instead the students are conditioned to behave as the
teacher wishes them to behave. Of all the approaches, this approach to classroom discipline has
the strongest base in theory and research. Its basis comes from the work of B.F. Skinner which
views classroom discipline as the process of modifying student’s behaviour. The teacher’s role is
to foster desirable student behaviour and to eliminate undesirable behaviour. This is
accomplished primarily by consistently and systematically rewarding (reinforcing) appropriate
student behaviour and removing rewards or punishing inappropriate student behaviour.

For this reason, the teacher should master and apply the four basic principle of learning, that
behaviours have identified as influencing human behaviour. These are positive reinforcement,
punishment, extinction and negative reinforcement. The introduction of a reward is called
positive reinforcement and introduction of punishment is simply called punishment. The removal
of a reward is called either extinction or time out, depending upon the situation. The removal of
punishment is called negative reinforcement. Behaviourists assumes that the frequency of a
particular behaviour is contingent (depends) upon the nature of the consequence that follows a
behaviour, causes the reinforced behaviour to increase in frequency. Rewarded behaviour is thus
strengthened and is repeated again in future.
For example, Marceline prepares a neatly written paper, which she submits to the teacher
(student behaviour). The teacher praises Marceline’s work and comments that neatly written
papers are more easily read than those which are sloppy (positive reinforcement). In subsequent
papers, Marceline takes care to write neatly (the frequency of the reinforced behaviour is
increased)

Punishment is the introduction of an undesirable stimulus (punishment) after a behaviour and

causes the behaviour to decrease in frequency. Punished behaviour tends to be discontinued. For
instance, Eric prepares a rather sloppy written paper, which he submits to the teacher (student
behaviour). The teacher rebukes Eric for failing to be neat, informs him that sloppily written
papers are difficult to read, and tells him to rewrite and resubmit the paper (punishment). In
subsequent papers, Eric writes less sloppily (the frequency of the punished behaviour is
decreased).

Extinction is the withholding of an anticipated reward (the withholding of positive

reinforcement) in an instance where that behavior was previously rewarded. Extinction results in
the decreased frequency of the previously rewarded behaviour.

For example, Lenatha whose neat work has always been praised by the teacher, prepares a neatly
written paper, which she submits to the teacher (student behaviour previously reinforced by
teacher). The teacher accepts the paper without comment (withholding of positive
reinforcement). Lenatha becomes less neat in subsequent papers (the frequency of the previously
reinforced behaviour decreased).

Time out is the removal of the student from the reward. It reduces the frequency of
reinforcement and causes the behaviour to become less frequent. For example, the students in
Mr. Adegoke’s class have come to expect that he will give them an opportunity to play a number
game if their work is satisfactory. This is an activity they all enjoy. Mr. Adegoke notes that all
their papers were neatly done except Sukuru’s paper. He tells Sukuru that he will not be allowed
to participate in the class game and must, instead, sit apart from the other members (removal of
the student from the reward). Subsequently, Sukuru writes less sloppily (the frequency of the
behaviour decreases).

Negative reinforcement is the removal of an undesirable or obsessive stimulus (punishment) after

a behaviour, and it, causes the frequency of the behaviour to be increased. The removal of the
punishment serves to strengthen the behaviour and increases its tendency to be repeated. For
example, Diane is the student in the class who consistently presents the teacher with sloppy
papers. Despite the teacher’s constant nagging of Diane, his work becomes no neater. For no
apparent reason Diane submits a rather neat paper, Mr. Adegoke accepts it without comment and
without the usual nagging (the removal of punishment). Subsequently, Diane’s work becomes
neater (the frequency of the behaviour is increased).
1. The behaviour modification approach strengthens the idea that rewarded appropriate
behaviour and withholding the reward of inappropriate behaviours are very effective in achieving
classroom control.

2. Punishing inappropriate student behaviour may eliminate that behaviour, but it may have
serious negative side effects and;

3. Rewarding appropriate behaviour is a more effective technique.

3.2.5 Social-Emotional Climate

The roots of this approach stem from counselling and from clinical psychology which places
great importance on interpersonal relationships. Advocates of this model believe that effective
classroom control is largely a function of teacher-student relationships. The teacher’s task, then
is to build positive interpersonal relationships and a positive socio-emotional climate. Theorists
who could be classified as proponents of this approach include Carl Rogers who posits that
attributes such as realness, accepting and empathic understanding must be present if the teacher
is going to be able to facilitate learning and promote classroom discipline. Haim Ginott
emphasized the importance of effective communication in enhancing good teacher-student
relationship. William “Glass also opined that good teachers must help students develop a sense
of identity, worthiness and success (see Ryan and Coopper 1984)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List the different models of discipline and enumerate some of their pros and cons.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Discipline is necessary for any form of training or learning to take place. Education is about
teaching and training citizens to become productive well behaved members of a society. In order
for this to be achieved teachers must get to know the latest and most efficient and effective ways
to maintain discipline in the classroom. The teacher should combine different approaches for
teaching to be effective.

UNIT 3 METHODS OF STUDY

This unit is designed to expose you to the significance of studying, cultivating good study habits
with emphasis on the appropriate use of textbooks, the art of note making, organization of work;
time management and time-table. The significance of revision and review of work will also be
explored. You will also gain insight into the relevance of the study environment. By the end of
this unit, you would have had an overall view of methods of study and preparation for
examination.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Why Study?

The motive of studying influence to a great extent the type of method one devices in ensuring
that understanding takes place. As mentioned by Adegbija (1987) and Akande (2004) the
following are the reasons why people study.

1. To maintain a well informed state of mind

2. To gain knowledge in a particular area

3. To be enlightened intellectually, socially and aesthetically

4. To sharpen the mind of individuals

5. To develop peoples personalities

6. To enrich the individuals world view

7. To enrich the individuals vocabulary

8. To get certification for certain line of expertise

9. To carry research on specific topic

10. To be able to invent or find solution to specific problem

11. To contribute to the body of knowledge

12. To be able to write articles, books etc

13. To pass examination that can enhance job opportunity

14. To make studying become a thing of interest and pleasure.

With the listed reasons for why people study, it is certain that one cannot go through the school
system without studying.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Why are you as a person studying?

3.2 Method of Study

The significance of studying in the life of students cannot be over emphasized. Studying is very
essential to good academic performance but very little attention is paid to methods of study.
Most students do not get much out of their hour of study because of poor study habits. Methods
of study means ways or approaches to studying. What constitutes good study habits include the
use of textbooks, art of note-making, organization of work, revision and review of work. Plus the
relevance of the classroom environment. Living is learning. For learning to be a pleasure and not
a burden, students should cultivate good study habits as early as possible in their academic
pursuit.

3.2.1 Use of Text Books

Studying cannot be successful unless understanding occurs. That is why you as a student needs
to master effective reading habit that will help you read fast and effectively. In the first instance,
avoid pointing at words and vocalizing, for such slow down learning. Akande (2004) enumerated
the following as effective comprehension strategies:

1. Linking the previous knowledge acquired to the current knowledge

2. For understanding of the passage being read to take place, the basic foundation needed is
concentration. Without concentration, the mind will just be wondering far and wide.

3. Focus your mind on the most important details, while you neglect the less important ones.

4. Integration of information by trying formerly stated content with new information in order that
the two will reinforce each other.

5. If you are in doubt try to question the importance of the truth of the subject matter as the
information you read about in books may not always be true.

6. With the interpretation of the text, it is important that as you read, you

--Summarize

Make conclusion

Formulate hypotheses

Try to draw inferences from what you read

Make use of general knowledge, association, background information and experiment to explain

Verify, clarify, validate and generalize or react to the content of what is happening, ponder on it
and attempt its description.

7. Always try to find out whether you actually understand what you have read by setting
questions to provide answers.

8. To ensure understanding paraphrase a portion of the text which you find difficult to
understand using your own words.

9. You can re-read any portion of a text that you find difficult to understand.
On the whole, good study strategies hinges on the kind of material you study. The material you
use must be current, authoritative and reliable.

Ensure you buy your own textbooks and read journals, which report recent research findings in
your own areas. Make sure you study your textbooks diligently, religiously and regularly.

3.2.2 Art of Note Making

As a student, you must be skillful in note-making as it aids memory in respect to the information
received during lessons and from textbooks and other printed materials. One of the important
study skills is learning how to take notes since it helps to separate important points from the
supporting ideas and relevant materials in your now words. These also improve the
understanding of what has been studied.

Good Note Making

1. Ensures the active participation of the student in the process of lesson.

2. Encourages the students to listen with intent attention.

3. Saves time, you don’t have to read the whole text book once you have taken down good notes.

4. Helps in revision when preparing for examination, you can cover a wide ground within a
limited period of time.

To ensure good note making:

1. Endeavour to get to the class on time so that you can comfortably sit.

2. Be familiar with abbreviations, acronyms that will aid fast and accurate writing of notes
during the lesson

3. Cultivate good listening and writing skills so that you will be able to put facts together on
what you have heard.

4. Listening skill will enhance comprehension

5. As a student, don’t just copy any note word for word without understanding

6. Attempt to write down whatever the teacher says

7. Indicate queries or reaction on the note where necessary

8. Make sure to you update your notes

9. Make sure you review and revise your notes regularly

The habit of making good notes from what you read or heard from the teacher is an important
factor that affects cultivating of effective study habits. As a student you must apply seriousness
to proper note making.

3.2.3 Organization of Work

Organization of students as well as the physical resources available in the classroom is an

essential element that brings about good study habit. A class must be organized so that as little
opportunity as possible is afforded for disruption of work, or interruptions, noises or disorderly
behaviour.

Part of organization is grouping of students to ensure efficient management in the classroom.

Also proper sitting arrangement whereby short students sit in front, while tall ones are arranged
at the back, to allow for proper view of the teacher, the chalkboard and instructional materials.

Selection of competent class leaders by watching for leadership qualities in students. The teacher
assigns certain duties such as group leaders, class monitor, class prefect and class representative
to such students that posses leadership qualities. So also, instructional facilities are properly
arranged by the teacher; to be within the reach of the student. There should be proper care and
maintenance of all facilities to be in good condition for use all the time. Many failed because
they could not manage their time very well.

---You must set aside a few hours each day for study rather than spending many hours once a
week because studying regularly aids retention and habit formation.

Make a private time table to include all subjects including the subjects you do not like but which
you must pass.

Follow the time schedule strictly. Never wait until the school time table for examinations is out
before you begin to study.

Those who wait for examination time table subject themselves to a lot of stress and strain.

---Give more time to the subjects you find difficult and study such subjects when you are
mentally alert and fresh. This will enhance concentration.

Have a break after some hours of studying to increase your concentration potential.

Sleep for at least six hours per day to retain freshness.

Find time for hobby and recreation to further promote your level of concentration.

Whenever you are given an assignment, try to complete it before it is due for submission so that
you are able to read over and make necessary corrections.

3.2.4 Time Management and Time Table

One of the effective keys for studying is judicious management of time. Time poorly spent
frustrates, discourages and could hinder success.

3.2.5 Revision and Reviewed Work

Revision of work means an act of going over work done previously with the aim of improving
one’s knowledge, typically for an examination.

While review implies a formal assessment of something with the intention of bringing change if
necessary. In the process of effective learning there is a need to go over and also to assess work
done. These can be carried out in the following ways:

1. The teacher should ensure that each student has personal private time-table in which all
subjects, extra curricular activities, free and rest periods are included. The time table must be
followed strictly.

2. Planning for one’s homework must be stressed as this is the period a student can on his own
go over work done in the class and understanding is ascertained.

3. Preparation for weekly and monthly tests are necessary and should be stressed. Once there is a
test ahead students are bound to revise and review their work.

4. While going over their work, students should be told not to mix listening to music and
studying at the same time as this does not allow for maximum concentration.

5. Subject teachers should guide their students on how to study their specific subjects. This will
aid their going over work done.

6. Students should not lie down while studying as one cannot assimilate much and one can easily
fall asleep.

7. Students should keep away from noisy environment and distractions at all times

8. Ensure comprehension of what you learnt by being able to apply it to real life situations

9. Students should learn how to turn headlines or topics into questions and make attempt to
answer such questions.

10. Recite what you have read by answering questions in your own words

11. Revise and review what you have studied to ensure retention and understanding.
3.2.6 Physical Environment of the Classroom

There is a lot of relationship between classroom environment and student academic performance.
If the classroom environment is conducive to learning, students will perform very well. The
physical environment of the classroom means, the classroom building, the outside and inside of
the classroom with their equipment, tools and other facilities. Classrooms are part of the
school structures provided by the proprietors of schools in accordance with the approved plan by
the Ministry of Education. The teacher does not have control over the site, size and structure of
the classroom.

The teacher manages the classroom because learning and teaching take place in the room. The
classroom is where the teacher puts into practice all he has learnt theoretically. A good teacher
could get his efforts frustrated in a disorganized and poorly managed classroom. This implies
that a teacher must be a good manager of his classroom for effective teaching and learning
processes.

1. The lighting conditions in the classroom should be moderate. This can be done through the
opening and partial closing of the windows.

2. Classroom should be painted in light colours.

3. The classroom should be well ventilated. The teacher ensures that the windows are opened on
either sides to allow for cross ventilation.

4. In the class, each child should have his or her own seat and each child should have enough
space to move.

5. More often than not, the method of teaching by the teacher affects the sitting arrangement.

6. The classroom arrangement can be made attractive in the following ways:

--Students should be encouraged to keep their seats clean and tidy

There should be provision of dust bins and wash hand basin

Charts, maps and other instructional materials should be placed on walls.

There should be nature corners, library and shopping corners in the class, sweeping of the
classroom regularly, opening and closing of windows and doors as at when due, Scrubbing of the
floor when necessary.

Renovating the chalkboard

First Aid Box

Removing cobwebs
Taking care of the surroundings.

If all the above are put in place the classroom will be conducive for learning.

3.3 Improving Study Skills

The reasons for the need for good study habits can be seen as ways of finding solution to the
problems of students failure, examination malpractices and the like.

The following outline the roles for the teachers and the students in improving study skills:

1. The teacher should stress that good study skills are essential to successful academic
performance

2. Teachers should guide the students on how to use dictionaries

3. The librarians should help students learn how to use encyclopedias and reader’s guide

4. Students should be taught how to budget their time effectively.

5. The importance of good health and exercise should be stressed by games master or school
nurse.

6. Teachers should avoid the habit of giving lengthy notes to students

7. Students should be encouraged to make their own notes while the teacher should collect
students’ notes to examine so as to correct faults.

8. Students should watch their physical health and ensure fitness.

9. Students must have regular sleep and proper eating habit

10. Students should avoid the use of candle light to protect their eyes.

Both the teacher and students have significant role to play in ensuring effective study habit.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the various methods by which students study skills can be enhanced?

3.4 Preparation of Examinations

The level of preparedness of the student determines to a great extent the performance of such a
student. A student who has failed to prepare for his examination has planned to fail.

There are basic things a student must do in preparing for examinations:

1. It is generally advisable that you jot down notes while you are studying.
2. Summarize what you have to read in an outline form, such summary notes will be very helpful
during revision for examination

3. Such summary notes should be made in your own words and not a carbon copy of what is in
the textbook.

4. Students studying mathematics should attempt working some exercises

5. Students should establish a relationship between facts in a textbook and some events outside to
aid recollection

6. Remembrance is enhanced by picking out the first alphabet in each of the key words that make
up the item you want to remember. This is called Acronym.

7. Students must join discussion groups as they prepare for examination

8. Endeavour to attend the study group promptly. The group must have a time table

9. At the end of each day’s discussion, go through all the topics you covered and make highlight
of each

10. Make use of previous past questions on each of the subjects you offer

11. Find out how to answer past questions using marking scheme. If need be let the subject
teacher take you through the process of scoring marks.

12. Combat anxious thought with positive statements like I can make it, I will pass, worrying
about situations aggravate the problem.

13. Two weeks to the examination period begin intensive revision and review of all your jottings
and summary notes

14. If need be, clarify and cross check your points with your notebooks and textbooks.

15. Make summary flash cards which you can pocket and make reference to at anytime and
anywhere.

16. Review all topic. Don’t leave out any topic.

17. Attempt to answer all questions that flash your mind

18. Get prepared very well for all examination.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Methods of study provide numerous ways by which good study habits can be inculcated in the
students during the process of teaching and learning. The bulk of what to be done to enhance
effective studying habits rest mainly on the students. The teachers must endeavor to pay attention
to the fact that their students have a good foundation in the use of textbooks, art of note making
and all manners of ways by which their study skills can be improved.