1.

Introduction & Components of Python

1.1. Understanding Python
1.2. Role of Python in AI and Data science

1.3. Installation and Working with Python

1.4. The default graphical development environment for Python - IDLE

1.5. Types and Operation

1.6. Python Object Types-Number, Strings, Lists, Dictionaries, Tuples, Files, User Defined

Classes

1.7. Understanding python blocks

1.8. Python Program Flow Control

1.9. Conditional blocks using if, else and elif

1.10. Simple for loops in python

1.11. For loop using ranges, string, list and dictionaries

1.12. Use of while loops in python

1.13. Loop manipulation using pass, continue, break and else

1.14. Programming using Python conditional and loops block

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1.1. Understanding Python

What is Python?

Python is a high-level, cross-platform, and open-sourced programming language

released under a GPL-compatible license. Python Software Foundation (PSF), a non-
profit organization, holds the copyright of Python.
Guido Van Rossum conceived Python in the late 1980s. It was released in 1991 at
Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC
language. He named this language after a popular comedy show called ‘Monty
Python’s Flying Circus’ (and not after Python-the snake).
In the last few years, its popularity has increased immensely. According to
stackoverflow.com’s recent survey, Python is in the top three Most Loved
Programming Language in 2020.
Official Web Site: https://www.python.org

Python Features:
 Python is an interpreter-based language, which allows the execution of one instruction at a
time.
 Extensive basic data types are supported e.g., numbers (floating point, complex, and
unlimited-length long integers), strings (both ASCII and Unicode), lists, and dictionaries.
 Variables can be strongly typed as well as dynamic typed.
 Supports object-oriented programming concepts such as class, inheritance, objects, module,
namespace etc.
 Cleaner exception handling support.
 Supports automatic memory management.
 Various built-in and third-party modules, which can be imported and used independently in
the Python application.

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Python Advantages
 Python provides enhanced readability. For that purpose, uniform indents are used to delimit
blocks of statements instead of curly brackets, like in many languages such as C, C++, and
Java.
 Python is free and distributed as open-source software. A large programming community is
actively involved in the development and support of Python libraries for various applications
such as web frameworks, mathematical computing, and data science.
 Python is a cross-platform language. It works equally on different OS platforms like
Windows, Linux, Mac OSX, etc. Hence Python applications can be easily ported across OS
platforms.
 Python supports multiple programming paradigms including imperative (Computation is
performed as a direct change to program state), procedural, object-oriented, and functional
programming styles.
 Python is an extensible language. Additional functionality (other than what is provided in the
core language) can be made available through modules and packages written in other
languages (C, C++, Java, etc.)
 A standard DB-API for database connectivity has been defined in Python. It can be enabled
using any data source (Oracle, MySQL, SQLite etc.) as a backend to the Python program for
storage, retrieval, and processing of data.
 The standard distribution of Python contains the Tkinter GUI toolkit, which is the
implementation of a popular GUI library called Tcl/Tk. An attractive GUI can be constructed
using Tkinter. Many other GUI libraries like Qt, GTK, WxWidgets, etc. are also ported to
Python.
 Python can be integrated with other popular programming technologies like C, C++, Java,
ActiveX, and CORBA.

Python Tools and Frameworks

The following lists important tools and frameworks to develop different types of
Python applications:
 Web Development: Django, Pyramid, Bottle, Tornado, Flask, web2py

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 GUI Development: tkInter, PyGObject, PyQt, PySide, Kivy, wxPython
 Scientific and Numeric: NumPy, SciPy, Pandas, IPython
 Software Development: Buildbot, Trac, Roundup
 System Administration: Ansible, Salt, OpenStack

1.2. Role of Python in AI and Data science

AI and Python: Why?
The obvious question that we need to encounter at this point is why we should choose Python for
AI over others.
Python offers the least code among others and is in fact 1/5 the number compared to other OOP
languages. No wonder it is one of the most popular in the market today.
 Python has Prebuilt Libraries like Numpy for scientific computation, Scipy for advanced
computing and Pybrain for machine learning (Python Machine Learning) making it one of the
best languages For AI.
 Python developers around the world provide comprehensive support and assistance via
forums and tutorials making the job of the coder easier than any other popular languages.
 Python is platform Independent and is hence one of the most flexible and popular choice for
use across different platforms and technologies with the least tweaks in basic coding.
 Python is the most flexible of all others with options to choose between OOPs approach and
scripting. You can also use IDE itself to check for most codes and is a boon for developers
struggling with different algorithms.

Decoding Python alongside AI

Python along with packages like NumPy, scikit-learn, iPython Notebook, and matplotlib form
the basis to start your AI project.
NumPy is used as a container for generic data comprising of an N-dimensional array object, tools
for integrating C/C++ code, Fourier transform, random number capabilities, and other functions.
Another useful library is pandas, an open source library that provides users with easy-to-use data
structures and analytic tools for Python.

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Matplotlib is another service which is a 2D plotting library creating publication quality figures.
You can use matplotlib to up to 6 graphical users interface toolkits, web application servers, and
Python scripts.
Your next step will be to explore k-means clustering and also gather knowledge about decision
trees, continuous numeric prediction, logistic regression, etc.
Some of the most commonly used Python AI libraries are AIMA, pyDatalog, SimpleAI, EasyAi,
etc. There are also Python libraries for machine learning like PyBrain, MDP, scikit, PyML.
Let us look a little more in detail about the various Python libraries in AI and why this
programming language is used for AI.

Python Libraries for General AI

 AIMA – Python implementation of algorithms from Russell and Norvig’s ‘Artificial
Intelligence: A Modern Approach.’
 pyDatalog – Logic Programming engine in Python.
 SimpleAI – Python implementation of many of the artificial intelligence algorithms described
on the book “Artificial Intelligence, a Modern Approach”. It focuses on providing an easy to
use, well documented and tested library.
 EasyAI – Simple Python engine for two-players games with AI (Negamax, transposition
tables, game solving).

Python for Machine Language (ML)

Let us look as to why Python is used for Machine Learning and the various libraries it offers for
the purpose.
 PyBrain - A flexible, simple yet effective algorithm for ML tasks. It is also a modular
Machine Learning Library for Python providing a variety of predefined environments to test
and compare algorithms.
 PyML – A bilateral framework written in Python that focuses on SVMs (support-vector
machines) and other kernel methods. It is supported on Linux and Mac OS X.
 Scikit-learn – Scikit-learn is an efficient tool for data analysis while using Python. It is open
source and the most popular general purpose machine learning library.
 MDP-Toolkit – Another Python data processing framework that can be easily expanded, it
also has a collection of supervised and unsupervised learning algorithms and other data

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 processing units that can be combined into data processing sequences and more complex
feed-forward network architectures. The implementation of new algorithms is easy and
intuitive. The base of available algorithms is steadily increasing and includes signal
processing methods (Principal Component Analysis, Independent Component Analysis, and
Slow Feature Analysis), manifold learning methods ([Hessian] Locally Linear Embedding),
several classifiers, probabilistic methods (Factor Analysis, RBM), data pre-processing
methods, and many others.

Python Libraries for Natural Language & Text

Processing
 NLTK – Open source Python modules, linguistic data and documentation for research and
development in natural language processing and text analytics with distributions for
Windows, Mac OSX, and Linux.
Widely used for the prediction of trends like customer satisfaction, projected values of
stocks, etc. Some of the real-world applications of machine learning include medical
diagnosis, statistical arbitrage, basket analysis, sales prediction, etc.

Data Science and Python: Why?

Python experienced a recent emergence in popularity charts, mainly because of its Data
science libraries. A huge amount of data is being generated today by web applications, mobile
applications, and other devices. Companies need business insights from this data.
Today Python has become the language of choice for data scientists. Python libraries
like NumPy, Pandas, and Matplotlib are extensively used in the process of data analysis,
including the collection, processing and cleansing of data sets, applying mathematical
algorithms, and generating visualizations for the benefit of users. Commercial and community
Python distributions by third-parties such as Anaconda and ActiveState provide all the
essential libraries required for data science.

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Web Development
This is another application area in which Python is becoming popular. Web application
framework libraries like django, Pyramid, Flask, etc. make it very easy to develop and deploy
simple as well as complex web applications. These frameworks are used extensively by
various IT companies. Dropbox, for example, uses Django as a backend to store and
synchronize local folders.
Today, most of the web servers are compatible with WSGI (Web Server Gateway Interface) -
a specification for the universal interface between Python web frameworks and web servers.
All leading web servers such as Apache, IIS, Nginxetc can now host Python web applications.
Google’s App Engine hosts web applications built with almost all Python web frameworks.

Image Processing
The OpenCV library is commonly used for face detection and gesture recognition. OpenCV is
a C++ library but has been ported to Python. Because of the rapid development of this feature,
Python is a very popular choice from image processing.

Game Development
Python is a popular choice for game developers. The PyGame library is extensively used for
building games for desktop as well as for mobile platforms. PyGame applications can be
installed on Android too.

Embedded Systems and IoT

Another important area of Python application is in embedded systems. Raspberry Pi is a very
popular yet low-cost single-board computer. It is extensively used in automation products,
robotics, IoT, and kiosk applications. Popular microcontrollers like Arduino are used in many
IoT products and are being programmed with Python. A lightweight version of Python
called Micropython has been developed, especially for microcontrollers. A special
Micropython-compatible controller called PyBoard has also been developed.

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Android Apps
Although Android apps are predominantly developed using Android SDK, which is similar to
Java, Python can also be used to develop Android apps. Python’s Kivy library has all the
functionalities required for a mobile application.

Automated Jobs
Python is extremely useful and widely used for automating CRON (Command Run ON) jobs.
Certain tasks like backups, defined in Python scripts, can be scheduled to be invoked
automatically by the operating system scheduler to be executed at predefined times.
Python is embedded as a scripting language in many popular software products. This is
similar to VBA used for writing macros in Excel, PowerPoint, etc. Python API is integrated
with Maya, PaintShop Pro, etc.

Rapid Development Tool

The standard distribution of Python, as developed by Rossum and maintained by Python
Software Foundation, is called CPython, which is a reference implementation. Its alternative
implementations - Jython, the JRE implementation of Python and IronPython - the .NET
implementation, interact seamlessly with Java and C#, respectively. For example, Jython can
use all Java libraries such as Swing. So the development time can be minimized by using
simpler Python syntaxes and Java libraries for prototyping the software product.

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1.3. Installation and Working with Python
Install Python on Windows, Mac, and Linux
Python can be installed on Windows, Linux, Mac OS as well as certain other platforms such
as IBM AS/400, iOS, Solaris, etc.
To install Python on your local machine, get a copy of the standard distribution of Python
software from https://www.python.org/downloads based on your operating system, hardware
architecture and version of your local machine.

Install Python on Windows

To install Python on a Windows platform, you need to download the installer. A web-based
installer, executable installer and embeddable zip files are available to install Python on
Windows. Visit https://www.python.org/downloads/windows and download the installer
based on your local machine's hardware architecture.
The web-based installer needs an active internet connection. So, you can also download the
standalone executable installer. Visit https://www.python.org/downloads and click on
the Download Python 3.7.0 button as shown below. (3.7.0 is the latest version as of this
writing.)

Download Python Library

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This will download python-3.7.0.exe for 32 bit. For the 64 bit installer, go
to https://www.python.org/downloads/windows and select the appropriate 64 bit installer, as
shown below.

Download Python for Windows 64 bit

Download the Windows x86-64 executable installer and double click on it to start the python
installation wizard as shown below.

Python Installation Wizard

Installation is a simple wizard-based process. As you can see in the above figure, the default
installation folder will be C:\ Users\ {UserName}\ AppData\ Local\Programs\ Python\

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Python37 for Python 3.7.0 64 bit. Check the Add Python 3.7 to PATH checkbox, so that you
can execute python scripts from any path. You may choose the installation folder or feature by
clicking on Customize installation. This will go to the next step of optional features, as
shown below.

Python Installation Wizard

Click Next to continue.

Python Installation Wizard

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In Advanced Options, select the Install for all users option so that any user of your local
machine can execute Python scripts. Also, choose the installation folder to make a shorter
path for Python executable (something like C:\python37), keeping the rest of the choices to
default and finally click on the Install button.

Python Installation Wizard

After successful installation, you can check the Python installation by opening a command
prompt and type python --version or python -V and press Enter. If Python installed
successfully then it will display the installed version.

C:\>python --version

Python 3.7.0

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Install Python on Mac OS X
You can install Python by downloading official installer from
https://www.python.org/downloads/mac-osx page. Download the latest version of Python
under the heading Python Releases for Mac OS X. Double click on the installer file to start
the installation wizard.
On the installation wizard, click on Continue a few times until you're asked to agree to the
software license agreement, click on Agree and finish the installation.

Install Python on Linux

Most of Linux distributions come with Python already installed. However, the Python 2.x
version is incorporated in many of them. To check if Python 3.x is available, run the
following command in the Linux terminal:

$ which python3

If available, it will return the path to the Python3 executable as /usr/local/bin/python3.

To install Python on Ubuntu 18.04, Ubuntu 20.04 and above, execute the following
commands:

$ sudo apt-get update

$ sudo apt-get install python3.7 python3-pip

After the installation, you can run Python 3.8 and pip3 commands.
For other Linux distributions use the corresponding package managers, such as YUM for Red
Hat, aptitude for debian, DNF for Fedora, etc.
For installation on other platforms as well as installation from the source code, please refer to
the official documentation on Python Source Releases page.

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1.4. The default graphical development environment
for Python – IDLE
Python - IDLE
IDLE (Integrated Development and Learning Environment) is an integrated development
environment (IDE) for Python. The Python installer for Windows contains the IDLE module
by default.
IDLE is not available by default in Python distributions for Linux. It needs to be installed
using the respective package managers. Execute the following command to install IDLE on
Ubuntu:

$ sudo apt-get install idle

IDLE can be used to execute a single statement just like Python Shell and also to create,
modify, and execute Python scripts. IDLE provides a fully-featured text editor to create
Python script that includes features like syntax highlighting, auto-completion, and smart
indent. It also has a debugger with stepping and breakpoints features.
To start an IDLE interactive shell, search for the IDLE icon in the start menu and double click
on it.

Python IDLE
This will open IDLE, where you can write and execute the Python scripts, as shown below.

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 Python IDLE
You can execute Python statements same as in Python Shell as shown below.

Python IDLE

To execute a Python script, create a new file by selecting File -> New File from the menu.

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Enter multiple statements and save the file with extension .py using File → Save. For
example, save the following code as hello.py.

Python Script in IDLE

Now, press F5 to run the script in the editor window. The IDLE shell will show the output.

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 Python Script Execution Result in IDLE

Thus, it is easy to write, test and run Python scripts in IDLE.

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1.5. Types and Operation
Python Syntax
Here, you will learn the basic syntax of Python 3.
Python statement ends with the token NEWLINE character (carriage return). It means each
line in a Python script is a statement. The following Python script contains three statements in
three separate lines.
Example: Python Statements
print('id: ', 1)
print('First Name: ', 'Steve')
print('Last Name: ', 'Jobs')
Use backslash character \ to join a statement span over multiple lines, as shown below.
Example: Python Statements
if 100 > 99 and \
200 <= 300 and \
True != False:
print('Hello World!')
Please note that the backslash character spans a single statement in one logical line and
multiple physical lines, but not the two different statements in one logical line.
Example: Multiple Statements in Single Line
>>> print('Hello \
World!') # a multi-line statement
Hello World!
>>> print('Hello') \
print(' World!') # two statement in one logical line
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
Use the semicolon ; to separate multiple statements in a single line.
Example: Multiple Statements in Single Line
print('id: ', 1);print('First Name: ', 'Steve');print('Last Name: ', 'Jobs')
Expressions in parentheses (), square brackets [ ], or curly braces { } can be spread over
multiple lines without using backslashes.

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Example: Multiple Statements in Single Line
list = [1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 10, 11, 12]

Indentation in Python
Leading space or tab at the beginning of the line is considered as indentation level of the line,
which is used to determine the group of statements. Statements with the same level of
indentation considered as a group or block.

For example, functions, classes, or loops in Python, contains a block of statements to be

executed. Other programming languages such as C# or Java use curly braces { } to denote a
block of code. Python uses indentation (a space or a tab) to denote a block of statements.
Indentation Rules
 Use the colon : to start a block and press Enter.
 All the lines in a block must use the same indentation, either space or a tab.
 Python recommends four spaces as indentation to make the code more readable. Do not
mix space and tab in the same block.
 A block can have inner blocks with next level indentation.
The following example demonstrates if elif blocks:
Example: Python if Block
if 10 > 5: # 1st block starts
print("10 is greater than 5") # 1st block
print("Now checking 20 > 10") # 1st block
if 20 > 10: # 1st block

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 print("20 is greater than 10") # inner block
elif: # 2nd block starts
print("10 is less than 5") # 2nd block
print("This will never print") # 2nd block
The following function contains a block with two statements.
Example: Python Function Block
def SayHello(name):
print("Hello ", name)
print("Welcome to Python Tutorials")
The following example illustrates the use of indents in Python shell:

Python Block in Shell

As you can see, in the Python shell, the SayHello() function block started after : and pressing
Enter. It then displayed ... to mark the block. Use four space (even a single space is ok) or a
tab for indent and then write a statement. To end the block, press Enter two times.
The same function can be written in IDLE or any other GUI-based IDE as shown below,
using Tab as indentation.

Python Block in IDLE

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Comments in Python
In a Python script, the symbol # indicates the start of a comment line. It is effective till the
end of the line in the editor.
Example: Comments
# this is a comment
print("Hello World")
print("Welcome to Python Tutorial") #comment after a statement.
In Python, there is no provision to write multi-line comments, or a block comment. For multi-
line comments, each line should have the # symbol at the start.
A triple quoted multi-line string is also treated as a comment if it is not a docstring of
the function or the class.
Example: Multi-line Comments
'''
comment1
comment2
comment3
'''
Visit PEP 8 style Guide for Python Code for more information.

Python Naming Conventions

The Python program can contain variables, functions, classes, modules, packages, etc.
Identifier is the name given to these programming elements. An identifier should start with
either an alphabet letter (lower or upper case) or an underscore (_). After that, more than one
alphabet letter (a-z or A-Z), digits (0-9), or underscores may be used to form an identifier. No
other characters are allowed.
 Identifiers in Python are case sensitive, which means variables named age and Age are
different.
 Class names should use the TitleCase convention. It should begin with an uppercase
alphabet letter e.g. MyClass, Employee, Person.
 Function names should be in lowercase. Multiple words should be separated by
underscores, e.g. add(num), calculate_tax(amount).

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  Variable names in the function should be in lowercase e.g., x, num, salary.
 Module and package names should be in lowercase e.g., mymodule, tax_calculation. Use
underscores to improve readability.
 Constant variable names should be in uppercase e.g., RATE, TAX_RATE.
 Use of one or two underscore characters when naming the instance attributes of a class.
 Two leading and trailing underscores are used in Python itself for a special purpose, e.g.
__add__, __init__, etc.
Visit PEP 8 - Prescriptive Naming Conventions for more information.

Display Output
The print() serves as an output statement in Python. It echoes the value of any Python
expression on the Python shell.

Display Output
Multiple values can be displayed by the single print() function separated by comma. The
following example displays values of name and age variables using the single print() function.
>>> name="Ram"
>>> print(name) # display single variable
Ram
>>> age=21
>>> print(name, age)# display multiple variables

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Ram 21
>>> print("Name:", name, ", Age:",age) # display formatted output
Name: Ram, Age: 21
By default, a single space ' ' acts as a separator between values. However, any other character
can be used by providing a sep parameter.

str.format() Method
Use str.format() method if you need to insert the value of a variable, expression or an object into
another string and display it to the user as a single string. The format() method returns a new
string with inserted values. The format() method works for all releases of Python 3.x. The
format() method uses its arguments to substitute an appropriate value for each format code in the
template.
The syntax for format() method is,
str.format(p0, p1, ..., k0=v0, k1=v1, ...)
Example of str.format() Method
>>> a = 20
>>> b = 30
>>> print (“The value of a is {0} and b is {1}”.format(a, b))

f-strings
Formatted strings or f-strings were introduced in Python 3.6. A f-string is a string literal that is
prefixed with “f”. These strings may contain replacement fields, which are expressions enclosed
within curly braces {}. The expressions are replaced with their values. In the real world, it means
that you need to specify the name of the variable inside the curly braces to display its value. An f
at the beginning of the string tells Python to allow any currently valid variable names within the
string.
Example of f-strings
>>> print (f“The value of a is {a} and b is {b}”)

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Getting User’s Input
The input() function is a part of the core library of standard Python distribution. It reads the
key strokes as a string object which can be referred to by a variable having a suitable name.

Taking User's Input

Note that the blinking cursor waits for the user's input. The user enters his input and then hits
Enter. This will be captured as a string.
In the above example, the input() function takes the user's input from the next line, e.g. 'Steve'
in this case. input() will capture it and assign it to a name variable. The name variable will
display whatever the user has provided as the input.
The input() function has an optional string parameter that acts as a prompt for the user.

Taking User's Input

The input() function always reads the input as a string, even if comprises of digits. The type()
function used earlier confirms this behavior.

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>>> name=input("Enter your name: ")
Enter your name: Steve
>>> type(name)
<class 'str'>
>>> age=input("Enter your age: ")
Enter your age: 21
>>> type(age)
<class 'str'>

Python Keywords
Just like natural languages, a computer programming language comprises of a set of
predefined words which are called keywords. A prescribed rule of usage for each keyword is
called syntax.
Python 3.x has 33 keywords. Since they have a predefined meaning attached, they cannot be
used for any other purpose. The list of Python keywords can be obtained using the following
help command in Python shell.
>>>help("keywords")
The following table lists all the keywords in Python.
False def if raise

None del import return

True elif in try

and else is while

as except lambda with

assert finally nonlocal yield

break for not

class from or

continue global pass

Except for the first three (False, None and True), the other keywords are entirely in
lowercase.

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Use help() command to know more about each individual keyword. The following will
display information on the global keyword.
>>>help("global")

Reserved Identifiers
Python built-in classes contains some identifiers that have special meanings. These special
identifiers are recognized by the patterns of leading and trailing underscore characters:
Pattern Description Examples

_* _ stores the result of the last evaluation. >>> 5 * 5

25
>>> _
25
__*__ It represents system-defined identifiers that matches >>> __name__
__*__ pattern, also known as dunder names. These can '__main__'
be functions or properties such
as __new__(), __init__(), __name__, __main__, etc.

__* It represents class’s private name pattern. These names

are to be used with private member names of the class to
avoid name clashes between private attributes of base and
derived classes.

Python Variables
Objects are Python’s abstraction for data. In Python, data are represented by objects or by
relations between objects. Use the type() function to get the class name of an object. For
example, the following displays the class name of integer value.
>>> type(10)
<class 'int'>
The type of 10 is int. An object of int class contains a integer literal 10. The same thing for
string value too.
>>> type('Hello World')
<class 'string'>
Thus, all values are actually an object of a class depending upon the value.

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Variables in Python are names given to objects, so that it becomes easy to refer a value. In
other words, a variable points to an object. A literal value is assigned to a variable using
the = operator where the left side should be the name of a variable, and the right side should
be a value. The following assigns a name to an integer value.
>>> num=10
Now, you can refer 10 using a variable name num, as shown below.
>>> print(num) #display value
10
>>> print(num * 2) # multiply and display result
20
Check the type of a variable using the type() function.
>>> type(num) # display type
<class 'int'>
In the same way, the following variable points to a string value.
>>> greet='Hello World'
>>> print(greet)
Hello World
>>> type(greet)
<class 'string'>
Unlike other programming languages like C# or Java, Python is a dynamically-typed
language, which means you don’t need to declare a type of a variable. The type will be
assigned dynamically based on the assigned value.
>>> x=100
>>> type(x)
<class 'int'>
>>> x='Hello World'
>>> type(a)
<class 'string'>
Different operations can be performed on variables using various operators based on the type
of variables. For example, the + operator sums up two int variables, whereas it concatenates
two string type variables, as shown below.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 27

>>> x=5
>>> y=5
>>> x+y
10
>>> x='Hello '
>>> y='World'
>>> x+y
'Hello World'

Object’s Identity
Each object in Python has an id. It is the object’s address in memory represented by an integer
value. The id() function returns the id of the specified object where it is stored, as shown
below.
>>> x=100
>>> id(x)
8791062077568
>>> greet='Hello'
>>> id(greet)
4521652332
An id will be changed if a variable changed to different value.
>>> x=100
>>> id(x)
879106207
>>> x='Hello'
>>> id(x)
2354658
Multiple variables assigned to the same literal value will have the same id, for example:
>>> x=100
>>> id(x)
879106207
>>> y=x

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 28

>>> id(y)
879106207
>>> z=100
>>> id(z)
879106207
Thus, Python optimize memory usage by not creating separate objects if they point to same
value.

Multiple Variables Assignment

You can declare multiple variables and assign values to each variable in a single statement, as
shown below.
>>> x, y, z = 10, 20, 30
In the above example, the first int value 10 will be assigned to the first variable x, the second
value to the second variable y, and the third value to the third variable z. Assignment of
values to variables must be in the same order in they declared.
You can also declare different types of values to variables in a single statement, as shown
below.
>>> x, y, z = 10, 'Hello', True
Assign a value to each individual variable separated by a comma will throw a syntax error, as
shown below.
>>> x = 10, y = 'Hello', z = True
SyntaxError: can’t assign to literal
The type of variables depends on the types of assigned value.
>>> x, y, z = 10, 'Hello', True
>>> type(x)
<class 'int'>
>>> type(y)
<class 'string'>
>>> type(z)
<class 'bool'>

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 29

Naming Conventions
Any suitable identifier can be used as a name of a variable, based on the following rules:
1. The name of the variable should start with either an alphabet letter (lower or upper case) or
an underscore (_), but it cannot start with a digit.
2. More than one alpha-numeric characters or underscores may follow.
3. The variable name can consist of alphabet letter(s), number(s) and underscore(s) only. For
example, myVar, MyVar, _myVar, MyVar123 are valid variable names, but m*var, my-
var, 1myVar are invalid variable names.
4. Variable names in Python are case sensitive. So, NAME, name, nAME, and nAmE are
treated as different variable names.
5. Variable names cannot be a reserved keywords in Python.

Python Data Types

Data types are the classification or categorization of data items. Python supports the following
built-in data types.

Scalar Types
 int: Positive or negative whole numbers (without a fractional part) e.g. -10, 10, 456,
4654654.
 float: Any real number with a floating-point representation in which a fractional component
is denoted by a decimal symbol or scientific notation e.g. 1.23, 3.4556789e2.
 complex: A number with a real and imaginary component represented as x + 2y.
 bool: Data with one of two built-in values True or False. Notice that 'T' and 'F' are
capital. true and false are not valid booleans and Python will throw an error for them.
 None: The None represents the null object in Python. A None is returned by functions that
don’t explicitly return a value.

Sequence Type
A sequence is an ordered collection of similar or different data types. Python has the
following built-in sequence data types:

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 30

 String: A string value is a collection of one or more characters put in single, double or triple
quotes.
 List: A list object is an ordered collection of one or more data items, not necessarily of the
same type, put in square brackets – [ ].
 Tuple: A Tuple object is an ordered collection of one or more data items, not necessarily of
the same type, put in parentheses – ( ).

Mapping Type
Dictionary: A dictionary Dict() object is an unordered collection of data in a key:value pair
form. A collection of such pairs is enclosed in curly brackets. For example: {1:"Steve",
2:"Bill", 3:"Ram", 4: "Farha"}

Set Types
 set: Set is mutable, unordered collection of distinct hashable objects. The set is a Python
implementation of the set in Mathematics. A set object has suitable methods to perform
mathematical set operations like union, intersection, difference, etc.
 frozenset: Frozenset is immutable version of set whose elements are added from other
iterables.

Mutable and Immutable Types

Data objects of the above types are stored in a computer’s memory for processing. Some of
these values can be modified during processing, but contents of others can’t be altered once
they are created in the memory.
Numbers, strings, and Tuples are immutable, which means their contents can’t be altered
after creation.
On the other hand, items in a List or Dictionary object can be modified. It is possible to add,
delete, insert, and rearrange items in a list or dictionary. Hence, they are mutable objects.

Python Operators:
Operators are special symbols that perform some operation on operands and returns the result.
For example, 5 + 6 is an expression where + is an operator that performs arithmetic add

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 31

operation on numeric left operand 5 and the right side operand 6 and returns a sum of two
operands as a result.
Python includes the operator module that includes underlying methods for each operator. For
example, the + operator calls the operator.add(a, b) method.
Example: Operator Methods
>>> 5 + 6
11
>>> import operator
>>> operator.add(5, 6)
11
>>> operator.__add__(5, 6)
11
Above, expression 5 + 6 is equivalent to the expression
operator.add(5,6) and operator.__add__(5, 6). Many function names are those used for special
methods, without the double underscores (dunder methods). For backward compatibility,
many of these have functions with the double underscores kept.
Python includes the following categories of operators:
 Arithmetic Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Comparison Operators
 Logical Operators
 Identity Operators
 Membership Test Operators
 Bitwise Operators

Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators perform the common mathematical operation on the numeric operands.
The arithmetic operators return the type of result depends on the type of operands, as below.
1. If either operand is a complex number, the result is converted to complex;
2. If either operand is a floating point number, the result is converted to floating point;
3. If both operands are integers, then the result is an integer and no conversion is needed.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 32

The following table lists all the arithmetic operators in Python:
Operation Operator Function Example in Python Shell

Addition: Sum of two + operator.add(a,b) >>> x = 5; y = 6

operands >>> x + y
11
>>> import operator
>>> operator.add(5,6)
11
Subtraction: Left operand - operator.sub(a,b) >>> x = 10; y = 5
minus right operand >>> x - y
5
>>> import operator
>>> operator.sub(10, 5)
5
Multiplication * operator.mul(a,b) >>> x = 5; y = 6
>>> x * y
30
>>> import operator
>>> operator.mul(5,6)
30
Exponentiation: Left operand ** operator.pow(a,b) >>> x = 2; y = 3
raised to the power of right >>> x ** y
8
>>> import operator
>>> operator.pow(2, 3)
8
Division / operator.truediv(a,b) >>> x = 6; y = 3
>>> x / y
2
>>> import operator
>>> operator.truediv(6, 3)
2
Floor division: equivilant // operator.floordiv(a,b) >>> x = 6; y = 5
to math.floor(a/b) >>> x // y
1
>>> import operator
>>> operator.floordiv(6,5)
1
Modulus: Reminder of a/b % operator.mod(a, b) >>> x = 11; y = 3
>>> x % y
2
>>> import operator
>>> operator.mod(11, 3)
2

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 33

Assignment Operators
The assignment operators are used to assign values to variables. The following table lists all
the arithmetic operators in Python:
Operator Function Example in Python Shell

= >>> x = 5;
>>> x
5
+= operator.iadd(a,b) >>> x = 5
>>> x += 5
10
>>> import operator
>>> x = operator.iadd(5, 5)
10
-= operator.isub(a,b) >>> x = 5
>>> x -= 2
3
>>> import operator
>>> x = operator.isub(5,2)
*= operator.imul(a,b) >>> x = 2
>>> x *= 3
6
>>> import operator
>>> x = operator.imul(2, 3)
/= operator.itruediv(a,b) >>> x = 6
>>> x /= 3
2
>>> import operator
>>> x = operator.itruediv(6, 3)
//= operator.ifloordiv(a,b) >>> x = 6
>>> x //= 5
1
>>> import operator
>>> operator.ifloordiv(6,5)
%= operator.imod(a, b) >>> x = 11
>>> x %= 3
2
>>> import operator
>>> operator.imod(11, 3)
2
&= operator.iand(a, b) >>> x = 11
>>> x &= 3
3

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 34

Operator Function Example in Python Shell

>>> import operator

>>> operator.iand(11, 3)
3
|= operator.ior(a, b) >>> x = 3
>>> x |= 4
7
>>> import operator
>>> operator.ior(3, 4)
7
^= operator.ixor(a, b) >>> x = 5
>>> x ^= 2
7
>>> import operator
>>> operator.ixor(5, 2)
7
>>= operator.irshift(a, b) >>> x = 5
>>> x >>= 2
1
>>> import operator
>>> operator.irshift(5, 2)
1
<<= operator.ilshift(a, b) >>> x = 5
>>> x <<= 2
20
>>> import operator
>>> operator.ilshift(5, 2)
20
Comparison Operators
The comparison operators compare two operands and return a boolean either True or False.
The following table lists comparison operators in Python.
Example in Python
Operator Function Description Shell

> operator.gt(a,b) True if the left operand is >>> x = 5; y = 6

higher than the right one >>> x > y
False
>>> import operator
>>> operator.gt(5,6)
False
< operator.lt(a,b) True if the left operand is >>> x = 5; y = 6

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 35

 Example in Python
Operator Function Description Shell

lower than right one >>> x < y

True
>>> import operator
>>> operator.lt(5,6)
True
== operator.eq(a,b) True if the operands are equal >>> x = 5; y = 6
>>> x == y
False
>>> import operator
>>> operator.eq(5,6)
False
!= operator.ne(a,b) True if the operands are not >>> x = 5; y = 6
equal >>> x != y
True
>>> import operator
>>> operator.ne(5,6)
True
>= operator.ge(a,b) True if the left operand is >>> x = 5; y = 6
higher than or equal to the >>> x >= y
right one False
>>> import operator
>>> operator.ge(5,6)
False
<= operator.le(a,b) True if the left operand is >>> x = 5; y = 6
lower than or equal to the >>> x <= y
right one True
>>> import operator
>>> operator.le(5,6)
True
Logical Operators
The logical operators are used to combine two boolean expressions. The logical operations are
generally applicable to all objects, and support truth tests, identity tests, and boolean
operations.
Operator Description Example

and True if both are true >>> x = 5; y = 6

>>> x > 1 and y <10
True

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 36

Operator Description Example

or True if at least one is true >>> x = 5; y = 6

>>> x > 6 or y <10
True
not Returns True if an expression evaluates to >>> x = 5
false and vice-versa >>> not x > 1
False
Identity Operators
The identity operators check whether the two objects have the same id value i.e. both the
objects point to the same memory location.
Operator Function Description Example in Python Shell

is operator.is_(a,b) True if both are true >>> x = 5; y = 6

>>> x is y
False
>>> import operator
>>> operator.is_(x,y)
False
is not operator.is_not(a,b) True if at least one is >>> x = 5; y = 6
true >>> x is not y
True
>>> import operator
>>> operator.is_not(x, y)
True
Membership Test Operators
The membership test operators in and not in test whether the sequence has a given item or not.
For the string and bytes types, x in y is True if and only if x is a substring of y.
Operator Function Description Example in Python Shell

in operator.contains(a,b) Returns True if the >>> nums = [1,2,3,4,5]

sequence contains the >>> 1 in nums
specified item else True
>>> 10 in nums
returns False.
False
>>> 'str' in 'string'
True
>>> import operator
>>> operator.contains(nums, 2)
True

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 37

Operator Function Description Example in Python Shell

not in not Returns True if the >>> nums = [1,2,3,4,5]

operator.contains(a,b) sequence does not >>> 1 not in nums
contains the specified False
>>> 10 not in nums
item, else returns False.
True
>>> 'str' not in 'string'
False
>>> import operator
>>> not operator.contains(nums,
2)
False

Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators perform operations on binary operands.
Operator Function Description Example in Python Shell

& operator.and_(a,b) Sets each bit to 1 if >>> x=5; y=10

both bits are 1. >>> z=x & y
>>> z
0
>>> import operator
>>> operator.and_(x, y)
0
| operator.or_(a,b) Sets each bit to 1 if one >>> x=5; y=10
of two bits is 1. >>> z=x | y
>>> z
15
>>> import operator
>>> operator.or_(x, y)
15
^ operator.xor(a,b) Sets each bit to 1 if >>> x=5; y=10
only one of two bits is >>> z=x ^ y
1. >>> z
15
>>> import operator
>>> operator.xor(x, y)
15
~ operator.invert(a) Inverts all the bits. >>> x=5
>>> ~x
-6
>>> import operator
>>> operator.invert(x)
-6

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 38

Operator Function Description Example in Python Shell

<< operator.lshift(a,b) Shift left by pushing >>> x=5

zeros in from the right >>> x<<2
and let the leftmost bits 20
>>> import operator
fall off.
>>> operator.lshift(x,2)
20
>> operator.rshift(a,b) Shift right by pushing >>> x=5
copies of the leftmost >>> x>>2
bit in from the left, and 1
>>> import operator
let the rightmost bits
>>> operator.rshift(x,2)
fall off. 1

Precedence and Associativity

Operator precedence determines the way in which operators are parsed with respect to each
other. Operators with higher precedence become the operands of operators with lower
precedence. Associativity determines the way in which operators of the same precedence are
parsed. Almost all the operators have left-to-right associativity. Operator precedence is listed in
the following table starting with the highest precedence to lowest precedence.

Python Operators Precedence

The following table lists all operators from highest precedence to lowest.

Sr. No. Operator & Description

1
**
Exponentiation (raise to the power)

2
~+-
Complement, unary plus and minus (method
names for the last two are +@ and -@)

3
* / % //
Multiply, divide, modulo and floor division

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 39

 4
+-
Addition and subtraction

5
>> <<
Right and left bitwise shift

6
&
Bitwise 'AND'

7
^|
Bitwise exclusive `OR' and regular `OR'

8
<= < > >=
Comparison operators

9
<> == !=
Equality operators

10
= %= /= //= -= += *= **=
Assignment operators

11
is is not
Identity operators

12
in not in
Membership operators

13
not or and
Logical operators

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 40

1.6. Python Object Types - Number, Strings, Lists,
Dictionaries, Tuples, Files, User Defined Classes

Python Number Types: int, float, complex

Python includes three numeric types to represent numbers: integers, float, and complex
number.

int
In Python, integers are zero, positive or negative whole numbers without a fractional part and
having unlimited precision, e.g. 0, 100, -10. The followings are valid integer literals in
Python.
>>> 0
0
>>> 100
100
>>> -10
-10
>>> 1234567890
1234567890
>>> y=5000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
5000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
Integers can be binary, octal, and hexadecimal values.
>>> 0b11011000 # binary
216
>>> 0o12 # octal
10
>>> 0x12 # hexadecimal
18

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 41

All integer literals or variables are objects of the int class. Use the type() method to get the
class name, as shown below.
>>>type(100)
<class 'int'> # type of x is int

>>> x=1234567890
>>> type(x)
<class 'int'> # type of x is int

>>> y=5000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
>>> type(y) # type of y is int
<class 'int'>
Leading zeros in non-zero integers are not allowed e.g. 000123 is invalid number, 0000 is 0.
>>> x=01234567890
SyntaxError: invalid token
Python does not allow comma as number delimiter. Use underscore _ as a delimiter instead.
>>> x=1_234_567_890
>>> x
1234567890
Note that integers must be without a fractional part (decimal point). It includes a fractional
then it becomes a float.
>>> x=5
>>> type(x)
<class 'int'>
>>> x=5.0
>>> type(x)
<class 'float'>
The int() function converts a string or float to int.
>>> int('100')
100
>>> int('-10')

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 42

-10
>>> int('100', 2)
4

Binary
A number having 0b with eight digits in the combination of 0 and 1 represent the binary
numbers in Python. For example, 0b11011000 is a binary number equivalent to integer 216.
>>> x=0b11011000
>>> x
216
>>> x=0b_1101_1000
>>> x
216
>>> type(x)
<class 'int'>

Octal
A number having 0o or 0O as prefix represents an octal number. For example, 0O12 is
equivalent to integer 10.
>>> x=0o12
>>> x
10
>>> type(x)
<class 'int'>

Hexadecimal
A number with 0x or 0X as prefix represents hexadecimal number. For example, 0x12 is
equivalent to integer 18.
>>> x=0x12
>>> x
18
>>> type(x)

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 43

<class 'int'>

Float
In Python, floating point numbers (float) are positive and negative real numbers with a
fractional part denoted by the decimal symbol . or the scientific notation E or e, e.g. 1234.56,
3.142, -1.55, 0.23.
>>> f=1.2
>>> f
1.2
>>> type(f)
<class 'float'>
Floats can be separated by the underscore _, e.g. 123_42.222_013 is a valid float.
>>> f=123_42.222_013
>>> f
12342.222013
Floats has the maximum size depends on your system. The float beyond its maximum size
referred as "inf", "Inf", "INFINITY", or "infinity". Float 2e400 will be considered as infinity
for most systems.
>>> f=2e400
>>> f
inf
Scientific notation is used as a short representation to express floats having many digits. For
example: 345.56789 is represented as 3.4556789e2 or 3.4556789E2
>>> f=1e3
>>> f
1000.0
>>> f=1e5
>>> f
100000.0
>>> f=3.4556789e2
>>> f

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 44

345.56789
Use the float() function to convert string, int to float.
>>> float('5.5')
5.5
>>> float('5')
5.0
>>> float('-5')
-5.0
>>> float('1e3')
1000.0
>>> float('-Infinity')
-inf
>>> float('inf')
inf

Complex Number
A complex number is a number with real and imaginary components. For example, 5 + 6j is a
complex number where 5 is the real component and 6 multiplied by j is an imaginary
component.
>>> a=5+2j
>>> a
(5+2j)
>>> type(a)
<class 'complex'>
You must use j or J as imaginary component. Using other character will throw syntax error.
>>> a=5+2k
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
>>> a=5+j
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 45

Arithmetic Operators
The following table list arithmetic operators on integer values:
Operator Description Example

+ (Addition) Adds operands on either side of the operator. >>> a=10; b=20
>>> a+b
30

- (Subtraction) Subtracts the right-hand operand from the left- >>> a=10; b=20
hand operand. >>> a-b
-10

* (Multiplication) Multiplies values on either side of the >>> a=10; b=20

operator. >>> a*b
200

/ (Division) Divides the left-hand operand by the right- >>> a=10; b=20
hand operand. >>> b/a
2

% (Modulus) Returns the remainder of the division of the >>> a=10; b=22
left-hand operand by right-hand operand. >>> b%a
2

** (Exponent) Calculates the value of the left-operand raised >>> a=3

to the right-operand. >>> a**3
27

// (Floor Division) The division of operands where the result is >>> a=9; b=2
the quotient in which the digits after the >>> a//b
decimal point are removed. But if one of the 4
operands is negative, the result is floored, i.e.,
rounded away from zero (towards negative
infinity):

Arithmetic Operations on Complex Numbers

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers is straightforward. Real and imaginary parts are
added/subtracted to get the result.
>>> a=6+4j
>>> a+2

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 46

(8+4j)
>>> a*2
(12+8j)
>>> a/2
(3+2j)
>>> a**2
(20+48j)
>>> b=3+2j
>>> a+b
(9+6j)
>>> a-b
(3+2j)
The arithmetic operators can also be used with two complex numbers, as shown below.
>>> a=6+4j
>>> b=3+2j
>>> a+b
(9+6j)
>>> a-b
(3+2j)
>>> a*b
(10+24j)
The process of multiplying these two complex numbers is very similar to multiplying two
binomials. Multiply each term in the first number by each term in the second number.
a=6+4j
b=3+2j
c=a*b
c=(6+4j)*(3+2j)
c=(18+12j+12j+8*-1)
c=10+24j

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 47

Built-in Functions
A numeric object of one type can be converted in another type using the following functions:
Built-in Function Description

int Returns the integer object from a float or a string containing

digits.

float Returns a floating-point number object from a number or string

containing digits with decimal point or scientific notation.

complex Returns a complex number with real and imaginary

components.

hex Converts a decimal integer into a hexadecimal number with 0x

prefix.

oct Converts a decimal integer in an octal representation with 0o

prefix.

pow Returns the power of the specified numbers.

abs Returns the absolute value of a number without considering its

sign.

round Returns the rounded number.

Python - String
In Python, string is an immutable sequence data type. It is the sequence of Unicode characters
wrapped inside single, double, or triple quotes.
The followings are valid string literals in Python.
'This is a string in Python' # string in single quotes
"This is a string in Python" # string in double quotes
'''This is a string in Python''' # string in triple quotes
"""This is a string in Python""" # string in triple double-quotes
A string literal can be assigned to a variable, as shown below.
str1='This is a string in Python'
print(str1)

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 48

str2="This is a string in Python"
print(str2)
Output:
This is a string in Python
This is a string in Python
Multi-line strings must be embed in triple quotes, as shown below.
str1='''This is
the first
Multi-line string.
'''
print(str1)

str2="""This is
the second
Multi-line
string."""
print(str2)
Output:
This is
the first
Multi-line string.

This is
the second
Multi-line
string.
If a string literal required to embed double quotes as part of a string then, it should be put in
single quotes. Likewise, if a string includes a single quote as a part of a string then, it should
be written in double quotes.
str1='Welcome to "Python Tutorial" on TutorialsTeacher'
print(str1)

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 49

str2="Welcome to 'Python Tutorial' on TutorialsTeacher"
print(str2)

Output:
Welcome to "Python Tutorial" from TutorialsTeacher
Welcome to 'Python Tutorial' on TutorialsTeacher
Use the len() function to retrieve the length of a string, as shown below.
>>> greet='Hello'
>>> len(greet)
5
A sequence is defined as an ordered collection of items. Hence, a string is an ordered
collection of characters. The sequence uses an index, starting with zero to fetch a certain item
(a character in case of a string) from it.
>>> greet='hello'
>>> greet[0]
'h'
>>> greet[1]
'e'
>>> greet[2]
'l'
>>> greet[3]
'l'
>>> greet[4]
'o'
>>> greet[5] # throw error if index > len(string)-1
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#2>", line 1, in <module>
greet[5]
IndexError: string index out of range
Python supports negative indexing too, starting with -(length of string) till -1.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 50

>>> greet='hello'
>>> greet[-5]
'h'
>>> greet[-4]
'e'
>>> greet[-3]
'l'
>>> greet[-2]
'l'
>>> greet[-1]
'o'
The string is an immutable object. Hence, it is not possible to modify it. The attempt to assign
different characters at a certain index results in errors.
>>> greet='hello'
>>> greet[0]='A'
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#2>", line 1, in <module>
greet[0]='A'
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

str Class
All strings are objects of the str class in Python.
>>> greet='hello'
>>> type(greet)
<class 'str'>
Use the str() function to convert a number to a string.
>>> str(100)
'100'
>>> str(-10)
'-10'
>>> str(True)

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 51

'True'

Escape Sequences
The escape character is used to invoke an alternative implementation of the subsequent
character in a sequence. In Python, backslash \ is used as an escape character. Use a backslash
character followed by the character you want to insert in a string e.g. \' to include a quote,
or \" to include a double quotes in a string, as shown below.
str1='Welcome to \'Python Tutorial\' on TutorialsTeacher'
print(str1)
str2="Welcome to \"Python Tutorial\" on TutorialsTeacher"
print(str2)
Output:
Welcome to 'Python Tutorial' from TutorialsTeacher
Welcome to "Python Tutorial" on TutorialsTeacher
Use r or R to ignore escape sequences in a string.
str1=r'Welcome to \'Python Tutorial\' on TutorialsTeacher'
print(str1)
Output:
Welcome to \'Python Tutorial\' from TutorialsTeacher

The following table lists escape sequences in Python.

Escape sequence Description Example

\\ Backslash >>> "Hello\\Hi"

Hello\Hi

\b Backspace >>> "ab\bc"

ac

\f Form feed

\n Newline >>> "hello\nworld"

Hello
world

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Escape sequence Description Example

\nnn Octal notation, where n is >>> '\101'

in the range 0-7 A

\t Tab >>> 'Hello\tPython'

Hello Python

\xnn Hexadecimal notation, >>> '\x48\x69'

where n is in the range 0-9, Hi
a-f, or A-F

\onn Octal notation, where n is >>> "\110\151"

in the range 0-7 Hi

String Operators
Obviously, arithmetic operators don't operate on strings. However, there are special operators
for string processing.
Operator Description Example

+ Appends the second string to the >>> a='hello'

first >>> b='world'
>>> a+b
'helloworld'

* Concatenates multiple copies of >>> a='hello'

the same string >>> a*3
'hellohellohello'

[] Returns the character at the given >>> a = 'Python'

index >>> a[2]
t

[:] Fetches the characters in the range >>> a = 'Python'

specified by two index operands >>> a[0:2]
separated by the : symbol 'Py'

in Returns true if a character exists >>> a = 'Python'

in the given string >>> 'x' in a
False
>>> 'y' in a

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 Operator Description Example

True
>>> 'p' in a
False

not in Returns true if a character does >>> a = 'Python'

not exist in the given string >>> 'x' not in a
True
>>> 'y' not in a
False

String Methods
Method Description

str.capitalize() Returns the copy of the string with its first character capitalized and
the rest of the letters are in lowercased.

string.casefold() Returns a lowered case string. It is similar to the lower() method,

but the casefold() method converts more characters into lower case.

string.center() Returns a new centered string of the specified length, which is

padded with the specified character. The default character is space.

string.count() Searches (case-sensitive) the specified substring in the given string

and returns an integer indicating occurrences of the substring.

string.endswith() Returns True if a string ends with the specified suffix (case-
sensitive), otherwise returns False.

string.expandtabs() Returns a string with all tab characters \t replaced with one or more
space, depending on the number of characters before \t and the
specified tab size.

string.find() Returns the index of the first occurrence of a substring in the given
string (case-sensitive). If the substring is not found it returns -1.

string.index() Returns the index of the first occurrence of a substring in the given
string.

string.isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric (either

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 54

 Method Description

alphabets or numbers). If not, it returns False.

string.isalpha() Returns True if all characters in a string are alphabetic (both

lowercase and uppercase) and returns False if at least one character
is not an alphabet.

string.isascii() Returns True if the string is empty or all characters in the string are
ASCII.

string.isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in a string are decimal characters. If

not, it returns False.

string.isdigit() Returns True if all characters in a string are digits or Unicode char
of a digit. If not, it returns False.

string.isidentifier() Checks whether a string is valid identifier string or not. It returns

True if the string is a valid identifier otherwise returns False.

string.islower() Checks whether all the characters of a given string are lowercased
or not. It returns True if all characters are lowercased and False
even if one character is uppercase.

string.isnumeric() Checks whether all the characters of the string are numeric
characters or not. It will return True if all characters are numeric
and will return False even if one character is non-numeric.

string.isprintable() Returns True if all the characters of the given string are Printable. It
returns False even if one character is Non-Printable.

string.isspace() Returns True if all the characters of the given string are
whitespaces. It returns False even if one character is not whitespace.

string.istitle() Checks whether each word's first character is upper case and the
rest are in lower case or not. It returns True if a string is titlecased;
otherwise, it returns False. The symbols and numbers are ignored.

string.isupper() Returns True if all characters are uppercase and False even if one
character is not in uppercase.

string.join() Returns a string, which is the concatenation of the string (on which
it is called) with the string elements of the specified iterable as an

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 55

 Method Description

argument.

string.ljust() Returns the left justified string with the specified width. If the
specified width is more than the string length, then the string's
remaining part is filled with the specified fillchar.

string.lower() Returns the copy of the original string wherein all the characters are
converted to lowercase.

string.lstrip() Returns a copy of the string by removing leading characters

specified as an argument.

string.maketrans() Returns a mapping table that maps each character in the given string
to the character in the second string at the same position. This
mapping table is used with the translate() method, which will
replace characters as per the mapping table.

string.partition() Splits the string at the first occurrence of the specified string
separator sep argument and returns a tuple containing three
elements, the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the
part after the separator.

string.replace() Returns a copy of the string where all occurrences of a substring are
replaced with another substring.

string.rfind() Returns the highest index of the specified substring (the last
occurrence of the substring) in the given string.

string.rindex() Returns the index of the last occurrence of a substring in the given
string.

string.rjust() Returns the right justified string with the specified width. If the
specified width is more than the string length, then the string's
remaining part is filled with the specified fill char.

string.rpartition() Splits the string at the last occurrence of the specified string
separator sep argument and returns a tuple containing three
elements, the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the
part after the separator.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 56

 Method Description

string.rsplit() Splits a string from the specified separator and returns a list object
with string elements.

string.rstrip() Returns a copy of the string by removing the trailing characters

specified as argument.

string.split() Splits the string from the specified separator and returns a list object
with string elements.

string.splitlines() Splits the string at line boundaries and returns a list of lines in the
string.

string.startswith() Returns True if a string starts with the specified prefix. If not, it
returns False.

string.strip() Returns a copy of the string by removing both the leading and the
trailing characters.

string.swapcase() Returns a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to

lowercase and vice versa. Symbols and letters are ignored.

string.title() Returns a string where each word starts with an uppercase

character, and the remaining characters are lowercase.

string.translate() Returns a string where each character is mapped to its

corresponding character in the translation table.

string.upper() Returns a string in the upper case. Symbols and numbers remain
unaffected.

string.zfill() Returns a copy of the string with '0' characters padded to the left. It
adds zeros (0) at the beginning of the string until the length of a
string equals the specified width parameter.

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Python - List
In Python, the list is a mutable sequence type. A list object contains one or more items of
different data types in the square brackets [] separated by a comma. The following declares
the lists variable.
mylist=[] # empty list
print(mylist)
names=["Jeff", "Bill", "Steve", "Mohan"] # string list
print(names)
item=[1, "Jeff", "Computer", 75.50, True] # list with heterogeneous data
print(item)
A list can contain unlimited data depending upon the limitation of your computer's memory.
nums=[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,
21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,
41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60]
List items can be accessed using a zero-based index in the square brackets []. Indexes start
from zero and increment by one for each item. Accessing an item using a large index than the
list's total items would result in IndexError.
names=["Jeff", "Bill", "Steve", "Mohan"]
print(names[0]) # returns "Jeff"
print(names[1]) # returns "Bill"
print(names[2]) # returns "Steve"
print(names[3]) # returns "Mohan"
print(names[4]) # throws IndexError: list index out of range
A list can contain multiple inner lists as items that can be accessed using indexes.
nums=[1, 2, 3, [4, 5, 6, [7, 8, [9]]], 10]
print(nums[0]) # returns 1
print(nums[1]) # returns 2
print(nums[3]) # returns [4, 5, 6, [7, 8, [9]]]
print(nums[4]) # returns 10
print(nums[3][0]) # returns 4

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 58

print(nums[3][3]) # returns [7, 8, [9]]
print(nums[3][3][0]) # returns 7
print(nums[3][3][2]) # returns [9]
Output:
1
2
[4, 5, 6, [7, 8, [9]]]
10
4
[7, 8, [9]]
7
[9]

List Class
All the list objects are the objects of the list class in Python. Use the list() constructor to
convert from other sequence types such as tuple, set, dictionary, string to list.
nums=[1,2,3,4]
print(type(nums))

mylist=list('Hello')
print(mylist)

nums=list({1:'one',2:'two'})
print(nums)

nums=list((10, 20, 30))

print(nums)
nums=list({100, 200, 300})
print(nums)
Output:
<class 'list'>

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 59

['H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
[1, 2]
[10, 20, 30]
[100, 200, 300]

Iterate List
A list items can be iterate using the for loop.
names=["Jeff", "Bill", "Steve", "Mohan"]
for name in names:
print(name)
Output:
Jeff
Bill
Steve
Mohan

Update List
The list is mutable. You can add new items in the list using the append() or insert() methods,
and update items using indexes.
names=["Jeff", "Bill", "Steve", "Mohan"]
names[0]="Newton" # update 1st item at index 0
names[1]="Ram" # update 2nd item at index 1
names.append("Abdul") # adds new item at the end
print(names)
Output:
["Newton", "Ram", "Steve", "Mohan", "Abdul"]
Be careful, an error "index out of range" will be thrown if the element at the specified index
does not exist.

Remove Items
Use the remove(), pop() methods, or del keyword to delete the list item or the whole list.
names=["Jeff", "Bill", "Steve", "Mohan"]

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 60

del names[0] # removes item at index 0
print("After del names[0]: ", names)
names.remove("Bill") # removes "Bill"
print("After names.remove("Bill"): ", names)
print(names.pop(0)) # return and removes item at index 0
print("After names.pop(0): ", names)
names.pop() # return removes item at last index
print("After names.pop(): ", names)
del names # removes entire list object
print(names)
Output:
After del names[0]: ["Bill", "Steve", "Mohan"]
After names.remove("Bill"): ["Steve", "Mohan"]
"Steve"
After names.pop(0):["Mohan"]
"Mohan"
After names.pop(): []
NameError: name 'names' is not defined

List Operators
Like the string, the list is also a sequence. Hence, the operators used with strings are also
available for use with the list (and tuple also).
Operator Example

The + operator returns a list containing all the >>> L1=[1,2,3]

elements of the first and the second list. >>> L2=[4,5,6]
>>> L1+L2
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
The * operator concatenates multiple copies >>> L1=[1,2,3]
of the same list. >>> L1*3
[1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
The slice operator [] returns the item at the >>> L1=[1, 2, 3]
given index. A negative index counts the >>> L1[0]
position from the right side. 1
>>> L1[-3]

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 Operator Example

1
>>> L1[1]
2
>>> L1[-2]
2
>>> L1[2]
3
>>> L1[-1]
3
The range slice operator [FromIndex : Untill >>> L1=[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
Index - 1] fetches items in the range specified >>> L1[1:]
by the two index operands separated by : [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
>>> L1[:3]
symbol.
[1, 2, 3]
If the first operand is omitted, the range starts >>> L1[1:4]
from the index 0. If the second operand is [2, 3, 4]
omitted, the range goes up to the end of the >>> L1[3:]
list. [4, 5, 6]
>>> L1[:3]
[1, 2, 3]
>>> L1[-5:-3]
[2, 3]
The in operator returns true if an item exists >>> L1=[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
in the given list. >>> 4 in L1
True
>>> 10 in L1
False
The not in operator returns true if an item >>> L1=[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
does not exist in the given list. >>> 5 not in L1
False
>>> 10 not in L1
True
List Methods
List Method Description

list.append() Adds a new item at the end of the list.

list.clear() Removes all the items from the list and make it empty.

list.copy() Returns a shallow copy of a list.

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List Method Description

list.count() Returns the number of times an element occurs in the list.

list.extend() Adds all the items of the specified iterable (list, tuple, set,
dictionary, string) to the end of the list.

list.index() Returns the index position of the first occurrence of the specified
item. Raises a ValueError if there is no item found.

list.insert() Inserts an item at a given position.

list.pop() Returns an item from the specified index position and also removes
it from the list. If no index is specified, the list.pop() method
removes and returns the last item in the list.

list.remove() Removes the first occurance of the specified item from the list. It the
specified item not found then throws a ValueError.

list.reverse() Reverses the index positions of the elements in the list. The first
element will be at the last index, the second element will be at
second last index and so on.

list.sort() Sorts the list items in ascending, descending, or in custom order.

Python - Tuples
Tuple is an immutable (unchangeable) collection of elements of different data types. It is an
ordered collection, so it preserves the order of elements in which they were defined.
Tuples are defined by enclosing elements in parentheses ( ), separated by a comma. The
following declares a tuple type variable.
Example: Tuple Variable Declaration
tpl=() # empty tuple
print(tpl)
names = ('Jeff', 'Bill', 'Steve', 'Yash') # string tuple
print(names)
nums = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) # int tuple

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 63

print(nums)
employee=(1, 'Steve', True, 25, 12000) # heterogeneous data tuple
print(employee)
Output:
()
('Jeff', 'Bill', 'Steve', 'Yash')
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
(1, 'Steve', True, 25, 12000)
Note: However, it is not necessary to enclose the tuple elements in parentheses. The tuple
object can include elements separated by a comma without parentheses.
Example: Tuple Variable Declaration
names = 'Jeff', 'Bill', 'Steve', 'Yash' # string tuple
print(names)
nums = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 # int tuple
print(nums)
employee=1, 'Steve', True, 25, 12000 # heterogeneous data tuple
print(employee)
Output:
('Jeff', 'Bill', 'Steve', 'Yash')
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
(1, 'Steve', True, 25, 12000)
Tuples cannot be declared with a single element unless followed by a comma.
Example: Tuple Variable Declaration
names = ('Jeff') # considered as string type
print(names)
print(type(names))
names = ('Jeff',) # tuple with single element
print(names)
print(type(names))
Output:
'Jeff'

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 64

<class 'string'>
(Jeff)
<class 'tuple'>

Access Tuple Elements

Each element in the tuple is accessed by the index in the square brackets []. An index starts
with zero and ends with (number of elements - 1), as shown below.
Example: Access Tuple Elements using Indexes
names = ('Jeff', 'Bill', 'Steve', 'Yash')
print(names[0]) # prints 'Jeff'
print(names[1]) # prints 'Bill'
print(names[2]) # prints 'Steve'
print(names[3]) # prints 'Yash'
nums = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
print(nums[0]) # prints 1
print(nums[1]) # prints 2
print(nums[4]) # prints 5
Output:
Jeff
Bill
Steve
Yash
1
2
5
The tuple supports negative indexing also, the same as list type. The negative index for
the first element starts from -number of elements and ends with -1 for the last element.
Example: Negative Indexing
names = ('Jeff', 'Bill', 'Steve', 'Yash')
print(names[-4]) # prints 'Jeff'
print(names[-3]) # prints 'Bill'

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 65

print(names[-2]) # prints 'Steve'
print(names[-1]) # prints 'Yash'
Output:
Jeff
Bill
Steve
Yash
If the element at the specified index does not exist, then the error "index out of range"
will be thrown.
>>> names[5]
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
IndexError: tuple index out of range
Tuple elements can be unpacked and assigned to variables, as shown below. However,
the number of variables must match with the number of elements in a tuple; otherwise,
an error will be thrown.
Example: Access Tuple Elements using Indexes
names = ('Jeff', 'Bill', 'Steve', 'Yash')
a, b, c, d = names # unpack tuple
print(a, b, c, d)
Output:
Jeff Bill Steve Yash

Update or Delete Tuple Elements

Tuple is unchangeable. So, once a tuple is created, any operation that seeks to change its
contents is not allowed. For instance, trying to modify or delete an element
of names tuple will result in an error.
>>> names = ('Jeff', 'Bill', 'Steve', 'Yash')
>>> names[0] = 'Swati'
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 66

TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
>>> del names[0]
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: 'tuple' object doesn't support item deletion
However, you can delete an entire tuple using the del keyword.
>>> del names

Tuple Class
The underlying type of a tuple is the tuple class. Check the type of a variable using
the type() function.
Example: Tuple Variable Declaration
names = ('Jeff', 'Bill', 'Steve', 'Yash')
print('names type: ', type(names))
nums = (1,2,3,4,5)
print('nums type: ', type(nums))
Output:
names type: <class 'tuple'>
nums type: <class 'tuple'>
The tuple() constructor is used to convert any iterable to tuple type.
Example: Tuple Variable Declaration
tpl = tuple('Hello') # converts string to tuple
print(tpl)
tpl = tuple([1,2,3,4,5]) # converts list to tuple
print(tpl)
tpl = tuple({1,2,3,4,5}) # converts set to tuple
print(tpl)
tpl = tuple({1:"One",2:"Two"}) # converts dictionary to tuple
print(tpl)
Output:
('H','e','l','l','o')

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 67

(1,2,3,4,5)
(1,2,3,4,5)
(1,2)

Tuple Operations
Like string, tuple objects are also a sequence. Hence, the operators used with strings are also
available for the tuple.
Operator Example

The + operator returns a tuple containing >>> t1=(1,2,3)

all the elements of the first and the second >>> t2=(4,5,6)
tuple object. >>> t1+t2
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
>>> t2+(7,)
(4, 5, 6, 7)
The * operator Concatenates multiple >>> t1=(1,2,3)
copies of the same tuple. >>> t1*4
(1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3)
The [] operator Returns the item at the >>> t1=(1,2,3,4,5,6)
given index. A negative index counts the >>> t1[3]
position from the right side. 4
>>> t1[-2]
5
The [:] operator returns the items in the >>> t1=(1,2,3,4,5,6)
range specified by two index operands >>> t1[1:3]
separated by the : symbol. (2, 3)
>>> t1[3:]
If the first operand is omitted, the range
(4, 5, 6)
starts from zero. If the second operand is >>> t1[:3]
omitted, the range goes up to the end of the (1, 2, 3)
tuple.

The in operator returns true if an item >>> t1=(1,2,3,4,5,6)

exists in the given tuple. >>> 5 in t1
True
>>> 10 in t1
False
The not in operator returns true if an item >>> t1=(1,2,3,4,5,6)
does not exist in the given tuple. >>> 4 not in t1
False
>>> 10 not in t1
True

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 68

Python - Dictionary
The dictionary is an unordered collection that contains key:value pairs separated by
commas inside curly brackets. Dictionaries are optimized to retrieve values when the key
is known.
The following declares a dictionary object.
Example: Dictionary
capitals = {"USA":"Washington D.C.", "France":"Paris", "India":"New Delhi"}
Above, capitals is a dictionary object which contains key-value pairs inside { }. The left side
of : is a key, and the right side is a value. The key should be unique and an immutable
object. A number, string or tuple can be used as key. Hence, the following dictionaries are
also valid:
Example: Dictionary Objects
d = {} # empty dictionary
numNames={1:"One", 2: "Two", 3:"Three"} # int key, string value
decNames={1.5:"One and Half", 2.5: "Two and Half", 3.5:"Three and Half"} # float key, string
value
items={("Parker","Reynolds","Camlin"):"pen", ("LG","Whirlpool","Samsung"): "Refrigerator"}
# tuple key, string value
romanNums = {'I':1, 'II':2, 'III':3, 'IV':4, 'V':5} # string key, int value
However, a dictionary with a list as a key is not valid, as the list is mutable:
Error: List as Dict Key
dict_obj = {["Mango","Banana"]:"Fruit", ["Blue", "Red"]:"Color"}
But, a list can be used as a value.
Example: List as Dictionary Value
dict_obj = {"Fruit":["Mango","Banana"], "Color":["Blue", "Red"]}
The same key cannot appear more than once in a collection. If the key appears more than
once, only the last will be retained. The value can be of any data type. One value can be
assigned to more than one key.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 69

Example: Unique Keys
>>> numNames = {1:"One", 2:"Two", 3:"Three", 2:"Two", 1:"One"}
>>> numNames
{1:"One", 2:"Two", 3:"Three"}
The dict is the class of all dictionaries, as shown below.
Example: Distinct Type
>>> numNames = {1:"One", 2:"Two", 3:"Three", 2:"Two", 1:"One"}
>>> type(numNames)
<class 'dict'>
A dictionary can also be created using the dict() constructor method.
Example: dict() Constructor Method
>>> emptydict = dict()
>>> emptydict
{}
>>> numdict = dict(I='one', II='two', III='three')
>>> numdict
{'I': 'one', 'II': 'two', 'III': 'three'}

Access Dictionary
Dictionary is an unordered collection, so a value cannot be accessed using an index;
instead, a key must be specified in the square brackets, as shown below.
Example: Get Dictionary Values
>>> capitals = {"USA":"Washington DC", "France":"Paris", "India":"New Delhi"}
>>>capitals["USA"]
'Washington DC'
>>> capitals["France"]
'Paris'
>>> capitals["usa"] # Error: Key is case-sensitive
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#10>", line 1, in <module>
capitals['usa']

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 70

KeyError: 'usa'
>>> capitals["Japan"] # Error: key must exist
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#10>", line 1, in <module>
capitals['Japan']
KeyError: 'Japan'
Note:
Keys are case-sensitive. So, usa and USA are treated as different keys. If the specified key does
not exist then it will raise an error.
Use the get() method to retrieve the key's value even if keys are not known. It returns None if
the key does not exist instead of raising an error.
Example: Get Dictionary Values
>>> capitals = {"USA":"Washington DC", "France":"Paris", "Japan":"Tokyo", "India":"New
Delhi"}
>>> capitals.get("USA")
'Washington DC'
>>> capitals.get("France")
'Paris'
>>> capitals.get("usa")
>>> capitals.get("Japan")
>>>

Access Dictionary using For Loop

Use the for loop to iterate a dictionary in the Python script.
Example: Access Dictionary Using For Loop
capitals = {"USA":"Washington D.C.", "France":"Paris", "India":"New Delhi"}
for key in capitals:
print("Key = " + key + ", Value = " + capitals[key])
Output
Key = 'USA', Value = 'Washington D.C.'
Key = 'France', Value = 'Paris'

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 71

Key = 'India', Value = 'New Delhi'

Update Dictionary
As mentioned earlier, the key cannot appear more than once. Use the same key and assign a
new value to it to update the dictionary object.
Example: Update Value of Key
>>> captains = {"England":"Root", "Australia":"Smith", "India":"Dhoni"}
>>> captains['India'] = 'Virat'
>>> captains['Australia'] = 'Paine'
>>> captains
{'England': 'Root', 'Australia': 'Paine', 'India': 'Virat'}
Use a new key and assign a value to it. The dictionary will show an additional key-value pair
in it.
Example: Add New Key-Value Pair
>>> captains['SouthAfrica']='Plessis'
>>> captains
{'England': 'Root', 'Australia': 'Paine', 'India': 'Virat', 'SouthAfrica': 'Plessis'}

Deleting Values from a Dictionary

Use the del keyword, pop(), or popitem() methods to delete a pair from a dictionary or the
dictionary object itself. To delete a pair, use its key as a parameter. To delete a dictionary
object, use its name.
Example: Delete Key-Value
>>> captains = {'England': 'Root', 'Australia': 'Paine', 'India': 'Virat', 'Srilanka': 'Jayasurya'}
>>> del captains['Srilanka'] # deletes a key-value pair
>>> captains
{'England': 'Root', 'Australia': 'Paine', 'India': 'Virat'}
>>> del captains # delete dict object
>>> captains
NameError: name 'captains' is not defined
The NameError indicates that the dictionary object has been removed from memory.
Retrieve Dictionary Keys and Values

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 72

The keys() and values() methods return a view objects containing keys and values
respectively.
Example: keys()
>>> d1 = {'name': 'Steve', 'age': 21, 'marks': 60, 'course': 'Computer Engg'}
>>> d1.keys()
dict_keys(['name', 'age', 'marks', 'course'])
>>> d1.values()
dict_values(['Steve', 21, 60, 'Computer Engg'])

Check Dictionary Keys

You can check whether a particular key exists in a dictionary collection or not using
the in or not in keywords, as shown below. Note that it only checks for keys not values.
Example: Check Keys
>>> captains = {'England': 'Root', 'Australia': 'Paine', 'India': 'Virat', 'Srilanka': 'Jayasurya'}
>>> 'England' in captains
True
>>> 'India' in captains
True
>>> 'France' in captains
False
>>> 'USA' not in captains
True

Multi-dimensional Dictionary
Let's assume there are three dictionary objects, as below:
Example: Dictionary
>>> d1={"name":"Steve","age":25, "marks":60}
>>> d2={"name":"Anil","age":23, "marks":75}
>>> d3={"name":"Asha", "age":20, "marks":70}
Let us assign roll numbers to these students and create a multi-dimensional dictionary with
roll number as key and the above dictionaries at their value.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 73

Example: Multi-dimensional Dictionary
>>> students={1:d1, 2:d2, 3:d3}
>>> students
{1: {'name': 'Steve', 'age': 25, 'marks': 60}, 2: {'name': 'Anil', 'age': 23, 'marks': 75}, 3: {'name':
'Asha', 'age': 20, 'marks': 70}}
The student object is a two-dimensional dictionary. Here d1, d2, and d3 are assigned as values
to keys 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The students[1] returns d1.
Example: Access Multi-dimensional Dictionary
>>> students[1]
{'name': 'Steve', 'age': 25, 'marks': 60}
>>> students[1]['age']
25

Built-in Dictionary Methods

Method Description

dict.clear() Removes all the key-value pairs from the dictionary.

dict.copy() Returns a shallow copy of the dictionary.

dict.fromkeys() Creates a new dictionary from the given iterable (string, list, set,
tuple) as keys and with the specified value.

dict.get() Returns the value of the specified key.

dict.items() Returns a dictionary view object that provides a dynamic view of

dictionary elements as a list of key-value pairs. This view object
changes when the dictionary changes.

dict.keys() Returns a dictionary view object that contains the list of keys of the
dictionary.

dict.pop() Removes the key and return its value. If a key does not exist in the
dictionary, then returns the default value if specified, else throws a
KeyError.

dict.popitem() Removes and return a tuple of (key, value) pair from the dictionary.
Pairs are returned in Last In First Out (LIFO) order.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 74

 Method Description

dict.setdefault() Returns the value of the specified key in the dictionary. If the key not
found, then it adds the key with the specified defaultvalue. If the
defaultvalue is not specified then it set None value.

dict.update() Updates the dictionary with the key-value pairs from another
dictionary or another iterable such as tuple having key-value pairs.

dict.values() Returns the dictionary view object that provides a dynamic view of
all the values in the dictionary. This view object changes when the
dictionary changes.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 75

Python - Set
A set is a mutable collection of distinct hashable objects, same as the list and tuple. It is
an unordered collection of objects, meaning it does not record element position or order
of insertion and so cannot access elements using indexes.
The set is a Python implementation of the set in Mathematics. A set object has suitable
methods to perform mathematical set operations like union, intersection, difference, etc.
A set object contains one or more items, not necessarily of the same type, which are separated
by a comma and enclosed in curly brackets {}. The following defines a set object with even
numbers.
Example: Python Set Object
even_nums = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} # set of even numbers
emp = {1, 'Steve', 10.5, True} # set of different objects
A set doesn’t store duplicate objects. Even if an object is added more than once inside
the curly brackets, only one copy is held in the set object. Hence, indexing and slicing
operations cannot be done on a set object.
Example: Set of Distinct Elements
>>> nums = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5}
>>> nums
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
The order of elements in the set is not necessarily the same as the order given at the time of
assignment. Python optimizes the structure of a set for performing operations over it, as
defined in mathematics.
Only immutable (and hashable) objects can be a part of a set object. Numbers (integer, float,
as well as complex), strings, and tuple objects are accepted, but set, list, and dictionary
objects are not.
Example: Set Elements
>>> myset = {(10,10), 10, 20} # valid
>>> myset
{10, 20, (10, 10)}
>>> myset = {[10, 10], 10, 20} # can't add a list

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 76

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#9>", line 1, in <module>
myset = {[10, 10], 10, 20}
TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'
>>> myset = { {10, 10}, 10, 20} # can't add a set
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#9>", line 1, in <module>
myset = { {10, 10}, 10, 20}
TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'
In the above example, (10,10) is a tuple, hence it becomes part of the set. However, [10,10] is
a list, hence an error message is displayed saying that the list is unhashable. (Hashing is a
mechanism in computer science which enables quicker search of objects in the computer’s
memory.)
Even though mutable objects are not stored in a set, the set itself is a mutable object.
Use the set() function to create an empty set. Empty curly braces will create an
empty dictionary instead of an empty set.
Example: Creating an Empty Set
>>> emp = {} # creates an empty dictionary
>>> type(emp)
<class 'dict'>
>>> s = set() # creates an empty set
>>> type(s)
<class 'set'>
The set() function also use to convert string, tuple, or dictionary object to a set object, as
shown below.
Example: Convert Sequence to Set
>>> s = set('Hello') # converts string to set
>>> s
{'e', 'o', 'H', 'l'}
>>> s = set((1,2,3,4,5)) # converts tuple to set
>>> s

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 77

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
>>> d = {1:'One', 2: 'Two'}
>>> s = set(d) # converts dict to set
>>> s
{1, 2}

Modify Set Elements

Use built-in set functions add(), remove() or update() methods to modify set collection.
Example:
>>> s = set() # creates an empty set
>>> s.add(10) # add an element
>>> s.add(20)
>>> s.add(30)
>>> s
{10, 20, 30}
>>> primeNums = {2, 3, 5, 7}
>>> s.update(primeNums) # update set with another set
>>> s
{2, 3, 20, 5, 7, 10, 30}
>>> s.remove(2) # remove an element
>>> s
{3, 20, 5, 7, 10, 30}

Set Operations
As mentioned earlier, the set data type in Python implements as the set defined in
mathematics. Various set operations can be performed. Operators |, &, - and ^ perform union,
intersection, difference, and symmetric difference operations, respectively. Each of these
operators has a corresponding method associated with the built-in set class.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 78

Operation Example

Union: Returns a new set with elements from both >>> s1={1,2,3,4,5}
the sets. >>> s2={4,5,6,7,8}
>>> s1|s2
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Operator: |
Method: set.union() >>> s1={1,2,3,4,5}
>>> s2={4,5,6,7,8}
>>> s1.union(s2)
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
>>> s2.union(s1)
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Intersection: Returns a new set containing >>> s1={1,2,3,4,5}
elements common to both sets. >>> s2={4,5,6,7,8}
>>> s1&s2
{4, 5}
Operator: &
>>> s2&s1
Method: set.intersection() {4, 5}
>>> s1={1,2,3,4,5}
>>> s2={4,5,6,7,8}
>>> s1.intersection(s2)
{4, 5}
>>> s2.intersection(s1)
{4, 5}
Difference: Returns a set containing elements >>> s1={1,2,3,4,5}
only in the first set, but not in the second set. >>> s2={4,5,6,7,8}
>>> s1-s2
{1, 2, 3}
Operator: -
>>> s2-s1
Method: set.difference() {8, 6, 7}
>>> s1={1,2,3,4,5}
>>> s2={4,5,6,7,8}
>>> s1.difference(s2)
{1, 2, 3}
>>> s2.difference(s1)
{8, 6, 7}
Symmetric Difference: Returns a set consisting >>> s1={1,2,3,4,5}
of elements in both sets, excluding the common >>> s2={4,5,6,7,8}
elements. >>> s1^s2
{1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8}
>>> s2^s1
Operator: ^ {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8}
Method: set.symmetric_difference() >>> s1={1,2,3,4,5}
>>> s2={4,5,6,7,8}
>>> s1.symmetric_difference(s2)
{1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8}
>>> s2.symmetric_difference(s1)
{1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8}

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 79

Set Methods
The following table lists built-in set methods:
Method Description

set.add() Adds an element to the set. If an element is

already exist in the set, then it does not add that
element.

set.clear() Removes all the elements from the set.

set.copy() Returns a shallow copy of the set.

set.difference() Returns the new set with the unique elements that
are not in the another set passed as a parameter.

set.difference_update() Updates the set on which the method is called

with the elements that are common in another set
passed as an argument.

set.discard() Removes a specific element from the set.

set.intersection() Returns a new set with the elements that are

common in the given sets.

set.intersection_update() Updates the set on which the

instersection_update() method is called, with
common elements among the specified sets.

set.isdisjoint() Returns true if the given sets have no common

elements. Sets are disjoint if and only if their
intersection is the empty set.

set.issubset() Returns true if the set (on which the issubset() is

called) contains every element of the other set
passed as an argument.

set.pop() Removes and returns a random element from the

set.

set.remove() Removes the specified element from the set. If

the specified element not found, raise an error.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 80

 Method Description

set.symmetric_difference() Returns a new set with the distinct elements

found in both the sets.

set.symmetric_difference_update() Updates the set on which the

instersection_update() method called, with the
elements that are common among the specified
sets.

set.union() Returns a new set with distinct elements from all

the given sets.

set.update() Updates the set by adding distinct elements from

the passed one or more iterables.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 81

Python File I/O - Read and Write Files
In Python, the IO module provides methods of three types of IO operations; raw binary files,
buffered binary files, and text files. The canonical way to create a file object is by using
the open() function.
Any file operations can be performed in the following three steps:
1. Open the file to get the file object using the built-in open() function. There are different
access modes, which you can specify while opening a file using the open() function.
2. Perform read, write, append operations using the file object retrieved from
the open() function.
3. Close and dispose the file object.
Here is a list of the different access modes of opening a file −

Sr. No. Modes & Description

r
1
Opens a file for reading only. The file pointer is placed at the beginning of
the file. This is the default mode.

rb
2 Opens a file for reading only in binary format. The file pointer is placed at the
beginning of the file. This is the default mode.

r+
3 Opens a file for both reading and writing. The file pointer placed at the
beginning of the file.

rb+
4 Opens a file for both reading and writing in binary format. The file pointer
placed at the beginning of the file.

w
5
Opens a file for writing only. Overwrites the file if the file exists. If the file

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 82

 does not exist, creates a new file for writing.

wb
6 Opens a file for writing only in binary format. Overwrites the file if the file
exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for writing.

w+
7 Opens a file for both writing and reading. Overwrites the existing file if the
file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for reading and writing.

wb+

8 Opens a file for both writing and reading in binary format. Overwrites the
existing file if the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for
reading and writing.

9 Opens a file for appending. The file pointer is at the end of the file if the file
exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the file does not exist, it
creates a new file for writing.

ab

10 Opens a file for appending in binary format. The file pointer is at the end of
the file if the file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the file does
not exist, it creates a new file for writing.

a+

11 Opens a file for both appending and reading. The file pointer is at the end of
the file if the file exists. The file opens in the append mode. If the file does
not exist, it creates a new file for reading and writing.

ab+

12 Opens a file for both appending and reading in binary format. The file pointer
is at the end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the append mode. If
the file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading and writing.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 83

Reading File
File object includes the following methods to read data from the file.
 read(chars): reads the specified number of characters starting from the current position.
 readline(): reads the characters starting from the current reading position up to a newline
character.
 readlines(): reads all lines until the end of file and returns a list object.
The following C:\myfile.txt file will be used in all the examples of reading and writing files.
C:\myfile.txt
This is the first line.
This is the second line.
This is the third line.
The following example performs the read operation using the read(chars) method.
Example: Reading a File
>>> f = open('C:\myfile.txt') # opening a file
>>> lines = f.read() # reading a file
>>> lines
'This is the first line. \nThis is the second line.\nThis is the third line.'
>>> f.close() # closing file object
Above, f = open('C:\myfile.txt') opens the myfile.txt in the default read mode from the current
directory and returns a file object. f.read() function reads all the content until EOF as a string.
If you specify the char size argument in the read(chars) method, then it will read that many
chars only. f.close() will flush and close the stream.

Reading a Line
The following example demonstrates reading a line from the file.
Example: Reading Lines
>>> f = open('C:\myfile.txt') # opening a file
>>> line1 = f.readline() # reading a line
>>> line1
'This is the first line. \n'
>>> line2 = f.readline() # reading a line

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 84

>>> line2
'This is the second line.\n'
>>> line3 = f.readline() # reading a line
>>> line3
'This is the third line.'
>>> line4 = f.readline() # reading a line
>>> line4
''
>>> f.close() # closing file object
As you can see, we have to open the file in 'r' mode. The readline() method will return the first
line, and then will point to the second line in the file.

Reading All Lines

The following reads all lines using the readlines() function.
Example: Reading a File
>>> f = open('C:\myfile.txt') # opening a file
>>> lines = f.readlines() # reading all lines
>>> lines
'This is the first line. \nThis is the second line.\nThis is the third line.'
>>> f.close() # closing file object
The file object has an inbuilt iterator. The following program reads the given file line by
line until StopIteration is raised, i.e., the EOF is reached.
Example: File Iterator
f=open('C:\myfile.txt')
while True:
try:
line=next(f)
print(line)
except StopIteration:
break
f.close()

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 85

Use the for loop to read a file easily.
Example: Read File using the For Loop
f=open('C:\myfile.txt')
for line in f:
print(line)
f.close()
Output
This is the first line.
This is the second line.
This is the third line.

Reading Binary File

Use the 'rb' mode in the open() function to read a binary files, as shown below.
Example: Reading a File
>>> f = open('C:\myimg.png', 'rb') # opening a binary file
>>> content = f.read() # reading all lines
>>> content
b'\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n\x00\x00\x00\rIHDR\x00\x00\x00\x08\x00\x00\x00\x08\x08\x06
\x00\x00\x00\xc4\x0f\xbe\x8b\x00\x00\x00\x19tEXtSoftware\x00Adobe ImageReadyq
\xc9e\x00\x00\x00\x8dIDATx\xdab\xfc\xff\xff?\x03\x0c0/zP\n\xa4b\x818\xeco\x9c
\xc2\r\x90\x18\x13\x03*8\t\xc4b\xbc\x01\xa8X\x07$\xc0\xc8\xb4\xf0>\\\x11P\xd7?
\xa0\x84\r\x90\xb9\t\x88?\x00q H\xc1C\x16\xc9\x94_\xcc\x025\xfd2\x88\xb1\x04
\x88\x85\x90\x14\xfc\x05\xe2( \x16\x00\xe2\xc3\x8c\xc8\x8e\x84:\xb4\x04H5\x03
\xf1\\ .bD\xf3E\x01\x90\xea\x07\xe2\xd9\xaeB`\x82'
>>> f.close() # closing file object

Writing to a File
The file object provides the following methods to write to a file.
 write(s): Write the string s to the stream and return the number of characters written.
 writelines(lines): Write a list of lines to the stream. Each line must have a separator at the
end of it.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 86

Create a new File and Write
The following creates a new file if it does not exist or overwrites to an existing file.
Example: Create or Overwrite to Existing File
>>> f = open('C:\myfile.txt', 'w')
>>> f.write("Hello") # writing to file
5
>>> f.close()

# reading file
>>> f = open('C:\myfile.txt','r')
>>> f.read()
'Hello'
>>> f.close()
In the above example, the f=open("myfile.txt","w") statement opens myfile.txt in write mode,
the open() method returns the file object and assigns it to a variable f. 'w' specifies that the file
should be writable. Next, f.write("Hello") overwrites an existing content of the myfile.txt file.
It returns the number of characters written to a file, which is 5 in the above example. In the
end, f.close() closes the file object.

Appending to an Existing File

The following appends the content at the end of the existing file by passing 'a' or 'a+' mode in
the open() method.
Example: Append to Existing File
>>> f = open('C:\myfile.txt','a')
>>> f.write(" World!")
7
>>> f.close()

# reading file
>>> f = open('C:\myfile.txt','r')
>>> f.read()

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 87

'Hello World!'
>>> f.close()
Write Multiple Lines
Python provides the writelines() method to save the contents of a list object in a file. Since the
newline character is not automatically written to the file, it must be provided as a part of the
string.
Example: Write Lines to File
>>> lines=["Hello world.\n", "Welcome to TutorialsTeacher.\n"]
>>> f=open("D:\myfile.txt", "w")
>>> f.writelines(lines)
>>> f.close()
Opening a file with "w" mode or "a" mode can only be written into and cannot be read from.
Similarly "r" mode allows reading only and not writing. In order to perform simultaneous
read/append operations, use "a+" mode.

Writing to a Binary File

The open() function opens a file in text format by default. To open a file in binary format,
add 'b' to the mode parameter. Hence the "rb" mode opens the file in binary format for
reading, while the "wb" mode opens the file in binary format for writing. Unlike text files,
binary files are not human-readable. When opened using any text editor, the data is
unrecognizable.
The following code stores a list of numbers in a binary file. The list is first converted in a byte
array before writing. The built-in function bytearray() returns a byte representation of the
object.
Example: Write to a Binary File

f=open("binfile.bin","wb")
num=[5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
arr=bytearray(num)
f.write(arr)
f.close()

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 88

1.8. Python Program Flow Control
The term control flow details the direction the program takes. The control flow statements
in Python Programming Language are
1. Sequential Control Flow Statements: This refers to the line by line execution, in which the
statements are executed sequentially, in the same order in which they appear in the program.
2. Decision Control Flow Statements: Depending on whether a condition is True or False, the
decision structure may skip the execution of an entire block of statements or even execute
one block of statements instead of other (if, if…else and if…elif…else).
3. Loop Control Flow Statements: This is a control structure that allows the execution of a
block of statements multiple times until a loop termination condition is met (for loop and
while loop). Loop Control Flow Statements are also called Repetition statements or
Iteration statements.

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 89

1.9. Conditional blocks using if, else and elif
Python - if, elif, else Conditions
By default, statements in the script are executed sequentially from the first to the last. If the
processing logic requires so, the sequential flow can be altered in two ways:
Python uses the if keyword to implement decision control. Python’s syntax for executing a
block conditionally is as below:
Syntax:

if [boolean expression]:
statement1
statement2
...
statementN
Any Boolean expression evaluating to True or False appears after the if keyword. Use
the : symbol and press Enter after the expression to start a block with an increased indent.
One or more statements written with the same level of indent will be executed if the Boolean
expression evaluates to True.
To end the block, decrease the indentation. Subsequent statements after the block will be
executed out of the if condition. The following example demonstrates the if condition.
Example: if Condition
price = 50
if price < 100:
print("price is less than 100")
Output
price is less than 100
In the above example, the expression price < 100 evaluates to True, so it will execute the
block. The if block starts from the new line after : and all the statements under the if condition
starts with an increased indentation, either space or tab. Above, the if block contains only one
statement. The following example has multiple statements in the if condition.
Example: Multiple Statements in the if Block
price = 50

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 90

quantity = 5
if price*quantity < 500:
print("price*quantity is less than 500")
print("price = ", price)
print("quantity = ", quantity)
Output
price*quantity is less than 500
price = 50
quantity = 5
Above, the if condition contains multiple statements with the same indentation. If all the
statements are not in the same indentation, either space or a tab then it will raise
an IdentationError.
Example: Invalid Indentation in the Block
price = 50
quantity = 5
if price*quantity < 500:
print("price is less than 500")
print("price = ", price)
print("quantity = ", quantity)
Output
print("quantity = ", quantity)
^
IdentationError: unexpected indent
The statements with the same indentation level as if condition will not consider in the if
block. They will consider out of the if condition.
Example: Out of Block Statements
price = 50
quantity = 5
if price*quantity < 100:
print("price is less than 500")
print("price = ", price)

DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 91

 print("quantity = ", quantity)
print("No if block executed.")
Output
No if block executed.
The following example demonstrates multiple if conditions.
Example: Multiple if Conditions
price = 100

if price > 100:

print("price is greater than 100")

if price == 100:
print("price is 100")

if price < 100:

print("price is less than 100")
Output
price is 100
Notice that each if block contains a statement in a different indentation, and that's valid
because they are different from each other.
Note
It is recommended to use 4 spaces or a tab as the default indentation level for more readability.

else Condition
Along with the if statement, the else condition can be optionally used to define an alternate
block of statements to be executed if the boolean expression in the if condition evaluates
to False.
Syntax:

if [boolean expression]:
statement1
statement2
...
DR. MILIND GODASE, SIOM, PUNE – 41. 92
 statementN
else:
statement1
statement2
...
statementN
As mentioned before, the indented block starts after the : symbol, after the boolean
expression. It will get executed when the condition is True. We have another block that
should be executed when the if condition is False. First, complete the if block by a backspace
and write else, put add the : symbol in front of the new block to begin it, and add the required
statements in the block.
Example: else Condition
price = 50

if price >= 100:

print("price is greater than 100")
else:
print("price is less than 100")
Output
price is less than 100
In the above example, the if condition price >= 100 is False, so the else block will be
executed. The else block can also contain multiple statements with the same indentation;
otherwise, it will raise the IndentationError.
Note that you cannot have multiple else blocks, and it must be the last block.

elif Condition
Use the elif condition is used to include multiple conditional expressions after the if condition
or between the if and else conditions.
Syntax:

if [boolean expression]:
[statements]
elif [boolean expresion]:

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 [statements]
elif [boolean expresion]:
[statements]
else:
[statements]
The elif block is executed if the specified condition evaluates to True.
Example: if-elif Conditions
price = 100

if price > 100:

print("price is greater than 100")
elif price == 100:
print("price is 100")
elif price < 100:
print("price is less than 100")
Output
price is 100
In the above example, the elif conditions are applied after the if condition. Python will evalute
the if condition and if it evaluates to False then it will evalute the elif blocks and execute
the elif block whose expression evaluates to True. If multiple elif conditions become True,
then the first elif block will be executed.
The following example demonstrates if, elif, and else conditions.
Example: if-elif-else Conditions
price = 50
if price > 100:
print("price is greater than 100")
elif price == 100:
print("price is 100")
else price < 100:
print("price is less than 100")
Output
price is less than 100

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All the if, elif, and else conditions must start from the same indentation level, otherwise it will
raise the IndentationError.
Example: Invalid Indentation
price = 50
if price > 100:
print("price is greater than 100")
elif price == 100:
print("price is 100")
else price < 100:
print("price is less than 100")
Output
elif price == 100:
^
IdentationError: unindent does not match any outer indentation level

Nested if, elif, else Conditions

Python supports nested if, elif, and else condition. The inner condition must be with
increased indentation than the outer condition, and all the statements under the one
block should be with the same indentation.
Example: Nested if-elif-else Conditions
price = 50
quantity = 5
amount = price*quantity

if amount > 100:

if amount > 500:
print("Amount is greater than 500")
else:
if amount < 500 and amount > 400:
print("Amount is")
elif amount < 500 and amount > 300:

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 print("Amount is between 300 and 500")
else:
print("Amount is between 200 and 500")
elif amount == 100:
print("Amount is 100")
else:
print("Amount is less than 100")
Output
Amount is between 200 and 500

1.10. Simple for loops in python

1.11. For loop using ranges, string, list and dictionaries
Python - For Loop
In Python, the for keyword provides a more comprehensive mechanism to constitute a loop.
The for loop is used with sequence types such as list, tuple, set, range, etc.
The body of the for loop is executed for each member element in the sequence. Hence, it
doesn’t require explicit verification of a boolean expression controlling the loop (as in the
while loop).
Syntax:

for x in sequence:
statement1
statement2
...
statement

To start with, a variable x in the for statement refers to the item at the 0 index in the
sequence. The block of statements with increased uniform indent after the : symbol will be
executed. A variable x now refers to the next item and repeats the body of the loop till the
sequence is exhausted.

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The following example demonstrates the for loop with the list object.
Example:
nums = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
for i in nums:
print(i)
Output
10
20
30
40
50

The following demonstrates the for loop with a tuple object.

Example: For Loop with Tuple
nums = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50)
for i in nums:
print(i)
Output
10
20
30
40
50
The object of any Python sequence data type can be iterated using the for statement.
Example: For Loop with String
for char in 'Hello':
print (char)
Output
H
e

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l
l
o
The following for loop iterates over the dictionary using the items() method.
Example: For Loop with Dictionary
numNames = { 1:'One', 2: 'Two', 3: 'Three'}

for pair in numNames.items():

print(pair)
Output
(1, 'One')
(2, 'Two')
(3, 'Three')
The key-value paris can be unpacked into two variables in the for loop to get the key and
value separately.
Example: For Loop with Dictionary
numNames = { 1:'One', 2: 'Two', 3: 'Three'}
for k,v in numNames.items():
print("key = ", k , ", value =", v)
Output
key = 1, value = One
key = 2, value = Two
key = 3, value = Three

For Loop with the range() Function

The range class is an immutable sequence type. The range() returns the range object that can
be used with the for loop.
Example:
for i in range(5):
print(i)
Output

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0
1
2
3
4

Exit the For Loop

The execution of the for loop can be stop and exit using the break keyword on some
condition, as shown below.
Example:

for i in range(1, 5):

if i > 2:
break
print(i)
Output
1
2

Continue Next Iteration

Use the continue keyword to skip the current execution and continue on the next iteration
using the continue keyword on some condition, as shown below.
Example:
for i in range(1, 5):
if i > 3:
continue
print(i)
Output
1
2
3

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For Loop with Else Block
The else block can follow the for loop, which will be executed when the for loop ends.
Example:
for i in range(2):
print(i)
else:
print('End of for loop')
Output
0
1
End of for loop

Nested for Loop

If a loop (for loop or while loop) contains another loop in its body block, we say that the two
loops are nested. If the outer loop is designed to perform m iterations and the inner loop is
designed to perform n repetitions, the body block of the inner loop will get executed m X n
times.
Example: Nested for loop
for x in range(1,4):
for y in range(1,3):
print('x = ', x, ', y = ', y)
Output
x = 1, y = 1
x = 1, y = 2
x = 2, y = 1
x = 2, y = 2
x = 3, y = 1
x = 3, y = 2

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1.12. Use of while loops in python
Python - While Loop
Python uses the while and for keywords to constitute a conditional loop, by which repeated
execution of a block of statements is done until the specified boolean expression is true.
The following is the while loop syntax.
Syntax:

while [boolean expression]:

statement1
statement2
...
statementN

Python keyword while has a conditional expression followed by the : symbol to start a block
with an increased indent. This block has statements to be executed repeatedly. Such a block is
usually referred to as the body of the loop. The body will keep executing till the condition
evaluates to True. If and when it turns out to be False, the program will exit the loop. The
following example demonstrates a while loop.
Example: while loop
num =0
while num < 5:
num = num + 1
print('num = ', num)
Output
num = 1
num = 2
num = 3
num = 4
num = 5
Here the repetitive block after the while statement involves incrementing the value of an
integer variable and printing it. Before the block begins, the variable num is initialized to 0.

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Till it is less than 5, num is incremented by 1 and printed to display the sequence of numbers,
as above.
All the statements in the body of the loop must start with the same indentation, otherwise it
will raise a IndentationError.
Example: Invalid Indentation
num =0
while num < 5:
num = num + 1
print('num = ', num)
Output
print('num = ', num)
^
IndentationError: unexpected indent

Exit from the While Loop

Use the break keyword to exit the while loop at some condition. Use the if condition to
determine when to exit from the while loop, as shown below.
Example: Breaking while loop
num = 0
while num < 5:
num += 1 # num += 1 is same as num = num + 1
print('num = ', num)
if num == 3: # condition before exiting a loop
break
Output
num = 1
num = 2
num = 3

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Continue Next Iteration
Use the continue keyword to start the next iteration and skip the statements after
the continue statement on some conditions, as shown below.
Example: Continue in while loop
num = 0

while num < 5:

num += 1 # num += 1 is same as num = num + 1
if num > 3: # condition before exiting a loop
continue
print('num = ', num)
Output
num = 1
num = 2
num = 3

While Loop with else Block

The else block can follow the while loop. The else block will be executed when the boolean
expression of the while loop evaluates to False.
Use the continue keyword to start the next iteration and skip the statements after
the continue statement on some conditions, as shown below.
Example: while loop with else block
num = 0

while num < 3:

num += 1 # num += 1 is same as num = num + 1
print('num = ', num)
else:
print('else block executed')

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Output
num = 1
num = 2
num = 3
else block executed
The following Python program successively takes a number as input from the user and
calculates the average, as long as the user enters a positive number. Here, the repetitive block
(the body of the loop) asks the user to input a number, adds it cumulatively and keeps the
count if it is non-negative.
Example: while loop
num=0
count=0
sum=0

while num>=0:
num = int(input('enter any number .. -1 to exit: '))
if num >= 0:
count = count + 1 # this counts number of inputs
sum = sum + num # this adds input number cumulatively.
avg = sum/count
print('Total numbers: ', count, ', Average: ', avg)
When a negative number is provided by the user, the loop terminates and displays the average
of the numbers provided so far. A sample run of the above code is below:
Output
enter any number .. -1 to exit: 10
enter any number .. -1 to exit: 20
enter any number .. -1 to exit: 30
enter any number .. -1 to exit: -1
Total numbers: 3, Average: 20.0

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What is pass statement in Python?
Python pass is a null statement. When the Python interpreter comes across the across pass
statement, it does nothing and is ignored.
When to use the pass statement?
Consider you have a function or a class with the body left empty. You plan to write the code in
the future. The Python interpreter will throw an error if it comes across an empty body.
A comment can also be added inside the body of the function or class, but the interpreter ignores
the comment and will throw an error.
The pass statement can be used inside the body of a function or class body. During execution, the
interpreter, when it comes across the pass statement, ignores and continues without giving any
error.
# Pass statement in for-loop
test = “Guru”
for i in test:
if i == 'r':
print('Pass executed')
pass
print(i)

When to use a break and continue statement?

 A break statement, when used inside the loop, will terminate the loop and exit. If used
inside nested loops, it will break out from the current loop.
 A continue statement will stop the current execution when used inside a loop, and the
control will go back to the start of the loop.
The main difference between break and continue statement is that when break keyword is
encountered, it will exit the loop.
In case of continue keyword, the current iteration that is running will be stopped, and it will
proceed with the next iteration.

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1.13. Loop manipulation using pass, continue, break
and else
1.14. Programming using Python conditional and
loops block

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