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Electronics for
Information Technology
(Điện tử cho Công nghệ Thông tin)
IT3420E
Đỗ Công Thuần
Department of Computer Engineering
Email: thuandc@[Link]

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General Information
• Course: Electronics for Information Technology
• ID Number: IT3420
• Credits: 2 (2-1-0-4)
• Lecture/Exercise: 32/16 hours (48 hours, 16 weeks)
• Evaluation:
• Midterm examination and weekly assignment: 50%
• Final examination: 50%
• Learning Materials:
• Lecture slides
• Textbooks
• Introductory Circuit Analysis (2015), 10th – 13th ed., Robert L. Boylestad
• Electronic Device and Circuit Theory (2013), 11th ed., Robert L. Boylestad,
Louis Nashelsky
• Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design (2006), 4th ed., Donald A.
Neamen
• Digital Electronics: Principles, Devices and Applications (2007), Anil K.
Maini

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Contact Your Instructor
• You can reach me through office in Room 802, B1
Building, HUST.
• You should make an appointment by email before coming.
• If you have urgent things, just come and meet me!
• You can also reach me at the following email any
time. This is the best way to reach me!
• thuandc@[Link]

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Course Contents
• The Concepts of Electronics for IT
• Chapter 1: Passive Electronic Components and
Applications
• Chapter 2: Semiconductor Components and
Applications
• Chapter 3: Operational Amplifiers
• Chapter 4: Fundamentals of Digital Circuits
• Chapter 5: Logic Gates
• Chapter 6: Combinational Logic
• Chapter 7: Sequential Logic

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Chapter 2:
Semiconductor Components and
Applications
• Semiconductor Materials
• Diodes and Applications
• Transistors and Applications

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Definition
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a semiconductor
component that has three separately doped regions and
contains two pn junctions.
• A BJT has 3 terminals:
• B (base)
• C (collector)
• E (emitter)

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BJT Classification
• npn transistor

• pnp transistor

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BJT Structure
• Cross section of a conventional integrated circuit npn
bipolar transistor.

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Forward-Biased p-n Junction (Review)
• Applying a positive VD to the p-region decreases the potential barrier
because 𝐸𝐴 = −𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 .
• E-field is still very large compared to EA, the net electric field is
always from the n- to the p-region.
• |𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 | is lower than the thermal equilibrium value → it upsets
the delicate balance between the diffusion and the E-field forces →
majority carrier electrons from the n-region diffuse into the p-region
and majority carrier holes in the p-region diffuse in the n-region → a
current in the p-n junction.
• VD is called forward bias.
BJT Operation

• 4 operating modes

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npn BJT: Forward-Active Mode Operation
• The B-E is forward biased, the B-C is reverse biased.
• Transistor currents: emitter current (iE), collector
current (iC), base current (iB)

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npn BJT: Forward-Active Mode Operation
• The B–E junction is forward biased: electrons from the Emitter are
injected across the B-E junction to the Base → An excess minority carrier
concentration in the Base.
• The B-C junction is reverse biased: at the edge of the B-C, the electron
concentration ≈ 0. Electrons that are injected from the Emitter diffuse across
the Base, are swept across the B-C junction, and are collected in the
Collector.
• The Base region is very narrow.

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npn BJT – IE Controlled by which parameters?
• Since the B-E is forward biased, the current through
this junction is an exponential function of B-E voltage.
• We can then write the IE as:

• To the approximation:

Electrical parameters of the junction

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npn BJT – IC Controlled by which parameters?
• The number of electrons reaching the Collector per
unit time is proportional to the number of electrons
injected into the Base (a function of the B-E voltage).
• IC is independent of the reverse-biased B-C voltage.
We can then write the IC as:

The current at 1 terminal is

controlled by the voltage
across the other 2 terminals.
→ This control is the basic
transistor action.

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npn BJT – IB Controlled by which parametters?
• IB1 : The flow of holes from the Base to the Emitter is an
exponential function of the B-E voltage:
• IB2 : The flow of holes which recombine with a few
electrons in the Base (injected from the Emitter), is an
exponential function of the B-E voltage:
• The total base current IB is the sum of the two components,
and is an exponential function of the B-E voltage:

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Current Relationships
• Treat the BJT as a signle node:

• In the forward-active mode:

• We have:

• Then:

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BJT Classification
• npn transistor

• pnp transistor

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pnp BJT: Forward-Active Mode Operation
• The B–E junction is forward biased: holes from the
Emitter are injected into the Base → An excess minority
carrier concentration in the Base.
• The B-C junction is reverse biased: at the edge of the B-
C, the hole concentration ≈ 0. Holes that are injected from
the Emitter diffuse across the Base, are swept across the
B-C junction, and are collected in the Collector.

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pnp Transistor
• IE is an exponential function of the E-B voltage:
VE > VB

• IC is an exponential function of the E-B voltage:

• IB is an exponential function of the E-B voltage:

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Circuit Symbols and Conventions
• npn transistor

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Circuit Symbols and Conventions
• pnp transistor

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Summary of Current–Voltage Relationships

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Transistor Circuits
• Common-Emitter Circuit
• Common-Collector Circuit
• Common-Base Circuit

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Common-Emitter Circuit

Out Out
In In

Input voltage: VBE; Output voltage: VCE

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Common-Collector Circuit

Out Out

In In

Input voltage: VBC; Output voltage: VEC

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Common-Base Circuit

Out Out
In In

Input voltage: VEB; Output voltage: VCB

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DC Analysis of Transistor Circuits
• Purpose: To find the Q-point of the transistor (IBQ,
ICQ, IEQ, VCEQ).
• The dc biasing of transistors is an important part of
designing bipolar amplifiers.
• Method: Use the piecewise linear model of a pn
junction for the dc analysis of bipolar transistor
circuits.
• A transistor in a linear amplifier must be biased in the
forward-active mode → emphasize the analysis and
design of circuits in which the transistor is biased in
this mode.

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Ideal Voltage Sources
• With an ideal voltage sources, the output voltage is
independent of the output current and any output load
impedance.

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Ideal Current Sources
• With an ideal current source, the output current is is
independent of any output load impedance.

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DC Analysis of Com-E Circuit with npn BJT
• Assume that B-E junction is
forward biased:

The B-C junction is reverse biased and the transistor is

biased in the forward-active mode.
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DC Analysis of Com-E Circuit with npn BJT
• DC equivalent circuit: • B-E is equivalent to
a forward-biased
diode.
• The voltage drop
across that junction
is the cut-in or turn-
on voltage VBE(on)

• C-E is equivalent to
a current source of

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DC Analysis of Com-E Circuit with pnp BJT
• Assume that B-E junction is forward biased:

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DC Analysis of Com-E Circuit with pnp BJT
• DC equivalent circuit:
• B-E is equivalent to
a forward-biased
diode.
• The voltage drop
across that junction
is the cut-in or turn-
on voltage VEB(on)
• C-E is equivalent to
a current source of

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Example 2.6
• For the circuit, the parameters are:
• VBB = 4V
• RB = 220kΩ
• RC = 2kΩ
• VCC = 10V
• VBE (on)= 0.7V
• β = 200

• Calculate:
• IB, IC , IE
• VCE

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Example 2.6
•VBE (on)= 0.7V
•β = 200

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Example 2.7
• For the circuit, the parameters are :
• VEB (on) = 0.6V
• RB = 580kΩ
• β = 100

• Find:
• IB, IC , IE
1
• RC such that 𝑉𝐸𝐶 = 𝑉 +
2

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Example 2.7

β = 100

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Load Line and Modes of Operation

• 2 p-n junctions → 4 bias conditions → 4 mode of

operations

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Load Line and Modes of Operation
Transistor V–I characteristics of the common-emitter
circuit: the relationship between iC and VCE for different
values of iB.
• If
→ The transistor operates in
the forward-active mode :

• If
→ The transistor is no longer
in the forward-active mode, iC
very quickly drops to zero.
Volt-Ampere Characteristics w. Com.-E
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 Load Line and Modes of Operation

VBE at
Q-point

B-E junction Load line

characteristics

B–E junction piecewise linear I–V Common-Emitter Circuit

characteristics and the input load line
▪ VBB<VBE(on): B-E is reverse
biased → IB=0
▪ VBB>VBE(on): B-E is forward
biased → VBB increases → IB
increases
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 Load Line and Modes of Operation

The load line equation

VBE at
Q-point

B-E junction Load Line

characteristics

B–E junction piecewise linear I–V

characteristics and the input load line Volt-Ampere Characteristics w. Com.-E
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 Load Line and Modes of Operation

𝑽BB increases → IB increases

→ IC increases Saturation

IB continues to increase → Load line

IC can no longer increase

Saturation mode
Q-point
Saturation region
𝑽𝑪𝑬(𝒔𝒂𝒕) 𝟎. 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝑽

Common-Emitter transistor
characteristics and the C–E load line
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 Load Line and Modes of Operation
𝑉𝐵𝐵 < 𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝑜𝑛 ; 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐶 = 0

Transistor cutoff
𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐸 = 0
𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪

Cutoff

B–E junction piecewise linear I–V Common-Emitter transistor characteristics

characteristics and the input load line and the C–E load line

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Problem-Solving Technique: Bipolar DC Analysis
• Analyzing the dc response of a bipolar transistor circuit
requires knowing the mode of operation of the transistor.
1. Assume that the transistor is biased in the forward-active
mode:
VBE = VBE on , IB > 0, IC = 𝛽IB
2. Analyze the “linear” circuit with this assumption.
3. Evaluate the resulting state of the transistor:
• If the initial assumed parameter values and VCE > VCE sat are true,
then the initial assumption is correct.
• If IB < 0, then the transistor is probably cut off.
• If VCE < 0, the transistor is likely biased in saturation.
4. If the initial assumption is proven incorrect, then a new
assumption must be made and the new “linear” circuit must
be analyzed. Step 3 must then be repeated.

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Example 2.8
• For the circuit shown in the figure,
the transistor parameters are:
• VBE (on) = 0.7V
• β = 100
If the transistor is biased in
saturation, assume:
• VCE (sat) = 0.2V
• Calculate:
• IB and IC
• The power dissipated in the transistor

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Example 2.8
• VBE (on) = 0.7V
• β = 100
• VCE (sat) = 0.2V

Cannot be
negative
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Example 2.8 – Comment
• When a transistor is driven into
saturation:

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Example 2.9
• Design the common-base circuit such that: IEQ =
0.5mA and VECQ = 4.0V.
• Assume transistor parameters of β= 120 and VEB (on)
= 0.7V.

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Example 2.9
IEQ = 0.5mA
VECQ = 4.0V
β= 120
VEB (on) = 0.7V

• Writing Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation around the B–E

loop (assuming the transistor is biased in the forward-
active mode), we have:

• Which yields:

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Example 2.9
• We can find:

• Writing Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation around the E–C

loop, we have:

• Which yields:

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Voltage Transfer Characteristics
• Develop the voltage transfer curves for the circuit:
• VBE (on) = 0.7V
• VCE (sat) = 0.2V
• β = 120

• For: Transistor cutoff

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Voltage Transfer Characteristics
• Develop the voltage transfer curves for the circuit:
• VBE (on) = 0.7V
• VCE (sat) = 0.2V
• β = 120
• For: Transistor is forward-
biased

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Voltage Transfer Characteristics
• For:

• This equation is valid for:

• When:

• For:
Transistor is biased in the saturation region
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Voltage Transfer Characteristics
Cutoff
Cutoff
Active
Saturation

Active

Saturation

Voltage transfer characteristics

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 Voltage Transfer Characteristics
Saturation
Saturation Active
Cutoff

Active

Cutoff

VEB (on) = 0.7V

VEC (sat) = 0.2V
Voltage transfer characteristics β = 80

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Bipolar Transistor Biasing
• The dc voltage source VBB is used to bias the transistor in
the forward-active region

Q-point

What is the desired output

response of the circuit?
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Bipolar Transistor Biasing
• The transfer characteristics showing improper dc
biasing, at the beginning of the saturation region:
 During the positive half of the
input signal: the trans remains
biased in saturation and the
output voltage does not change.
 During the negative half of the
input signal: the trans becomes
biased in the active region, so a
half sinusoidal output response
is produced.

It’s important to properly bias the transistor

for analog or amplifier applications!
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Single Base Resistor Biasing
• The coupling capacitor CC acts as an open circuit to
dc, isolating the signal source from the dc base
current.
• The quiescent base current IB is established through
the resistor RB.

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Example 2.10
• Design a circuit with a single-
base resistor to meet a set of
specifications:

• Assume:

Note:

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Example 2.10
• For:

• We have:

• Comment: RC = 6kΩ Q-point for this

RB = 1.13MΩ set of conditions
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Single Base Resistor Biasing
• For:
RC = 6kΩ
Q-point for β = 100
RB = 1.13MΩ

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Single Base Resistor Biasing
• RB is fixed → if β changes → the Q-point will change
(unchanged)

Q-point changes
when β changes
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Voltage Divider Biasing
• The single bias resistor RB is replaced by a pair of resistors R1
and R2, and an emitter resistor RE is added RB → Q-point?

Thevenin equivalent circuit

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Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s Theorem: “Any linear circuit containing several
voltages and resistances can be replaced by just one single
voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the
load.”
• To simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to a
simpler equivalent two-terminal circuit.
• Especially useful in circuit analysis

[Link]

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Thevenin Voltage
• Thevenin Voltage (VTH, e)
• Removing the load resistor from the original circuit
• Calculating the voltage across the open connection
points (A and B) where the load resistor used to be.

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Thevenin Resistance
• Thevenin Resistance (RTH, r)
• Removing all power sources in the original circuit
(voltage sources shorted and current sources open).
• Calculating total resistance between the open
connection points (A and B).

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Voltage Divider Biasing
• CC isolates the signal source from the dc base current.

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Voltage Divider Biasing

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Voltage Divider Biasing

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Voltage Divider Biasing
• Opening the circuit at points A and B.

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Voltage Divider Biasing
• Calculate the equivalent Thevenin voltage/resistance
across points A and B “looking back” into the circuit:
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅2
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅1 𝑅2 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

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Voltage Divider Biasing
• Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit, with the Thevenin
voltage source in series with the Thevenin resistance:

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Voltage Divider Biasing
• We obtain:

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Example 2.11
• For the circuit given in
the figure:

• Determine the Q-point?

• When 𝛽 changes, find
the Q-point?

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Example 2.11

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Example 2.11
• Calculate the equivalent Thevenin voltage/resistance:

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Example 2.11
• Find the transistor currents at Q-point:

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Example 2.11

The Q-point is more stable

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Example 2.11 – Comment
• R1 and R2 can bias the transistor in its active region
using resistor values in the low kilohm range (kΩ).
• In contrast, single resistor biasing requires a resistor in
the megohm range (MΩ)
• With voltage divider biasing (R1 and R2), the change
in ICQ and VCEQ with a change in β has been
substantially reduced.
• Including the emitter resistor RE helps to stabilize the
Q-point with respect to variations in β.

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Comment
• The collector current is:

• If:

• Normally:

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Example 2.12
• Design a bias-stable circuit to
meet a set of specifications:

• Choose RE and determine R1 and

R2 such that the circuit is
considered bias stable and that

• Choose:

• Assume:

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Example 2.12
• Design Pointer:
• The voltage across RE (𝑉𝑅𝐸 ) should be on the same order of
magnitude as VBE(on).
• Larger voltage drops (𝑉𝑅𝐸 ) may mean the supply voltage
VCC has to be increased to obtain the required VCE and 𝑉𝑅C .
• With:
• Choose:

𝑉𝑅𝐸 =

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Example 2.12
• Using the Thevenin equivalent circuit, we find:

• For a bias-stable circuit:

or:
• Then:

• Which yields:

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Example 2.12
• Now:

or:

• Also:

• Which yields:

• Can choose:

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Example 2.12
• With:
• We have:

• The base current is:

• While:

• We have:

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Example 2.12
• Comment:
 The Q-point is now considered to be stabilized against
variations in 𝛽
 R1 and R2 have reasonable values in the kilohm range (kΩ)
 IC changes by -8.2% ~ +3% when 𝛽 changes by +50%
(120 → 60 and 120 → 180)

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