UNIT 4 Electrical services 4.1 Electrical Supply System - Introduction 4.2 Types of Basic Lighting Systems 4.3 Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) Energy Audit 4.4 Energy Efficiency in Electrical Utilities 4.5 Solar Energy 4.6 Electrical layout of Residential building 58 | Page4.1 Elect An electric power system is a network of electrical components deployed to supply, transfer, and use electric power. An example of a power system is the electrical grid that provides power to homes and industries within an extended area. ‘al Supply System - Introduction Electrical Power Systems in Buildings This article covers electrical distribution systems in buildings at a very basic level. We will discuss the general principles for how electricity is moved from the utility lines to a convenience outlet ina room. The system components vary depending on the size of the building so we will address systems for small and large buildings. Electricity from the Power Company Electric utilities transmit power from the power plant most efficiently at very high voltages. In the United States, power companies provide electricity to medium or large buildings at 13,800 volts (13.8kV). For small commercial buildings or residential customers, power companies lower the voltage with a transformer on a power pole or mounted on the ground. From there, the electricity is fed through a meter and into the building. Power Distribution in Small Buildings ‘Small commercial or residential buildings have a very simple power distribution system. The utility will own the transformer, which will sit on a pad outside the building or will be attached to a utility pole. The transformer reduces the voltage from 13.8kV down to 120/240 or 120/208 volts and then passes the electricity to a meter, which is owned by the utility and keeps a record of power consumption: SMALL BUILDING BRANCH CIRCUITS METER (Utility Owned) TRANSFORMER — (Utility Owned) From Utility 13.8 KV 120/240 or 120/208 volts PANEL After leaving the meter, the power is transmitted into the building at which point all wiring, panels, and devices are the property of the building owner. Wires transfer the electricity from the meter to a panel board, which is generally located in the basement or garage of a house. In small commercial buildings, the panel may be located in a utility closet. The panel board will have a main service breaker and a series of circuit breakers, which control the flow of power to various circuits in the 59 | Pagebuilding. Each branch circuit will serve a device (some appliances require heavy loads) or a number of devices like convenience outlets or lights. Power Distribution in Large Buildings Large buildings have a much higher electrical load than small buildings; therefore, the electrical equipment must be larger and more robust. Large building owners will also purchase electricity at high voltages (in the US, 13.8kV) because it comes at a cheaper rate. In this case, the owner will provide and maintain their own step-down transformer, which lowers the voltage to a more usable level (in the US, 480/277 volts). This transformer can be mounted on a pad outside the building or in a transformer room inside the building. The electricity is then transmitted to switchgear. The role of the switchgear is to distribute electricity safely and efficiently to the various electrical closets throughout the building. The equipment has numerous safety features including circuit breakers, which allow power to be disrupted downstream - this may occur due to a fault or problem, but it can also be done intentionally to allow technicians to work on specific branches of the power system. It should be noted that very large buildings or buildings with complex electrical systems may have multiple transformers, which may feed multiple pieces of switchgear. We are keeping this article simple by sharing the basic concepts. LARGE BUILDING BRANCH CIRCUITS: FEEDINGFLOOR =~ BRANCH PANEL—— TRANSFORMER —~__ BUS / FEEDER—~ SWITCHGEAR —~ ~ ~N TRANSFORMER SS METER i (Utility Owned, = Location Varies) From Utility 12.8 kV The electricity will leave the switchgear and travel along a primary feeder or bus. The bus or feeder is a heavy gauge conductor that is capable of carrying high amperage current throughout a building safely and efficiently. The bus or feeder is tapped as needed and a conductor is run to an electric closet, which serves a zone or floor of a building. 60 | Page(mm @ rower evan srep-up rower @_Taansmission © sone © wrrnin Power supply structure and rank Types of the Power Supply System The supply of electric power to an electrical load is called power supply. The main function of the power supply is to convert electric current from a source to the correct voltage, current and frequency to power the load. Electrical outlets, energy storage devices such as batteries, fuel cells, generators, solar power converters are generally known as power sources. Power supply is classified into different categories. In our subsequent sections, we will see what the different categories are. DC Power Supply Such type of supply supplies a constant DC voltage to the loads. it may deliver from a DC source or an AC source. ‘AC Power Supply ‘AC power supply can be taken from the main supply transferred to the desired voltage with the help of step up and step-down transformers. This supply is divided into a single-phase and a three-phase system. Uninterruptible Power Supply UPS has a feature to take power from two or more sources simultaneously, It is used as a backup supply as it takes over the load in dropout or failure condition of the main supply. The process is so fast that the load never experiences an interruption. Principle of Power Supply In modern power stations, the generation of electricity is at 25 KV and it is transformed to 400 KV. The number of generator sets are designed to provide the flexibility required power for seasonal variations in loads. The principle is to supply the power to any consumer with a ring system and fed from two directions carefully with proper protection and loss of supply. 61 | PageThe following image shows the distribution of power supply from power station to consumer ~ th a8 5 e —— dh ‘ee aS oe ae r ain —— eae | Cie a ES POS. ay wy t Sm | [Reem | | Seat ie Neo Gay dio OI Practice Atrained employee should be engaged in the practice of electrical works. Every electrical work must follow the following codes and standards including - © OSHA's electrical safety requirements for employee © National Electrical Codes © NFPA 70 Practice for external power supply is applicable for computer, electric vehicle, welding purpose, aircraft power supply and plug-in adapters. Guidelines for electric distribution systems. The electric power will be received and distributed in a building, through following means: 1. Cabling and switchgear to receive power. [Link] building is divided into a convenient number of parts, each part served by a rising main system to distribute power vertically/horizontally. [Link] flows from rising main through tap-off box to floor main board to final DBs and then to wiring. [Link] circuits for different loads such as lighting, HVAC, power plug loads shall be provided, wherever po: 5. Rising main, which takes care of general lighting and power outlet load of the building, should have independent cables for lighting as well as power, wherever possible. Other loads like lifts, water pump sets, other motor loads are fed by independent cables of suitable 62 | Pag:capacity fed from properly designed essential/ non-essential LT power panels with suitably designed switchgear having necessary control and safety features. [Link], the distribution/wiring system essentially consists of provision of cables, switchgear, rising main, bus-ducting, earthing, laying of pipes/ conduits ete. (in surface or recess) based on proper detailed designing to decide on various sizes/capacities of these components and various controls and safeties involved, to provide an efficient, reliable, safe and adequate electrical distribution and wiring system. ‘Advantages of Electric Distribution system 1. Electricity is distributed in a well categorized manner. 2. Different circuits are used for different loads 3. Protection devices are added for safety. Disadvantages of Electric Distribution system 1. Chances of short circuit. 2. A small mistake can lead to a hazard. Wiring process The wiring process consists of choosing a suitable type of cable giving adequate protection and putting it into the building. The wiring should be durable, safe and good in appearance. All conductors should run along the walls and near the ceiling for easy access ability of inspection and repair. Any joints should be made through junction boxes for easy inspection. ‘Awiring diagram should be prepared before installation indicating clearly the main switchboard, mains and sub-mains, points and their control. ‘There are two types of wiring used at present for safety and security. Conduit wiring - The wires are run in steel or PVC pipes for protection from injury or fire accidents. An electrical conduit is a tube used to protect and route electrical wiring in a building or structure. Electrical conduit may be made of metal, plastic, fiber and fireclay. Most conduit is rigid, but flexible conduit is used for some [Link] typically is used only where circuit wires are exposed (or surface-mounted or buried) and therefore need protection from damage or moisture. Conduit offers protection to electrical wires that run in exposed locations. Junction box and conduits mounted on the walls PVC casings 63 | PageConcealed conduit wiring - Conduits are concealed in the ceiling or walls for aesthetics and safety. Concealed means “Hidden” So, this wiring is done inside the floors/walls and it is further concealed/ hidden by plastering the wall. In other words, using plastic or electrical wiring inside a wall, ceiling or floor with plastic or metallic piping is called secret concealed conduit wiring. It is the safest wiring system. Maintenance is easy. No risk of electrical shock, in case of proper earthing and grounding of metallic pipes. There is no chance of fire. Concealed Conduits installed, before the slab construction and before wall plastering work Applications and Types of wiring 41. Wiring shall be done only by the looping system. Phase/live conductors shall be looped at the switch box. For point wi done in the switch box; and subsequent points will be made from point outlets. \, neutral wire/earth wire looping for the 1st point shall be [Link] joints in wiring will be permitted anywhere, except in switch box or point outlets, where jointing of wires will be allowed with use of suitable connectors. 3, The wiring throughout the installation shall be such that there is no break in the neutral wire except in the form of linked switchgear. 4, Light, fans and call bells shall be wired in the ‘lighting’ circuits, 15A socket outlets and other power outlets shall be wired in the ‘power’ circuits. 5A socket outlets shall also be wired in the ‘power’ circuit both in residential as well as non-residential buildings. 5. Colour Coding - Following colour coding shall be followed in wiring: * Phase: Red/Yellow/Blue. (Three phase wiring) © Live: Red (Single phase wiring) * Neutral: Black © Earth: Yellow/Green. 6. Termination of Circuit into Switchboard - Circuit will consist of phase / neutral / earth wire. Circuit will terminate in a switch board (first tapping point, where from point wiring starts) in following manner: © Phase wire terminated in phase connector. © Neutral wire terminated in neutral connector. © Earth wire terminated in earth connector. 64 | Page‘® The switchboard will have phase, neutral and earth terminal connector blocks to receive phase/ neutral/ earth wire. Conduit Wiring System * Allaccessories like switches, socket outlets, call bell pushes and regulators shall be fixed in a flush pattern inside the switch/regulator boxes. Accessories, fan regulators shall be fixed on outlet boxes. ‘© Aluminium alloy or cadmium plated iron screws shall be used to fix the accessories to their bases. ‘® The switch box / regulator box shall normally be mounted with their bottom 1.25 m from floor level, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer-in-charge. Fixing to Walls and Ceiling Wooden plugs for fixing to the wall/ceiling will not be allowed. Fixing will be done with the help of PVC sleeves/Rowel plugs/ dash fasteners as required. ‘© Drilling of holes shall be done by drilling machines only. No manual drilling allowed. The electricity services in a building consist of light switches, power points and similar other outlets. Such fittings are known as Fittings because they are accessory to the wiring. The way these accessories appear, and function is very important for the user. ‘Switches - A switch is used to make or interrupt a circuit. A light switch consists of three parts. They are the box, a front plate and the mechanism. © Box - Standard boxes for recessing within a wall are 35 mm deep. The shallow boxes are 25 mm deep, which can be used over the surface of the wall. The older type of switch mechanism was dolly operated. © Mechanism - At present, dolly operated switches have been superseded by rocker operated switches. The advantages of the rocker switch are that it is/easy to operate and it is almost not possible to hold it half open. Most manufacturers make switches in two standard capacities of 15 to 20 amps and 5 amps. To isolate power equipment, itis often desirable to use a double pole switch. This expression indicates a switch which opens live and neutral circuits, and two contacts work side by side. This is normally used for heaters, fridges etc., They are made in 15, 20, 30, 45 and 60 amps. © Front plate - When the switch is wired and inserted in the box it needs a front plate over It. A switch with a separate front plate is called a grid switch. When the front plate is made as part of the switch, then itis called a plate switch. Dolly Switches ‘Types of Rocker Switches 65 | PagePa ENenaTtrn ANY oa ‘Switch box Grid switch Sockets - A socket outlet is popularly known as a power point. The arrangement of socket outlets is like switches. It consists of a box to house the outlet, the outlet hole, and a front plate. Plugs and sockets rated at 2 and 5 amps are available in both two and three pin versions, but 15 amps are available only with three pins. Two of the three pins are for the live and neutral wires, and the third one is for a separate earth wire. Sockets are available without switches. Unswitched sockets have contacts permanently connected to the wiring and the appliance to be connected is turned on as soon as the plug is inserted and turned off when the plug is taken out. If a switch is incorporated in the socket outlet the switch must be put on before the line becomes connected to the supply. A further improvement to the socket outlet is the addition of an indicator light which shows when the socket is switched on. Like switches, socket outlets can be recessed into a wall, or they can be mounted on the surface of the wall. B CEU ewopean Union) E 66 | Page7S I rer Wee ‘reo eel ° 1a a oo 10 é a Whe TEA TE8 v6 TiPec Junction boxes - When wiring is done by pulling cable through conduit, access must be provided into the conduit for pulling the cable inside, and also where the paths of cables branch into two or more conduits must be connected together. The type of box used is the same as that used for housing switches. Boxes are available for recessing in walls or fixing to the surface of walls. The boxes have a number of circles on them Tee 000 TwreL PEK Fused connection units - These units are used for connecting a single permanently fixed appliance to the wiring. They perform the same function like a socket and plug combination. The difference is that the two parts cannot be separated as plug and socket. They are similar to socket outlets and connected to the ing in the same way. The difference is the fuse connection which is accessible for replacement from the front. Like socket outlets, fused connecting units can be switched or unswitched, and they can be with or without a neon light indicator. for the electrician to remove any of them to make a hole in the box to accept standard electrical conduit. In addition to rectangular boxes, circular boxes are also made for general conduit work and terminating wiring at points to take light fittings. When boxes are used for joining conduits, they are covered with a blank plate. 67 | PageOther outlets: TV outlets - The connection from aerials to interiors can be through a TV outlet which hides the large number of wires passing through. e e @ __ Miso, television needs power supply, so an ordinary socket outlet i provided near the aerial outlet. Telephone/LAN outlet - Telephone wires and LAN wires can get messy and increase the number of wires. Instead telephone/LAN outlets can be incorporated into the interiors and furniture. ma = Lamp-holders In public buildings, the light fittings are fixed as part of the electrical installation. In houses and flats. lamp-shade or fitting is left to the owner, after occupation. Plain lamp-holders are provided to fit in ordinary 100 and 150 watts, tungsten bulbs. They usually have a ring to which. a lamp-shade or similar other fitting can be attached. The top of the lamp-holder screws down to grip the flexible wire cord on which it is suspended from. the ceiling. The insulated wire on which the lamp-holder is suspended performs two functions. It carries the current to the lamp and supports the weight of the holders, lamp and shade. Lamp-holders have protective shields to prevent accidental contact and dampness, @ _S. 68 | PageCeiling roses At the ceiling the wiring should be connected to the flexible wire. This connection is made by means of a ceiling rose. It consists of a circular housing with a terminable block inside and an opening on the underside for the flexible cable to come out of the rose. Where the main wiring is inside the ceiling, this wiring enters the rose through the back or top of the rose. Where the main wiring runs exposed on the surface of the ceiling, it enters the rose through a hole in the side of the rose. Ceiling roses are made with either two or three live terminals in addition to an earth terminal. Protection Devices Electricity is dangerous and it should be handled with care, otherwise it may lead to accidents. The general principle of protection is that a faulty circuit should be cut off from the supply and isolated until the fault is detected and repaired. The two dangers that are to be prevented are fire and shock to the people. They arise from three kinds of faults. They are short circuit, overloading and a fault to earth. The devices commonly used to overcome these faults are described below: able fuses - The most commonly used protective device y consists of a thin fuse wire held between terminals in, a porcel or Bakelite holder. It is inserted into the circuit and the size of fuse Wire is matched to the rating of the circuit. The fuse is designed in such a way that if the current exceeds the rated current of the a circuit, the fuse wire blows and disconnects the circuit. Also referred to as Kitkat fuse. Cartridge fuses - The rewireable fuse has limited controlling capacity, so the cartridge fuse was developed. The fuse wire is mounted between two end caps which form the terminals of the complete fuse link. The wire is surrounded by a closely packed granular filler and closed in a solid casing. When the wire melts or blows, the energy is absorbed by the granular filler. These fuses are also known as High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) or High Breaking Capacity (HBC) fuses. fei Aid 69 | PageMiniature circuit Breaker (MCB) - An alternative to a wire when overheated is a circuit breaker. MCB has a rating si fuse. When an overload occurs, the magnetic pull of the cé surrounding the tube increases and the slug moves through the tube. The speed of travel depends on the magnetic force arid on the size of the current. As the slug approaches the other end of the tube the air gaps in the magnetic circuit are reduced and the magnetic force is increased until it is great enough to trip the circuit breaker. With this, mechanism, the time taken to trip is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the overload. The MCB has a toggle switch for ribution board with MCBs lar to that of a operation. It is possible to dispense with a bank of switches if a di is placed. Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB) - This is a circuit breaker which detects a current leaking to earth and uses this leakage current to operate the tripping mechanism. The leakage current is a residual current and so the name of the device is Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB). There are two types, current operated RCCB and voltage operated RCCB. The primary function of both is to give protection against shock. Circuit capacity protection - There is no need to be worried about voltage drop, but high voltage current passage should be guarded. The cable must be rated at a little more than the current actually taken by the circuit. It is very important that every cable in a permanent installation in a building must be protected. At every point where a we smaller cable branches from a larger one there must be a protective ies device to safeguard the smaller cable. This is provided by the use of switchgear and distribution boards, where a main divides into two or more submains, and the sub-main divides into a number of final circuits. Ideally, the protective devices should be graded so that the smaller fuse opens before the larger fuse when any fault occurs. Earth protection - The normal protection to Earthing conductor avoid direct contact of people is the provision 16mm of insulation on all current carrying wires. (eninimum copper. " Indirect contact with exposed metal parts of an appliance due to any fault will cause a shock. Protection is provided if the wiring is earthed. The household appliance should be preferably double insulated. Proper care should also be taken in using portable electrical appliances in factories and workshops. 70 | Page4.2 Types of Basic lighting systems Proper lighting can have a significant impact on how one feels in a space, and each space may call for a variety of different lighting requirements. A good lighting setup combines different kinds of lighting to create a welcoming space where the occupant can easily work or [Link] room can serve multiple purposes. It can be a place where you can relax, work on the computer, do arts and crafts, cook, share a meal with friends, and much more. This is why lighting features need to correspond to the setting or application of the room. People often expect a single source of light to meet all their needs. Yet, each of the types of lighting has a particular function to fulfill specific needs. These three basic types of lighting that work together to light your home: 1. General / Ambient 2. Task and 3. Accent. ‘A good lighting plan combines all three types to light an area, according to function and style. Lighting should be planned to complement the lifestyle. So first, it is needed to develop a home lighting plan that suits the individual needs and those for the family. When planning lighting, look at the activities that occur in each room, the atmosphere wanted to be created and the decorative elements, wish to emphasize. Keep in mind that light can be absorbed and even wasted in dark-colored rooms, or reflected and used as additional illumination in light-colored rooms. Lighting can make a big difference in how one feels about the home. It helps to perform tasks more easily, makes you feel safer and more comfortable, and allows you to enjoy your home to its full potential. Lighting adds beauty and drama to a room. It can make a small room look open and airy, and a large room appear cozy and inviting. It can create a stimulating atmosphere for a night of entertaining, or a quiet feeling of relaxation after a long, tiring day. In so many ways, lighting can make a difference. And, it does so inexpensively compared to other home decorating or remodeling options. © General lighting General Lighting provides an area with overall illumination. Also known as ambient lighting, general lighting radiates a comfortable level of brightness, enabling one to see and walk about safely. It is a necessary part of any good lighting plan because it provides an overall glow to a room. It can be accomplished with chandeliers, ceiling or wall-mounted fixtures, recessed or track lights, and with lanterns outside the home. In some cases, it can also double as task lighting, A basic form of lighting that replaces sunlight, general lighting is fundamental to a lighting planThe ambient light ‘bounces’ off the walls to illuminate as much space as possible. ‘Types of fixtures that can provide general ambient indoor lighting: 71 | PageChandelier Ceiling mounted fixture Wall-mounted fixture Traditional recessed fixtures and / or LED downlights Track light Floor lamp Table lamp ‘Types of fixtures that provide ambient outdoor lighting: © Spotlight @ Hanging fixture © Garage and canopy lighting © Post lantern © Wall lighting ‘© Recessed fixture used in overhanging structures Chandelier Ceiling mounted Wall - mounted © Task lighting Task lighting is intended to help - accomplish a task! This type of lighting is localized and can be provided by a variety of different sources, allowing the option to adjust the lighting for a work space or chosen area and brighten or darken it in order to suit the needs. Task lighting helps you perform specific tasks such as reading, sewing, cooking, homework, hobbies, games, or balancing your checkbook. It can be provided by under cabinet, tape and track lighting, pendant lighting, and portable lamps. Effective Task lighting should be free of distracting glare and shadows and should be bright enough to prevent eye strain. There are a variety of factors that go into selecting the right task lighting, including what activity or work it is needed for, and even your age. As a person gets older, they require more light and become more sensitive to glare, making good quality task lighting even more important. Depending on these factors, a good task light should provide about 269 to 1076 lumens, or 40 to 100 watts, to a workspace. Task lighting can be created using a variety of light sources, including overhead sources like recessed or track lighting, as well as desk or task lamps. Task lamps should be adjustable or angled down to 72 | Pagekeep the light on the task and out off directly on the eyes. They should also be placed to the side of work to reduce glare and limit shadows. Halogen bulbs work well for task lighting because they produce a white light similar to daylight and use less energy than incandescent bulbs. LED bulbs are another good choice because they produce a direct, bright light that won't get hot when working for long periods of time. ‘Types of Fixtures that Provide Task Lighting: Directional gimbal recessed fixture or downlight Pendant lighting Slim line bar and undercabinet Tape and extrusion Portable or desk lamp © Accent lighting By design, accent lighting creates a focal point. It builds upon the ambient lighting of a room by adding dimension, and can be used to draw attention to a feature, or to highlight a unique design element, Accent Lighting adds drama to a room by creating visual interest. As part of a decorating scheme, it is used to spotlight paintings, houseplants, sculpture, and other prized possessions, or to highlight the texture of a wall, drapery or outdoor landscaping. Accent lighting requires at least three times as much light on the focal point as the general lighting around it. This is usually accomplished through track and recessed lighting, under cabinet tape or wall-mounted fixtures, like picture lights and sconces, which can be angled and directed to create a spotlight. When lighting artwork, it’s best to use LEDs. They don’t emit UV light and give off almost no heat, ensuring your painting or photography doesn’t get damaged over time. ‘Types of Fixtures that Provide Accent Lighting: © Track light Slim line bar and undercabinet 73 | PageTape and extrusion © Directional recessed fixture or downlight © Wall-mounted fixtures Controlling the light Flow ( Lighting Control ) ‘A good lighting design includes a good controls design. Lighting controls play a critical role in lighting systems, enabling users manually or automatically to: © Turn the lights ON and OFF using a switch; and/or © Adjust light output up and down using a dimmer. This basic functionality can be used to generate these benefits for the lighting owner: © Flexibility to satisfy user visual needs; and/or * Automation to reduce energy costs and improve sustainability. In recent years, lighting controls have evolved two additional capabilities: ‘© Adjust light source color, including shade of white light; and/or © Generate data via measuring and/or monitoring Benefits of lighting control 1. Visual Needs By adjusting the intensity of one or more layers of lighting in a space, lighting controls can Change space appearance; Facilitate different functions of the space; Alter atmosphere and mood Reduce glare; and/or Increase user satisfaction by providing users the ability to control their lighting. eee 74 | Page2. Energy Management By reducing lighting ON time, intensity or zoning, lighting controls reduce both demand and energy consumption. According to a study, popular lighting control strategies produce 24-38% average lighting energy savings, which reduces building operating costs. Because of strong energy savings, the majority of state commercial building energy codes require a wide range of controls in new construction. In existing construction, the controllability of LED lighting results in an ideal pairing with controls, combining to minimize energy costs. Control Strategies Combining various inputs and outputs results in several unique lighting control strategies available that can address visual needs, energy management needs, or both. In turn, control strategies can be combined in the same space via layering to maximize value. © Manual control © Occupancy sensing © Time scheduling © Daylight response © Institutional task tuning © Color tuning © Data generation * Demand response Types of Lighting Controls Lighting controls may be categorized as: © Standalone devices ® Room-based control systems © Centralized building control systems User fips a switch Sensor detects absence of people Tum lights Connect or disconnect ONIOFF? YIN load from power 75 | PageDimmers Now, addressing the technical elements, for smaller spaces, focus on the preferred type of dimmer in terms of its aesthetics and functionality. Dimmers can come in many different styles, as well as in a variety of colors. Choosing the right dimmer for different bulb and capsule light types is very important and can be difficult if not informed. A dimmer is used to adjust the level of brightness in any room, which can create a wide range of lighting moods. Dimmers can create more accommodating lighting and help to save energy and extend the life of light bulbs. Factors to Consider * Dimmer Types - Single-pole, 3-way or 4-way , Multi-location, and Plug-in © Lighting Source — Bulb type and wattage © Control Style - Rotary, slide, toggle, rocker, tap and scene selector Bulb Type - Each specific bulb type comes with its individual characteristics, which require a specific type of dimmer. It is very important to select the dimmer designed for the specific type of bulb. Most dimmers fall into these four bulb type categories: ¢ Incandescent and halogen bulbs © Dimmable compact fluorescent light bulbs © Magnetic Low Frequency (MLV) ‘Electronic Low Frequency (ELV) When selecting a dimmer for energy-efficient lights (Compact Fluorescent and LED light bulbs), make sure that the lights themselves are capable of dimming. Not all dimmable CFLs will work with incandescent and halogen dimmer models. Moreover, dimmers specifically designed for dimmable CFLs enable more precise control than standard incandescent and halogen dimmers. Wattage - Choose a dimmer with a wattage rating that meets or exceeds the total wattage of all the light bulbs the dimmer will control. For example, if the dimmer controls a fixture with ten 75-watt bulbs, a dimmer rated for 750 watts or higher is needed 4.3 Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) Energy Audit The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was developed by the Govt. of India for new commercial buildings on 27th May 2007. The purpose of the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) is to provide minimum requirements for energy-efficient design and construction of buil and their systems. The building sector represents about 33% of electricity consumption in India, with the commercial sector and residential sector accounting for 8%and 25% respectively. Estimates based on computer simulation models indicate that ECBC-compliant buildings can use 40 to 60% less energy than conventional buildings. It is estimated that the nationwide mandatory enforcement of the ECBC will yield annual savings of approximately 1.7 billion kWh. The ECBC is expected to overcome market barriers, which otherwise result in under-investment in building energy efficiency. The ECBC was developed as a first step towards promoting energy efficiency in the building sector. The ECBC is the result of extensive work by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and its Committee of Experts. ings 76 | PageThe ECBC provides design norms for: ‘© Building envelope, including thermal performance requirements for walls, roofs, and windows; © Lighting system, including day lighting, interior & exterior lighting, lamps and luminaries’ performance requirements; ® HVAC system, including energy performance of air distribution systems; ® Electrical power and motors includes Water heating and pumping systems, including requirements for hot-water systems. © Renewable energy systems Purpose The purpose of the Energy Conservation Building Code (Code) is to provide minimum requirements for the energy-efficient design and construction of buildings. The Code also provides two additional sets of incremental requirements for buildings to achieve enhanced levels of energy efficiency that go beyond the minimum requirements. Scope The Code is applicable to buildings or building complexes that have a connected load of 100 kW or greater or a contract demand of 120 kVA or greater and are intended to be used for commercial purposes. Buildings intended for private residential purposes only are not covered by the Code. Energy Efficiency Performance Levels The code prescribes the following three levels of energy efficiency: (a) Energy Conservation Building Code Compliant Building (ECBC Building) ECBC Buildings shall demonstrate compliance by adopting the mandatory and prescriptive requirements listed under ECBC Compliant Building requirements, or by following the provisions of the Whole Building Performance (WBP) (b) Energy Conservation Building Code Plus Building (ECBC + Building) ECBC+ Buildings shall demonstrate compliance by adopting the mandatory and prescriptive requirements listed under ECBC + Compliant Building requirements, or by following the provisions of the Whole Building Performance (WBP) (c) Super Energy Conservation Building Code Building (SuperECBC Building) ‘SuperECBC Buildings shall demonstrate compliance by adopting the mandatory and prescriptive requirements listed under SuperECBC Compliant Building requirements in, or by following the provisions of the Whole Building Performance (WBP) 7 | Page4.4 Energy Efficiency in Electrical Utilities Energy efficiency simply means using less energy to perform the same task - that is, eliminating energy waste. Energy efficiency brings a variety of benefits: reducing greenhouse gas emissions, reducing demand for energy imports, and lowering our costs on a household and economy-wide level. While renewable energy technologies also help accomplish these objectives, improving energy efficiency is the cheapest — and often the most immediate - way to reduce the use of fossil fuels. There are enormous opportunities for efficiency improvements in every sector of the economy, whether it is buildings, transportation, industry, or energy generation. For example, energy-efficient LED light bulbs are able to produce the same amount of light as incandescent light bulbs by using 75 to 80 percent less electricity. To familiarize the engineers with the energy efficiency opportunities available in the various electrical equipment and to help them to prepare better for the BEE certified Energy. Program Profile- General introduction- Electrical Systems Electric motor Compressed Air System HVAC & Refrigeration System Fans & Blowers Pumps & Pumping System Cooling tower, Lighting system, Diesel Generating System Energy efficient technologies in Electrical Systems Compressed Air Systems ca ones Electricity TransmissionEfficiency = Electricity tends to lose energy in + the electrical grid as it is transmitted from = one location to another, depending on the magnitude of electric current, the specific conductors, and the length of the transmission line, As voltages increase these losses are terse! reduced considerably due to its . relationship with current. Typical losses from a power plant to a user in their home ranges from 8% to 15%. Ex SS 78 | PageEnergy efficient technologies in electrical system Maximum Demand Controllers High-tension (HT) consumers have to pay a maximum demand charge in addition to the usual charge for the number of units consumed. This charge is usually based on the highest amount of power used during some period (say 30 minutes) during the metering month. The maximum demand charge often represents a large proportion of the total bill and may be based on only one isolated 30-minute episode of high-power use. Considerable savings can be realised by monitoring power use and turning off or reducing non-essential loads during such periods of high-power use. Maximum Demand Controller (See Figure below) is a device designed to meet the need of industries conscious of the value of load management. Alarm is sounded when demand approaches a present value. If corrective action is not taken, the controller switches off non-essential loads in a logical sequence. This sequence is predetermined by the user and is programmed jointly by the user and the supplier of the device. The plant equipment selected for the load management are stopped and restarted as per the desired load profile. Demand control scheme is implemented by using suitable control contactors. Audio and visual annunciations could also be used. ‘Automatic Power Factor Controllers Various types of automatic power factor controls are available with relay / microprocessor logic. Two of the most ‘common controls are: Voltage Control and kvAr Control Voltage Control Voltage alone can be used as a source of intelligence when the switched capacitors are applied at a point where the circuit voltage decreases as circuit load increases. Generally, where they are applied the voltage should decrease as circuit load increases and the drop in voltage should be around 4-5 % with increasing load. Voltage is the most common type of intelligence used in substation applications, when maintaining a particular voltage is of prime importance. This type of control is independent of load cycle. During light load time and low source voltage, this may give leading PF at the substation, which is to be taken note of. KILOVAR Control Kilovar sensitive controls (see Figure below ) are used at locations where the voltage level is closely regulated and not available as a control variable. The capacitors can be switched to respond to a decreasing power factor as a result of change in system loading. This type of control can also be sed to avoid penalty on low power factor by adding capacitors in steps as the system power factor begins to lag behind the desired value. Kilovar control requires two inputs - current and voltage from. the incoming feeder, which are fed to the PF correction mechanism, either the microprocessor or the relay. 79 | Pageee lAutomatic Power Factor Control Relay It controls the power factor of the installation by giving signals to switch on or off power factor correction capacitors. Relay is the brain of the control circuit and needs contactors of appropriate rating for switching on/off the capacitors. There is 2 built-in power factor transducer, which Imeasures the power factor of the installation and converts it to a DC voltage of appropriate polarity. This is compared with a reference voltage, which can be set by means of a Iknob calibrated in terms of power factor. When the power factor falls below setting, the capacitors are switched on in sequence. The relays are provided with First in First out (FIFO) and First in Last Out (FILO) sequence. The capacitors controlled by the relay must be of the same rating and they are switched on/off in linear sequence. To prevent overcorrection hunting, a dead band is provided. This setting determines the range of phase angle over which the relay does not respond; only when the PF goes beyond this range, the relay acts. When the load is low, the effect of the capacitors is more pronounced and may lead to hunting, Under current blocking (low current cut out) shuts off the relay, switching off all capacitors one by one in sequence, when load current is below setting. Special timing sequences ensure that capacitors are fully discharged before they are switched in. This avoids dangerous over voltage transients. The solid state indicating lamps (LEDS) display various functions that the operator should know and also indicate each capacitor switching stage. Intelligent Power Factor Controller (IPFC) This controller determines the rating of capacitance connected in each step during the first hour of its operation and stores them in memory. Based on this measurement, the IPFC switches on the most appropriate steps, thus eliminating the hunting problems normally associated with capacitor switching. Energy Efficient Motors Minimising Watts Loss in Motors Improvements in motor efficiency can be achieved without compromising motor performance - at higher cost - within the limits of existing design and manufacturing technology. It can be seen that any improvement in motor efficiency must result ] from reducing the Watts losses. In terms of the existing state of electric motor technology, a reduction in watts losses can be achieved in various ways. All of these changes to reduce motor losses are possible with existing motor design and manufacturing technology. They would, however, require additional materials and/or the use of higher quality materials and improved manufacturing processes resulting in increased motor cost. ‘Simply Stated: REDUCED LOSSES = IMPROVED EFFICIENCY 80 | Page4.5 Solar Energy Solar radiation is light — also known as electromagnetic radiation - that is emitted by the sun. While every location on Earth receives some sunlight over a year, the amount of solar radiation that, reaches any one spot on the Earth’s surface varies. Solar technologies capture this radiation and turn it into useful forms of energy. Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to: Geographic location Time of day Season Local landscape Local weather eee. Solar power Solar power is the conversion of renewable energy from sunlight into electricity, with the help of technology. The amount of sunlight that strikes the earth's surface in an hour and a half is enough to handle the entire world's energy consumption for a full year. Solar technologies convert sunlight into electrical energy either through photovoltaic (PV) panels or through mirrors that concentrate solar radiation. This energy can be used to generate electricity or be stored in batteries or thermal storage. There are two main types of solar energy technologies—photovoltaics (PV) and concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP). Most familiar is PV, which is utilized in solar panels. When the sun shines onto a solar panel, energy from the sunlight is absorbed by the PV cells in the panel. This energy creates electrical charges that move in response to an internal electrical field in the cell, causing electricity to flow. Solar Photovoltaics Usually, see them on rooftops, in fields, along roadsides, and you'll be seeing more of them: Solar photovoltaic (PV) installations are on the rise across the country—but how do they turn sunshine into energy? with semiconductors and there's more to it. What is photovoltaic (PV) technology and how does it work? PV materials and devices convert sunlight into electrical energy. A single PV device is known as a cell. An individual PV cell is usually small, typically producing about 1 or 2 watts of power. These cells are made of different semiconductor materials and are often less than the thickness of four human hairs. In order to withstand the outdoors for many years, cells are sandwiched between protective materials in a combination of glass and/or plastics. To boost the power output of PV cells, they are connected together in chains to form larger units known as modules or panels. Modules can be used individually, or several can be connected to form arrays. One or more arrays is then connected to the electrical grid as part of a complete PV system. Because of this modular structure, PV systems can be built to meet almost any electric power need, small or large. PV modules and arrays are just one part of a PV system. Systems also include mounting structures that point panels toward the sun, along with the components that take the direct-current (DC) 81 | Pageelectricity produced by modules and convert it to the alternating-current (AC) electricity used to power all of the appliances in your home. ‘When light shines on a photovoltaic (PV) cell — also called a solar cell - that light may be reflected, absorbed, or pass right through the cell. The PV cell is composed of semiconductor material; the “semi” means that it can conduct electricity better than an insulator but not as well as a good conductor like a metal. There are several different semiconductor materials used in PV cells. When the semiconductor is exposed to light, it absorbs the light’s energy and transfers it to negatively charged particles in the material called electrons. This extra energy allows the electrons to flow through the material as an electrical current. This current is extracted through conductive metal contacts — the grid-like lines on solar cells — and can then be used to power your home and the rest of the electric grid. Solar cells that are strung together make a module, and when modules are connected, they make a solar system, or installation. A typical residential rooftop solar system has about 30 modules. Sra ROP ‘The efficiency of a PV cell is simply the amount of electrical power coming out of the cell compared to the energy from the light shining on it, which indicates how effective the cell is at converting energy from one form to the other. The amount of electricity produced from PV cells depends on the characteristics (such as intensity and wavelengths) of the light available and multiple performance attributes of the cell An important property of PV semiconductors is the bandgap, which indicates what wavelengths of light the material can absorb and convert to electrical energy. If the semiconductor’s bandgap matches the wavelengths of light shining on the PV cell, then that cell can efficiently make use of all the available energy. Solar cells made out of silicon currently provide a combination of high efficiency, low cost, and long lifetime. Modules are expected to last for 25 years or more, still producing more than 80% of their original power after this time. These are available in different varieties of semiconductor materials, for PV cells, as per the cost and functionality. Solar photovoltaic modules are where the electricity gets generated, but are only one of the many parts in a complete photovoltaic (PV) system. In order for the generated electricity to be useful ina home or business, a number of other technologies must be in place. A module's ability to convert sunlight into electricity depends on the semiconductor. In the lab, this ability is called photovoltaic conversion efficiency. Outside, environmental conditions like heat, dirt, and shade can reduce conversion efficiency, along with other factors. But researchers are coming up 82 | Pagewith solutions, such as backsheets that are placed on the panels to reduce their operating temperature, and new cell designs that capture more light. Capturing more light during the day increases energy yield, or the electricity output of a PV system over time. To boost energy yield, researchers and manufacturers are looking at bifacial solar cells, which are double-sided to capture light on both sides of a silicon solar module—they capture light reflected off the ground or roof where the panels are installed. The jury is still out on how bifacials will affect a system's energy yield, but some SETO-funded projects are working to reduce this uncertainty by establishing baseline metrics to quantify and model bifacial efficiency gains. MOUNTING STRUCTURES PV arrays must be mounted on a stable, durable structure that can support the array and withstand wind, rain, hail, and corrosion over decades. These structures tilt the PV array at a fixed angle determined by the local latitude, orientation of the structure, and electrical load requirements. To obtain the highest annual energy output, modules in the northern hemisphere are pointed due south and inclined at an angle equal to the local latitude. Rack mounting is currently the most common method because it is robust, versatile, and easy to construct and install. More sophisticated and less expensive methods continue to be developed For PV arrays mounted on the ground, tracking mechanisms automatically move panels to follow the sun across the sky, which provides more energy and higher returns on investment. One-axis trackers are typically designed to track the sun from east to west. Two-axis trackers allow for modules to remain pointed directly at the sun throughout the day. Naturally, tracking involves more up-front costs and sophisticated systems are more expensive and require more maintenance. As systems have improved, the cost-benefit analysis increasingly favors tracking for ground-mounted systems. Examples of Bullding:ntegrated and Ancillary Structure Photovoltaic Applications. Qe Qerns Q rere Qvecen Ore Qsune BUILDING-INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS While most solar modules are placed in dedicated mounting structures, they can also be integrated directly into building materials like roofing, windows, or facades. These systems are known as, building-integrated PV (BIPV). Integrating solar into buildings could improve material and supply chain efficiencies by combining redundant parts, and reduce system cost by using existing building systems and support structures. BIPV systems could provide power for direct current (DC) applications in buildings, like LED lighting, computers, sensors, and motors, and support grid-integrated efficient building applications, like electric vehicle charging. BIPV systems still face technical and commercial barriers to widespread use, but their unique value makes them a promising alternative to traditional mounting structures and building materials. 83 | Page@ Solar panels convert sunlight to DC current Extra electricity credited on grid Take electricity your home requires Inverter converts DC electricity to AC INVERTERS Inverters are used to convert the direct current (DC) electricity generated by solar photovoltaic modules into alternating current (AC) electricity, which is used for local transmission of electricity, as well as most appliances in our homes. PV systems either have one inverter that converts the electricity generated by all of the modules, or microinverters that are attached to each individual module. A single inverter is generally less expensive and can be more easily cooled and serviced when needed. The microinverter allows for independent operation of each panel, which is useful if some modules might be shaded, for example. It is expected that inverters will need to be replaced at least once in the 25-year lifetime of a PV array. Advanced inverters, or "smart inverters," allow for two-way communication between the inverter and the electrical utility. This can help balance supply and demand either automatically or via remote communication with utility operators. Allowing utilities to have this insight into (and possible control of) supply and demand allows them to reduce costs, ensure grid stability, and reduce the likelihood of power outages. STORAGE BATTERIES Batteries allow for the storage of solar photovoltaic energy, so we can use it to power our homes at night or when weather elements keep sunlight from reaching PV panels. Not only can they be used in homes, but batteries are playing an increasingly important role for utilities. As customers feed solar energy back into the grid, batteries can store it so it can be returned to customers at a later time. The increased use of batteries will help modernize and stabilize our country's electric grid. Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics Concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP) systems use mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight onto receivers that collect solar energy and convert it to heat, which can then be used to produce electricity or stored for later use. It is used primarily in very large power plants. 84 | PageSolar energy technology doesn’t end with electricity generation by PV or CSP systems. These solar energy systems must be integrated into homes, businesses, and existing electrical grids with varying mixtures of traditional and other renewable energy [Link] energy can help to reduce the cost of electricity, contribute to a resilient electrical grid, create jobs and spur economic growth, generate back-up power for nighttime and outages when paired with storage, and operate at similar efficiency on both small and large scales. 4.6 Guidelines for Planning the electrical layout for the Residential Area Kitchen © Exhaust fans opening with one-point outlet to be provided irrespective of yardstick of provision of exhaust fans. * In addition to one 15 A 6-pin power outlet for the kitchen, one 3 pin 5 Amp. outlet to be provided for the water filter and other appliances used. Washing Machine - Location to be finalized in consultation with the Architect. A power outlet plus water supply/drainage to be coordinated with the Architect/Civil Engineer. Meter Board - Generally for a block of quarters of 2/3/4 storied, electric supply for each block is received in a meter board, where a cubicle meter panel is provided with a system of power distribution to each quarter. At present such meter boards are invariably located under the staircase. This is not a desirable practice from a technical / aesthetic viewpoint. It is technically desirable to coordinate with the Architect to provide a separate meter room for each block of quarters or a number of blocks. Staircase Lighting - Staircase lighting is to be treated as an extension of street lighting, for security and convenience of the residents. CFL (1 x 11 Watt) type staircase lighting may be provided to reduce load. As for example, a need of 200 quarters can be met with 100 CFL fitting (each of 11 watt), with a connected load of 1.5 KW only. Incandescent staircase lighting and bulkhead fittings should not be provided, in view of excessive energy consumption and low burning hours. 85 | PageEmergency Electric Supply - For ensuring essential water supply and security lighting, a D.G. set to be provided for each colony to take care of the water supply pump set, street lighting and essential load requirement of buildings like Dispensary, Community Center etc Fittings - Subject to limit of yardstick of fittings for various types of quarters following guidelines to be provided: ‘* Every room to be provided with one fluorescent fitting for energy saving. * kitchen to be provided with a fluorescent fitting, tapped from a batten holder (through an adapter), so that in case of need the batten holder can be used with bulbs. * Incandescent bulkhead fittings not to be used. * Quality fittings of reputed make to be used. Main Board of Each Quarter - It shall be MCB type with provision of ELCB with the incoming MCB. It shall be located in a niche with ventilated door cover, in the room connecting to the entry of the quarter. MCB DB shall be a pre-wired type, for trouble free service. Corrosion Free Fittings - Coastal areas and humid areas like kitchen, toilet are subject to corrosion, which substantially reduces the useful life of such fittings, besides giving an ugly look on account of rusting. Therefore, for coastal areas, and other humid areas corrosion free type of fittings (like aluminium, stainless steel, engineering plastic) should be used, for ensuring long life of such fittings and to achieve life cycle economy, after taking into account recurring expenditure on account of painting of fittings. Telephone Wiring - Telephone wiring is to be provided for each quarter. One outlet up to type Il quarters, two outlets up to type IV quarters and three outlets above type IV quarters. Such telephone wiring to be brought to a tag-block at a suitable point on the ground floor. Provisions shall be kept for suitable entry-pipe for laying incoming telephone cable. TV Cabling - Internal TV cabling shall be provided, with two outlets up to type Ill quarters and three outlets for type IV quarters and above. Similarly, from a suitable point at ground floor, TV cabling shall be provided. With use of suitable splitters, such TV cabling to be connected to each quarter. hting for Parks - Colonies are provided with parks. Such parks should be provided with adequate lights to include area lights, pathway lights etc. so that the parks can be effectively used by the residents and they remain secure during night time, External Pipe Network for Laying Telephone and TV Cabling for the Colony - Starting from a suitable room, pipe network may be provided to lay telephones/TV cables for the colony. Suitable road cross pipe and manholes to be provided for drawing such cables and their maintenance. Preliminary Estimate to Take Care of Telephone/TV Cabling in a Colony - At present, such services are provided in a very crude manner making use of existing poles and hanging cables. Apart from making colonies shabby, such services are subject to damages and unsatisfactory service. Therefore, preliminary estimates should provide for such TV/Telephone cabling for the colony. Other Allied Services - Modern residential colonies require support services like CCTV (for Gate and house security), intercom system, basic security system etc. for the safety and convenience of the residents. Therefore, preliminary estimates should provide for basic provisions for such 86 | Pagesafety/security systems. Most of these services pay for themselves within 3 / 4 years of installation, besides providing security, which sometimes amount to life sa Electrical Layout of a commercial building The main objective is to avoid possible fire hazards, which calls for sound detailed designing and use of quality equipment and materials executed with sound workmanship and supervision. All control LT Panels, controlling power supply to the entire building will be located in a centralized room, from where centralized control and monitoring of the entire power supply system can be made. Earth fault protection shall be provided for each individual building at the LT receiving point i.e. Main LT Panel. ELCB shall not be provided as a matter of routine in distribution boards. These can be provided, if required, by the Chief Engineer (E), in charge. Office buildings are prone to fire hazard during night hours. Therefore, after office hours, all the LT Panels should be switched off. Based on the need of the building, only the specified LT panel to be kept ‘ON’ which feeds the loads during night hours. Such panel, called common service panel, may feed following loads, which are normally used after office hours: * Some specified lifts. ‘® Staircase/ Corridor/ Compound light. © Fire protection loads. © Pump Sets. ‘© Other loads which are kept ‘ON’ after office hours. Reliability of Power Supply - Minimum two transformers to be provided to provide certain redundancy. Also, a smaller size transformer may be provided to take care of reduced load during ‘after office’ hours to have energy saving of the transformer, after proper technical evaluation It is preferable to plan for a separate service building, to combine all electrical and mechanical services of the building, so that the services can be maintained comprehensively at a lower cost and also reduce the overall area requirement. Such service buildings can combine electric sub-station, DG Sets, UPS, Air-conditioning Plant, water supply pump sets, etc. While planning, maintainability of various services to be ensured, like providing facilities like access, approachability of various equipment, maintenance space etc. 87 | PageREFERENCE The design of electrical services for buildings ‘Author - F. Porges | 1997 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. | Patil B S, “Civil Engineering Contracts and Estimates’, Orient Longman Publishers, awe LINK FOR REFERENCE [Link] [Link] [Link] Question banks 5 Marks 1. Explain ECBC. 2. Write short notes on Ambient lighting 3. What is the Wiring Process? 10 marks 1. Electrical protection devices explain in brief. 2. Write brief on Energy efficiency in electrical utilities 3. Elaborate on controlling the light flow. 4, What are the types of basic lighting systems? 15 Marks 1. Explain Solar Energy and solar power generation. 2. Write the Planning guidelines of electrical layout for the residential area, with a neat drawing showing all the requirements. 3. Write about the Electrical supply systems in residences. 88 | Page