Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
REGION II – CAGAYAN VALLEY
SCHOOLS DIVISION OFFICE OF ISABELA
SIMANU NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
SIMANU NORTE, SAN PABLO, ISABELA
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
INTERGRATIVE
PERFORMANCE TASK
Physical Science
Week 1-4
The Formation of Chemical
Elements During Big Bang and Stellar
Evolution: A Review of Related Literature
Ardent B. Bautista G12-Genesis
SUBMITTED TO:
MRS. RUBY ANN A. GAMMARU
Subject Teacher
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Simanu National High School #BidaBEST_SNHS
Simanu Norte, San Pablo, Isabela
306132@[Link]
09171523734
THE FORMATION OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS DURING BIG
BANG AND STELLAR EVOLUTION: A REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
Bautista, Ardent B. G12-Genesis
Chemical elements is a form of matter that contains an identical number of
positively charged nucleus and a negative clouds of electrons(Holden, 2001). The
creation of chemical elements, currently seen on the modern periodic table of elements
and physical environment, is the result of explosion and rebirth of matter from stars in a
continuum process after the Big Bang event.
Scientist estimated that the universe began 15 billion years ago with a huge
explosion(Papagiannis, 1984) commonly known as the Big Bang cosmic event. This
model is the most widely accepted theory encircling universe’s formation in the field of
cosmology,astronomy and astrophysics. Simultaneously, it is proved through the three
pillars as mentioned by Vangioni & Cassé(2018):(i)Hubble’s constant (ii)Cosmic
Microwave Background radiation (iii)Primordial nucleosynthesis. Previous scientific
studies of renowned physicist and astronomers proved the existence of Big Bang Theory.
Einstein(1915) proposed the general theory of relativity that can be expressed through
the equation E=mc2, where he hypothesized that the universe is dynamic and revolving.
Lemaître(n.d.) as cited by Steiner(2006) then presumed that the universe started with a
“primeval atom”, followed by the observational study of Hubble(1924) wherein he
established the Hubble’s constant(i.e. 67.5km/s x Mpc) formulated between the
correlation of each galaxies’ speed and its distance, implying that the expansion of the
universe continues after the Big Bang event. Penzias and Wilson(1965)is also credited
on their breakthrough discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation from
radio telescopes measuring 2.7 kelvins which is the cosmic noise left behind after the
explosion that supported the Big Bang theory and made them won the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1978.
Big Bang Model and Big Bang Explosion
Big Bang model is also the key aspects on the presence of chemical elements we know
up to the present. McSween and Huss(2012) argued that there are also several processes
that made “the current inventory of elements in the cosmos.” Sundelin(2020) in his
online article from Quora, cited seven main phases of chemical elements’ synthesis in
the universe which includes baryogenesis, Big Bang nucleosynthesis, spallative
nucleosynthesis or cosmic rays, stellar nucleosynthesis, supernova synthesis, neutron star
collisions and artificial nucleosynthesis.
Big Bang Theory states that the universe started with a single-dense point containing
enormous and infinite amount of matter, temperature and energy, which then binds all
the fundamental physical forces or the grand unified forces including gravitational,
electromagnetic, strong and weak nuclear forces(Vangioni & Cassé, 2018). This
singularity exploded and released quarks, the first matter in the universe(SOEST, 2013)
and most quantum physicist measured its beginning at 10-43 seconds as the planck era
since there is no theory yet existed that can described the quantum state of gravity that
time(The University of Western Australia, 2011). During this epoch, at about 10-36
seconds after its explosion, inflation of the universe occurred as a result of the separation
of strong forces from electromagnetic and weak forces. Within the period of 10-12-10-6
seconds, quarks, leptons and their corresponding anti-particles formed with leptons
having electrons and neutrinos. The universe cooled down within this hadron era
enabling quarks and anti-quarks to coalesced forming protons, neutrons and their
antiparticles(The University of Western Australia, 2011). Annihilation occurred from the
interaction of proton to anti-protons and neutrons to anti-neutrons leaving small amount
of protons and neutrons. This stage is characterized as the baryogenesis phase that forms
the existence of baryons elementary particles(i.e. proton and neutron) and elimination of
corresponding anti-particles. According to Liddle(2015), baryogenesis is the physical
process in the early universe that produce the imbalance of baryons and antibaryons.
Within this baryogenesis stage of the universe, matter are all on plasma state where
electron, proton and neutron are unable to form atoms due to the extreme heat released
by the explosion exceeding 10 billion Kelvin(Vangioni & Cassé, 2018).
Inflation of the universe after the Big Bang caused the space to be stretched allowing
more atomic particles to be formed but not bonded due to immense heat. However, one
minute after the explosion, the early universe cooled up for particles to coalesced starting
the process of Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Universe at this phase served as
‘thermonuclear reactor’ for light elements to be formed(Vangioni & Cassé, 2018). The
high temperature caused by the explosion allowed proton and neutron to perform nuclear
fusion. Deuterium nucleus, 21H were the resulting particles of the effective collision
which is an isotope of hydrogen(Vangioni & Cassé, 2018), and where all of atomic
particle cradled from(SOEST, 2013). Combination of two neutrons and one proton
formed the tritium nucleus(31H), two protons and one neutron forged the existence of
2He, three protons and four neutrons formed the 3Li and most importantly the α-particle,
3 7
2He, were formed during this stage from the combination of two protons and two
4
neutrons. Big Bang nucleosynthesis phase follows the proton-proton chain reactions
wherein a nuclear fusion and fission happens among elements from hydrogen to lithium.
The equation below demonstrate this primordial nucleosynthesis.
▪ 21H = 1p + 1n →Deuterium
▪ 31H = 1p + 2n →Tritium
▪ 32He = 2p + 1n →Helium-3 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis Elements Formed
▪ 42He = 2p + 2n→Helium-4 Proton-Proton Chain Reactions
▪ 7
3Li = 3p + 4n→Lithium-7
The Big Bang nucleosynthesis epoch ended 20 minutes after the explosion as it reach the
state where no more protons and neutrons to bond due to the cooling of primordial
universe, disabling the nuclear fusion and reaching only synthesized nuclei with 7
atoms(A=7) that leads to rarity of elements lithium(63Li), beryllium(94Be) and boron(105B
& 115B)—Li-Be-B problem.
Small proportion and rarity of lithium, beryllium and boron in the universe was due to
the halt of thermonuclear fission during Big Bang nucleosynthesis. However, during the
formation of heavier elements than carbon, spallative nucleosynthesis occurred with the
presence of cosmic rays. It is worth to mention that LiBeB have a radioactive isotopes
resulting to its instability. The presence of cosmic rays allowed the synthesis of LiBeB
isotopes through the rapid bombardment of energetic hydrogen and helium protons in
Interstellar Medium(ISM) like gas clouds that contains mainly of carbon and hydrogen.
The above diagram shows the process of spallative nucleosynthesis through cosmic rays:
→
H → Be
9
16 → →
O Spallative Nucleosynthesis
2
H Spallation
H
4
He
This chemical synthesis from the Big Bang and spallative nucleosynthesis produced the
basic cosmological elements like 21H, 42He,31H, and 73Li that will be useful on the next
stage of the universe—stellar nucleosynthesis.
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process of burning elements from hydrogen(H) to iron(Fe)
within the core of stars that marks the beginning of stellar evolution and was first
proposed by Hoyle(1946). As the primordial universe had no left atoms to bond after
300,000 years, the atoms(i.e.21H, 42He,31H, and 73Li) formed from the Big Bang
nucleosynthesis began capturing electrons to become stable(Vangioni & Cassé, 2018)
and clumped together forming gas clouds (SOEST, 2013)or planetary nebula composed
of the primordial elements hydrogen and helium(Frank et al., 2003) that serves as the
seedlings of protostars. Scientists estimated that the first generation stars were formed
around 100-200 million years after the Big Bang(The University of Western Australia,
2011) with a mass ranging from 40-100 ○ ▪ solar masses(Vangioni & Cassé, 2018) to
300○ ▪ molar masses(Forusova, Pucher & Zendel, n.d.) with one solar mass equivalent to
2 x 1033 grams. These remnants from the Big Bang nucleosynthesis became the first
ingredient of early stars oftenly referred to as Pop III stars having a non-metal
characteristics with a massive size but only burn hydrogen and helium in its core.
Primordial stars then followed the stellar nucleosynthesis process of proton-proton chain
reactions, carbon-nitrogen-oxygen(CNO) cycle, triple alpha process and alpha process to
synthesize elements that includes hydrogen, helium, beryllium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, argon, calcium, titanium, chromium and iron.
Be
88
Be
4
He
12 C
12
C
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Triple Alpha Process
4
He
4
He
γ γ
▪ 12
6C + 2He = 8O + γ
4 16
▪ 32
16S + 2He = 18Ar+ γ
4 36
▪ 16
8O + 2He = 10Ne+ γ
4 20
▪ 36
18Ar + 2He = 20Ca+ γ
4 40
▪ 20
10Ne + 2He = 12Mg +γ
4 24
▪ 40
20Ca + 2He = 22Ti+ γ
4 44 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
▪ 24
12Mg + 2He = 14Si+ γ
4 28
▪ 44
22Ti + 2He = 24Cr+ γ
4 48 Alpha Process
14Si + 2He = 16S+ γ 24Cr + 2He = 26Fe+ γ
▪ 28 4 32 ▪ 48 4 52
4
He H
H
12 C
12
C γ
12
C 13 C
12
N
15
N
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
ν CNO Cycle
13 C
12
12
C C
15
O
14 NC
14 12
N
γ
H γ H
Population III stars as the first generation of stars only lasted for about a million years
after the Big Bang(Vangioni & Cassé, 2018). These stars undergo to the process of
hydrogen and helium burning and when it reach an instability within its core it explodes.
The series of explosion ejected cosmic materials on the young version of the universe
after the Big Bang, which became the key ingredients on the formation of primordial
stars. The resulting explosion varies dependently on the size of the stars where main
sequence stars usually explodes via planetary nebula as it transits into a white dwarf star
whereas massive stars undergo a supernova event, releasing elements heavier than Fe
and ends up either as a neutron star or black holes.
Formation of heavy chemical elements during the stellar evolution were mainly rely on
the various supernova events that synthesize heavier elements as it explodes in the
vastness of space. Sundelin(2020) explained that supernova nucleosynthesis occurred
within the core of massive stars as it tries to fuse or undergo iron burning that requires
intense amount of energy to complete. The star give up due to the interaction of thermal
pressure and gravity resulting to a massive explosion called supernova. Chemical
elements from iron(52Fe) to rubidium(74Rb) and even up to plutonium-244(244P) instantly
formed from this cosmic events(Sundelin, 2020;Forusova, Pucher & Zendel, n.d.).
Supernova nucleosynthesis are classified as Type IA and Type II supernovae.
Sundelin(2020)further explained that Type IA supernova nucleosynthesis are white
dwarfs stars[1] accumulating cosmic materials from neighbouring stars through r-process[2]
as it grows enormous and explodes producing one molar mass of nickel(56Ni) and
enriched iron elements. On the other hand, Type II supernova nucleosynthesis only
happened for stars having a mass greater than 8○ ▪ solar masses forming magnesium to
nickel and transuranium elements via s-process, r-process and p-process.
In a supernova nucleosynthesis, heavier elements than iron form through the complex
process of capturing proton and neutron for the atoms to become stable and undergo
decay. This process includes rapid capturing of neutrons(r-process), slow capturing of
neutrons(s-process) and collision of proton-rich elements(p-process) during supernova
explosions(Vangioni & Cassé, 2018).
After a massive star undergo supernova explosions a neutron star or a black hole usually
formed from its remnants. Brigss(2020) defined neutron star as a “superdense” tiny
cosmic objects that are result of supernova explosions with an incredibly dense cores
wherein electrons are being tightly trapped to the point that it combines with protons to
form neutrons. National Aeronautics and Space Administration(2018) on the contrary
defined black hole as a region of space that have high gravitational pull at its center
where even light cannot escape; in the center of Milky Way galaxy reside a black hole
named Sagitarrius A*. Scientist speculated that black hole are the result of neutron stars
as it dies but currently this theory is still in debate. However, it is proven that neutron
stars collisions created missing elements in the late transition metals like Au and Pt. This
complex cosmic event are called neutron star collisions where two neutron stars
coalesced synthesizing the heaviest natural elements. Synthesizing elements at this stage
follows the rapid capture of neutron particles(r-process) of an element between the two
neutron stars releasing it in the space after the collision. Neutron star collision were first
detected by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory(LIGO) and Virgo
Interferometer on 2017 distinguished as GW170817 that proved the existence of this
cosmic event(Brigss,2020;Frebel & Beers, 2018). It is noted that the neutron stars
collision from GW170817 produced enormous amount of proton-rich gold and platinum
chemical elements(Forusova, Pucher & Zendel, n.d.).
Credits:NASA/CXC/[Link] Credits:[Link]/Daniel Molybdenum/NASA/Wikimedia Commons
Black Hole Neutron Star
As the stellar evolution up to this current times produce more chemical elements, there is
still limitations exist on stars’ synthesizing capability even at its denser state to form
elements known to the modern periodic table of elements. With the formation of Earth
14 million years ago and human domination fasten up formation of chemical elements.
Nuclear physicists in the first 20th century began artificially producing elements with
atomic numbers from 95-118 through state-of-the-art particle accelerator like CERN at
Geneva,Switzerland and Large Hadron Collider. Artificial nucleosynthesis is
characterized by the bombardment of natural-occurring chemical elements(i.e. elements
1-94) with protons, neutrons, deuterium(H) and alpha particles(4He) on its nuclei to
synthesized elements. Synthetic elements from artificial nucleosynthesis have a
radioactive atoms and undergo chemical decay quickly after being bombarded. This
process completed the missing chemical elements from the periodic table of element we
currently know.
Hence, the origin of the universe is also the origin of chemical elements and everything.
With its over 14 billion years of existence, elements were able to form and filled the
vastness of space with humans like us, planets, moons, stars and galaxies. All of the
chemical elements known to us are the product of repeated and sequenced evolution of
the universe forming stars that catalyzed the development of early elements and also
formed humans that ushered its continuous development.
REFERENCES
[1] Brigss, A.(2020).What is neutron star?[Link] March 15, 2022 from
[Link]
[2] Forusova, M., Pucher, S. & Zendel, M.(n.d.).Chemical abundances in a closed-box,
open-box, and infall models; multi-component treatment. 1-46. Accessed February
24, 2022 from [Link]. at Group_Chemistry.pdf.
[3] Frebel, A. & Beers, T.(2018).The formation of the heaviest elements. Physics Today
71(1), 30-37. DOI: [Link] at [Link]
[4] Holden, N.(2001).History of the origin of the chemical elements and their
[Link] York:Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved March 13, 2022
from [Link] at [Link]
[5] Liddle, A.(2015).An Introduction to Modern Cosmology(3rd Edition). Hoboken:
Wiley. Retrieved March 12, 2022, from
[Link]
[6] McSween, H. & Huss, G.(2012).[Link] University Press,
54-84. DOI: [Link] Retrieved March 11.
20222, from
[Link]/core/books/abs/cosmochemistry/origin-of-the-elements/1DF23
20D9A4814000A4AB55626DAAFD6.
[7] National Aeronautics and Space Administration(2018).What is a black hole?NASA
TV. Accessed March 15, 2022 from
[Link]
[Link].
[8] SOEST(2013).Lecture 28:High temperature geochemistry-Formation of chemical
elements. Accessed March 11, 2022 from [Link]. at [Link]
[9] Steiner, J.(2006). The origin of the [Link] Avancados,20(58), 233-248.
Retrieved March 11, 2022 from [Link]. at [Link]
[10] Sundelin, K.(2020).How do elements during the Big Bang and during stellar
evolution being formed?[Link] March 11, 2022 from
[Link]/What-is-the-formation-of-elements-during-stellar-evolution.
[11] The University of Western Australia(2011).Cosmology I:Timeline of the
universe(fact sheet). Spice,1. Retrieved March 12, 2022, from [Link] at
Timeline of the [Link]
[12] Vangioni, E. & Cassé, M.(2018). Cosmic origin of the chemical elements rarety in
nuclear [Link] of Life Science,10(1), 84-97. DOI:
[Link] at Cosmic origin of the chemical
elements rarety in nuclear [Link]
