BLOCK 2

CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL ISSUES

Contemporary Global Issues

104
 Global Politics of
UNIT 7 GLOBAL POLITICS AND Environment

ENVIRONMENT*

Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Economic Development and Environmental Challenges
7.3 Environmental Conservation and the United Nations
7.4 Global Institutions for Environmental Protection
7.4.1 The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
7.4.2 The Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)
7.4.3 The Global Environment Facility (GEF)
7.4.4 Need for Reforms
7.5 Issues of Concern
7.6 Right to Environmental Security
7.7 Paris Climate Agreement
7.7.1 Targets under the Paris Climate Agreement
7.7.2 Working of Paris Climate Agreement
7.7.3 Global Politics and Diplomacy of Climate Change
7.8 India and the Paris Climate Commitments
7.9 Let Us Sum Up
7.10 Some Useful References
7.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

7.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit you will be reading about global politics and environment. After
reading this Unit, you would understand :
The key challenges to environment protection;
The steps taken globally and locally to mitigate the crisis;
The initiatives taken up by the developed and developing countries towards
sustainable future; and
The remedial measures each of us should follow to lessen the crisis.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Among the challenges that the world faced post-Cold War era are related not to
political or social security as was expected but a formidable range of
environmental challenges. Till then, it was assumed that the world is safe in
terms of environmental protection; it is even possible that no nation had ever
thought that the environmental issues would predominantly occupy more space
than any other. No threats were perceived in spite of the environmental laws that
came up in the 1970s and later. A major issue of the post-Cold War era pertained

*Dr. Sailaja Gullapalli, Research Associate, Gandhi Smriti, 5, Tees January Marg, New Delhi
105
Contemporary Global Issues mostly to political issues and the onset of the free market economic policies all
over the world; and how globalisation came to dominate the then discourses all
over. Therefore, the issues related to environment did not seem to hold much
attention until one of the landmark and pioneering reports on the global
environmental crisis came up in 1992. The world woke up to this unexpected
challenge and started devising ways and means to counter its ill-effects. This
period marked a significant departure from the previous approaches and towards
working for a sustainable development for the future generations. This unit
explains some of the essential features so that the reader would understand the
issue of environmental crisis.

7.2 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND

ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES
The first half o the 20th century was dominated by two world wars followed by
the Cold War. During this period, economic development came to occupy a prime
position wherein all the nations were devising measures as to how to develop
economically and how the developing countries could be helped to meet to the
levels of their prosperous counterparts. Development or economic development
became the motto, means and the end of this paradigm. The nations, both
developed and developing, hence became partners in development and signed
global and regional trade agreements so as to achieve their aims. Development
did not mean just the basic parameters; it meant the choice of people, freedom to
choose and capacity to grow. It should be a step towards limitless growth and
prosperity of individuals; this was the dominant view offered by the proponents
of development. In the process of assessing and designing this capacity to grow,
all the nations were roped in to become partners of this so called fruitful exercise.
Some of the countries have even opened up their economies and coincidentally
that was the time when the natural environment too came to draw the attention of
the world.

This process of economic facilitation was widely known as globalisation that

aimed at exchanging the political, economic, social, cultural and all possible
matters by the nations with one another. Development models were primarily
from the West irrespective of the fact that many nations had no capacity or
resources to become like them. Further, there was also a failure of global economic
system which was mainly unequal in more than one way, making the rich richer
and the poor poorer. There were international financial institutions, General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and other economic measures that proved
antithetical to the developing countries. Economic development and prosperity
turned out to be a mirage for most of these. The lure of this model of development
made them lose many a precious resource in their respective nations.

As noted economist Amiya Bagchi observes, “Globalisation, in its proper sense,

is the sense of ordinary human beings experiencing and being enriched by
influences emanating from all over the world, is coterminous with human history;
people of all continents or regions becoming aware of one another, and trading
objects and commodities, plants and techniques with one another”. The existing
phase of globalisation is different in the sense free trade and free markets have
become high up factors. Excessive industrialism has brought the world economy
spiralling towards recession and deteriorated working conditions. The world is
106 rapidly heading towards unemployed growth, as distribution of growth rates and
employment has not been able to address the question of rising redundancy and Global Politics of
Environment
scarcity. It seemed as if the world is heading nowhere, especially with the
developing countries trying to find ways to get out of the deep crisis they plunged
themselves into in the hope of achieving growth and prosperity.

A rise in political consciousness regarding the developments and loss of resources

was soon realized by one and all and there was an increasing demand to address
these issues globally and work out remedial measures. The Stockholm Declaration
of 1972 to which India also assured its compliance have all of a sudden become
important issues to address. The rapid depletion of resources, rupture of ozone
layer, vanishing forests, drying rivers, animals and plants becoming endangered
have all become serious issues. Perhaps it was the first time the world woke up
to this stark reality and braced itself towards taking damage-control measures.
The contemporary environmental crisis is thus the outcome of humankind’s
exploitation of the restricted resources of the earth. With the threat of
environmental collapse imminent in the face, mankind has finally come to realise
that the earth has been left with scarce resources. The crisis poses a challenge to
search for an alternative path of survival for the current massive population and
to create a system for the future in which the human species will live in harmony
with the ecosystem. The global involvement was the beginning of a serious attempt
towards restoring some of the scarce resources we have lost.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Define the concept of economic development. Is it true that it led to
environmental degradation?
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7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND

THE UNITED NATIONS
The United Nations Conference on Human Environment was convened in 1972
with many apprehensions by the participating countries. Nevertheless, it sought
to address the issues that were in front of them through collective method. The
Stockholm Conference was held from 5th to 16th June, 1972 attended by about
1200 delegates from 114 countries. It is to be noted that it was attended by two
heads of nations, that is, Olaf Palme of Sweden and Smt Indira Gandhi of India.
The declaration at the conference was a non-binding document of 26 principles
which noted the shared interests of the nations – both the developed and the
developing – in conserving the resources. Most importantly, it declared through
Principle 21 that asserts that a state’s sovereign rights over its resources; it
sought to extract a global commitment to protect resources and balance economic
development with that of environment. Though the Conference did not meet up
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Contemporary Global Issues to the expectations of all and seemed incoherent in many ways, it did initiate the
addressing of concerns by the nations all over the world. One important outcome
of the meeting was the establishment of the United Nations Environment
Programme that delegated major role to the United Nations in conducting
international environment meetings and development of a related law. It may be
noted that in India too, Mrs Gandhi brought many a law relating to the environment
in general. The decision to stop tree-felling for commercial purposes was a direct
initiative following the Chipko Movement in the State of Uttarakhand in the
early 1970s by the women.

The developments in the post-Stockholm meet were more of a lip service with
no comprehensive action plan. But the developments were quite positive in some
cases like the agreements on dumping, species, pollution etc. The 1972 London
Dumping Convention, International Convention for the prevention of Pollution
from Ships 1973, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species,
1973, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985,
convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal 1989, were quite a few. In 1983, the UN General Assembly
established an independent commission to ‘propose long-term environmental
strategies for achieving sustainable development to the year 2000 and beyond’.
The World Commission on Environment and Development or more popularly
known as the Brundtland Commission was formed with the prime minister of
Norway Gro Harlem Brundtland as its chairperson and 23 expert members from
22 countries were chosen as part of the Commission to draw measures for
environmental protection. The final report of the Commission known as ‘Our
Common Future’ was tabled in 1987. Meanwhile many countries started working
towards conserving their resources and identified the grave environmental
concerns faced by them and came up with comprehensive agreements and
collectively pledged to safeguard their interests. After a series of resolutions on
environment, the UN General Assembly decided to convene a major global meet
on the issue. It paved way to the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) also known as Rio Summit (taking the name of the
place where it was conducted) or the Earth Summit (taking the name as to the
concerns of the planet earth).

The Rio Summit decided to work on the strategies to halt rapid environmental
deterioration and increase the participation of nations in safeguarding resources
and also promote sustainable development in all countries. The UNCED
Convention on this was held from 3rd to 14th June, 1992 in Rio de Janeiro in
Brazil. The convention saw an unprecedented participation from various nations.
It includes 178 national delegates, over 1400 officially accredited NGOs and a
number of journalists. The Conference agreements – the Rio Declaration, Agenda
21 and the Statement of Forest principles were formally adopted in the final days
of the convention. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) and the convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) were some of the
landmark outcomes. It was also decided that a review convention would take
place within five years to look to the implementation of the recommendations
pertaining to Agenda 21.

The Rio Declaration, with its 27 Principles, is a landmark achievement in the

history of mankind for the protection of natural environment. It not only elicited
positive response from the participating nations but also included NGOs, youth
108 and various indigenous communities as part of its implementation members. As
Lorraine Elliott observed, ‘the Declaration and its principles are shaped by and Global Politics of
Environment
reinforce the imperatives of state sovereignty rather than global stewardship.
The Declaration exemplifies the difficulties of reconciling environment and
development in the concept and practice of sustainable development’ (p.19).

Agenda 21, a non-binding agreement, with 40 chapters, sets out an extensive

plan of action for implementing the principles of the Declaration. Its principles
include combating poverty, consumption patterns, human health and settlement,
land resources, deforestation, desertification, drought, sustainable agriculture,
biodiversity, oceans, fresh water resources, water management and similar issues.
It includes as its partner members who could implement the principles youth,
women, NGOs and extend them various facilities in the process like necessary
funding, transfer of technology, institutional arrangements and capacity-building.

The Agenda was further taken by the General Assembly in its Special Session in
New York. It was meant as a review meeting as well as a ground for further
discussion on the issues that would have become significant in a matter of five
years. This further led to the Kyoto meeting in the same year to finalise
negotiations for a legally-binding agreement that could be signed by all the
members. There were differing tunes in this meet and many targets were set on
emissions to be implemented by individual countries. It was a summit meeting
with no concrete plans.

The World Summit on Sustainable Development was held in Johannesburg from

26th August to 4th September, 2002. The meeting sought commitment from the
members to comply to international agreements that are in the interest of mankind.
Many issues remained unresolved and the lack of political will was quite apparent.
It ended up in more rhetoric and less commitments on the part of the nations.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Write a summary of the efforts undertaken by the United Nations in the
conservation of environment.
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7.4 GLOBAL INSTITUTIONS FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Efforts have been undertaken at the global level to ensure better environmental
management and project implementation. While the aims and objectives have
been drafted ambitiously to meet the goals, in reality, the efforts needed much
better cohesion and coordination. Some of the agencies that have been set up
under the auspices of the UN have done commendable job in addressing many
issues. 109
Contemporary Global Issues 7.4.1 The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
The UNEP emerged as an outcome of the Stockholm Conference in 1972. The
prime objective of this is to monitor, coordinate and initiate activities as decided
in the Conference. Its job is also to assess the global environment changes from
time to time and promote better environment management activities. It has
collaborated widely with governmental and non-governmental agencies and
sponsors meets that discuss the environment issues. Some of the crucial issues
addressed by the UNEP include biodiversity, ozone depletion, desertification,
toxic waste management and disposal, taking care of endangered species and
habitat. It is to be noted that the developing countries were initially skeptical
about the UNEP and felt that the establishment of such a body would only increase
their financial burdens and commitments. The secretariat of the UNEP works
under the guidance of the Executive Director; the Governing Council reports to
the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and through it to the General
Assembly. Unfortunately, the UNEP does not have executive powers. It facilitates
multilateral agreements related to environment and the Global Environment
outlook is published under its direction. It faces severe budget constraints as the
nations do not contribute as much as they are supposed to. For the implementation
of provisions as put forward by the Agenda 21, only 75 out of 179 UN member
states contributed to its fund. Among all the international organizations that work
towards environmental protection and betterment, the UNEP is meagerly funded,
has less support and not given clearer mandates to follow. It is primarily the lack
of political will that led to the non-efficient functioning of the UNEP.

7.4.2 The Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)

In the scenario following the Rio Summit, many nations felt that the UNEP be
strengthened so as to meet the goals of environmental conservation. Others felt
that a new organization may be set up and delegated with the responsibility with
a clear mandate and better funding. The ensuing result was the establishment of
the CSD so that the revitalizing of the programme may be efficiently monitored.
The job of the CSD is to examine and monitor the implementation of the UNCED
programme. Further, it is delegated with the responsibility of review of financial
funding for the conservation efforts and also provides necessary transfer of
technology as may be required by the nation states. Like the UNEP, it has no
executive powers to enforce the efforts. It works thematically, taking up certain
issues at a time rather than clubbing many issues so as to avoid any confusion.
As Elliott points out, some of the issues touched upon by the CSD include poverty
eradication, production and consumption, and protection of the natural resource
base remain the overarching themes for each of these cycles, the first of which
focuses more specifically on water, sanitation and human settlements. The work
of the Commission more or less resembles the UNEP as this too faced similar
challenges. Despite the commitments by the nations in the Johannesburg
Declaration, necessary progress has not been made till now. Yet again, the lack
of political will led to the promises of Rio being thoroughly ignored and many a
session wasted. Since it also lacks implementation authority, the CSD continues
to follow in the footsteps of its predecessor, the UNEP.

7.4.3 The Global Environment Facility (GEF)

The GEF, established by the World Bank, UNDP and UNEP, in November 1990
110 aims to finance projects and training programmes for innovations that protect
the global environment-through investment, technical assistance and to some Global Politics of
Environment
extent, research (El-Ashry, 1993). The main functions include all of the three
agencies. While the UNDP focuses on technical assistance and project preparation,
the UNEP provides the secretarial support for the projects taken up. The World
Bank ensures that the core fund of the GEF remains of use in the investment of
the projects. The projects are mostly at the international level as the funding of
the local projects remains largely in the hands of the nation states. Yet again, the
developed countries perceive the GEF as an agency that takes commitments
from them for funding while the developing nations feel much reluctant about
their commitments. They want that the GEF be restructured to accommodate the
concerns of the developing countries in a better way. They believe that it works
as per the dictates of the World Bank and hence the insistence on its transparency.

7.4.4 Need for Reforms

The UN itself is perceived as a non-responsive organization especially to
the concerns of the developing countries. This needs to be carefully worked
upon and mistrust removed.
Lack of effective coordination marred many an attempt to bring consensus
among the nation states. Efforts have to be stepped up for the same.
The UNCED did receive suggestions on the renewal of some of its
institutions. The objective is to strengthen the UN capacity in the
environment and sustainable development.
One of the reports regarding the work of the agency points out at the
institutional fragmentation and lack of coherence which seriously needs to
be discussed and acted upon.
Two matters that really need to be worked upon include the strengthening
of the UNEP which is one of the oldest and reputed agencies that could
effectively undertake the task of environmental management, monitoring
and project implementation. Better coordination among the agencies would
do well to ensure that the international organizations are really serious in
addressing the issues of the planet earth.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) What are the global institutions that are taking a lead in the protection of
environment?
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Contemporary Global Issues
7.5 ISSUES OF CONCERN
Conservation of the natural environment has always been one of the most
neglected issues yesterday and today too. In spite of charting out planned strategies
and policies to combat the negative effects of environmental degradation, we, as
human beings have a greater responsibility towards our nature. It is necessary to
safeguard ecological components like air, water, land resources. Nature, on its
own, has always given the mankind aplenty. It’s the man’s greed that resulted in
the degradation. The environmental degradation is thus man-made impending
disaster. The actions of mankind, their negligence, consumption patterns,
excessive use of resources and increasing pollution levels have all contributed to
this scenario. ‘Ecological components – land, water, forests, atmosphere, habitat
and resources have been threatened due to the growing prosperity of human
society and its developmental actions’. Some of the areas are suffering from
scarcity, droughts and floods and removal of forest cover. There are all kinds of
industrial pollutions, increasing levels of industrial wastes, alarming air pollution
levels, burning of fossil fuels, high concentrations of nitric and sulphuric acid
levels, industrial waste emissions and lack of waste disposal mechanisms have
all led to increasing pollution levels. Some of the issues that were widely discussed
in various international meetings on environment are given as below:

Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer and the consequent ill-effects of ultraviolet rays
affecting the balance of nature have been widely discussed at all the international
meetings. The 1985 Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol of 1987 on
the protection of the ozone layer are the most important agreements in this context.
As a result, the ozone depleting chemicals all around the world have been banned
and a special fund has been created to take necessary action by both the developed
and developing countries.

Climate Change

One of the agreements that was signed by the nations in 1992 during the Rio
Summit was the Framework Convention on the Climate Change. Under the GEF,
funding has also been made available to assist the developing countries in
combating this issue. The Kyoto Protocol is a landmark treaty in this context as
it sets targets and timelines to constantly work on the issues related to climate
change. The emission of toxic gases is the main issue that has been posing major
threat to most of the countries experiencing high levels of pollution.

Deforestation

The felling of trees at unprecedented levels and the gradual disappearance of

forest areas poses major threat to conservation efforts. The Rio Summit discussed
the deforestation issue and charted few non-binding principles to be followed by
the nation states regarding forest conservation. The onus rests mainly on the
countries, whether they sign binding or non-binding agreements, to prevent felling
of trees of protect forest areas. The conservation of forest areas would naturally
include the protection of the unique flora and fauna and also the wildlife of the
nations. Local bodies and non-governmental organizations can do a lot to protect
forest regions.
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Desertification Global Politics of
Environment
Following the Earth Summit, an international agreement on the Desertification
was signed by the nation states in 1994 known as the Convention to Combat
Desertification. This also requires the participating nations to chalk out their
action plans as to how to comply with this agreement. The nations were also
given the option of drawing from the development aid related to desertification
issues.

Conservation of Biodiversity

Biodiversity conservation includes a wide range of issues like protection of

wildlife, forests, flora and fauna, endangered species and so on. For any country,
the conservation of biodiversity is a necessary step if the balance is to be
maintained in the natural environment. Loss of biodiversity is the loss of life for
all beings. The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed at the Rio Summit
in 1992. The Global Environment Facility also extends support through funding
to the nation states. The wildlife and habitat protection are major concerns of the
world today.

Freshwater Resources

The drying up of rivers due to increased heat is a major concern today. Further, it
has been increasingly noticed that the tapping of rain water and other natural
water resources is crucial to human and habitat survival. One of the major issues
that dominate the urban life is the lack of water resources. The increasing
population and the movement of rural population to urban areas have been putting
enormous pressure on the resources and access to water is definitely a major
issue. Watershed management and protection of international waterways are
extremely important today. Though the Convention on the Non-Navigable uses
of International Watercourses has been discussed, it could not end up in an
international agreement due to commitment issues on the part of the nation states.

Protection of Marine Resources

One of the most important issues relating to marine resource conservation is that
of protecting the life of water creatures. The UN Convention on the law of Seas
categorically spells out the rules and regulations regarding this aspect. The
increasing levels of ocean and sea water pollution, excessive fishing and whaling
are some crucial issues. The disappearing coral reefs along the coastal areas of
different nations are a cause of concern. Protection of marine resources is as
important as protection of animal habitat and other living species on earth. The
nations that have massive coastal areas should initiate major steps towards marine
resource conservation.

The above issues and the initiatives that have been taken to address them are
commendable. In a way, it was a great initiative on the part of the national
governments and international organizations to address these concerns and make
efforts to combat them collectively. The lack of political will and less enthusiastic
response to binding agreements acts as a dampener but the very initiatives speak
much of the willingness on the part of at least few concerned nations. ‘The Global
agenda emerged and moved forward thanks primarily to a relatively small
international leadership community in science, government, the United Nations
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Contemporary Global Issues and civil society. They took available opportunities to put forward-indeed, they
created such opportunities-so that governments had little choice but to respond’
(James Gustave Speth).

7.6 RIGHT TO ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY

Efforts are often undertaken by the nation states to secure the life of their citizens.
What does this security mean? Is it against physical threats? From theft and
burglary? Or are these issues rising from socio-cultural aspects of life? Are they
pertaining to job security? It is a sum of all these and much more. The above
issues of security are often discussed and action taken upon. But what about
environmental security? Who is going to ensure us and the future generations a
safe and sound natural environment? Who is going to take up the initiative to
ensure a clean environment free of pollution? Whose responsibility is this? These
are some pertinent questions.

Environmental Security — Environmental security aims to protect people from

the short and long-term ravages of nature, man-made threats to nature, and
deterioration of the natural environment. In developing countries, lack of access
to clean water resources is one of the greatest environmental threats. Global
warming is also a serious issue which has been threatening the balance in weather
conditions across the world.

The Right to a Clean Environment requires an assurance of healthy human habitat,

clean water, air, and soil that are free from toxins or hazards that threaten human
health. Under the right to a healthy environment, everyone is entitled to live in a
healthy environment and to have access to basic public services. The States have
an obligation to ensure the protection, preservation and improvement of the
environment. The States are also required to adopt necessary measures to
implement these objectives. However, the efforts towards this end are often
constrained by the lack of resources, primarily financial and particularly in
developing countries. Principle 1 of the Stockholm Declaration contains the
“fundamental right (for man) to freedom, equality, and adequate conditions of
life, in an environment of quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being”.
According to the Principle 7 of the Stockholm Declaration, the states are required
to take steps to prevent pollution of the environment by substances, which affect
human health.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights affirm that every human
being has the “inherent right to life” and the right of everyone “to the enjoyment
of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health” through “the
improvement of all aspects of environmental and industrial hygiene”.

In India, the right to a clean environment does not have a direct reference anywhere
in the Part III, the Fundamental Rights of the Constitution though it was
enumerated in the Part IV, Directive Principles of the State Policy. There have
been efforts by the Indian Judiciary to define this aspect by reinterpreting certain
rights to include environmental protection. It has stated that the right to life
includes the right to live in a healthy environment, a pollution-free environment,
and an environment in which ecological balance is protected by the state. The
Constitution (Forty Second Amendment) Act 1976 explicitly incorporated
114 environmental protection and improvement as part of State policy through the
insertion of Article 48A.   Article 51A (g) imposed a similar responsibility on Global Politics of
Environment
every citizen “to protect and improve the natural environment including forests,
lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for all living creatures.” The
right to life, under Article 21 of the Constitution, has been interpreted as the
right to survive as a species, quality of life, the right to live with dignity and the
right to livelihood. The Supreme Court recognised several unarticulated liberties
that were implied by Article 21. It is by this second method that the Supreme
Court interpreted the right to life and personal liberty to include the right to the
environment. (Justice [Link], Human Rights and the Environment”,
[Link]
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Write a brief note on environmental security.
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7.7 PARIS CLIMATE AGREEMENT

As many as 195 countries met in Paris in December 2015. The occasion was the
21st Conference of Parties (COP21) under the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change’s (UNFCCC). After a two-week long deliberation,
participating countries arrived at a consensus. The landmark consensus was on
three points: (i) climate change is driven by human activity; (ii) it is a threat to
environment and the mankind; and (iii) global action is immediately required.
Importantly, the Paris agreement also created a framework for all countries to
make emissions reduction commitments. The Paris Climate Agreement is
important for the following reasons:

i) Human-generated emissions cause global warming

Three gases viz. carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane collect in the
atmosphere and prevent heat to radiate from earth’s surface into the space,
creating what is called the greenhouse gas effect. According to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the leading
international scientific body studying the subject, the concentration of these
heat-trapping gases has increased to levels unheard of before. There are
many sources of the concentration of greenhouse gases: burning of fossil
fuels is the principal reason. Deforestation and forest degradation also add
heavily to global carbon emissions.
ii) Rising temperature is a threat to environment and mankind
IPCC stated that the Earth is reaching a tipping point. Hotter temperatures—
both on land and at sea—alter global weather patterns and change how and
115
Contemporary Global Issues where precipitation falls. Those shifting patterns exacerbate dangerous and
deadly drought, heat waves, floods, wildfires, and storms, including
hurricanes. They also melt ice caps, glaciers, and layers of permafrost, which
can lead to rising sea levels and coastal erosion.

Rise in temperatures and extreme weather events imperil health and safety
of humans and all living beings. For example, extreme heat contributes
directly to cardiovascular deaths and respiratory diseases. In the Indian city
of Ahmadabad, for example, more than 1,300 excess deaths were recorded
during a heat wave in May 2010. High temperatures also reduce air quality
by creating more smog, pollen, and other air-borne allergens—all of which
can trigger asthma, which afflicts 235 million people around the world. Many
low-lying nations and poor developing countries which don’t have resources
to adapt to climate change would be worst affected. Maldives, an Indian
Ocean island nation, may not survive the rising sea level. In 2008, its
president announced plans to purchase land elsewhere to relocate the
population should sea levels rise making the islands uninhabitable.

iii) Global warming can be mitigated only with global action.

Need of the hour is collective global action. Climate change can be limited
only by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Any rise in global temperatures
of more than 2 degree Celsius would be an unacceptable risk—potentially
resulting in mass extinctions, more severe droughts and hurricanes, and a
watery Arctic. Hence, Paris Agreement sets the ultimate goal of capping
global warming rise this century to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

7.7.1 Targets under the Paris Climate Agreement

The framework for global climate action contained in the 32-page document has
three main parts: (i) mitigation of adaptation to climate change; (ii) the transparent
reporting and strengthening of climate goals; and (iii) support for developing
nations. A brief description of the three elements follows:

i) Limit global temperature rise by reducing greenhouse gas emissions

In an effort to “significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change,”
the accord calls for limiting the global average temperature rise in this century
to well below 2 degrees Celsius, while pursuing efforts to limit the
temperature rise to 1.5 degrees. It also asks countries to work to achieve a
levelling-off of global greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible and to
become carbon neutral no later than the second half of this century. To achieve
these objectives, 186 countries —responsible for more than 90 percent of
global emissions—submitted their national carbon reduction targets. These
targets outline each country’s commitments for curbing emissions (including
through the preservation of carbon sinks) through 2025 or 2030, including
both economy-wide carbon-cutting goals and the individual commitments
of some 2,250 cities and 2,025 companies.

There are no specific requirements about how or how much countries should
cut emissions; but there are high political expectations especially from the
developed economy emitters. As a result, national plans vary greatly in scope
and ambition, largely reflecting a country’s capabilities, its level of
development and its contribution to emission overtime. For example, India
116
 set its target of cutting emissions intensity by 33 to 35 per cent below 2005 Global Politics of
Environment
levels and generating 40 per cent of its electricity from non-fossil-fuel sources
by 2030.

ii) Provide a framework for transparency, accountability, and the achievement

of more ambitious targets.
The Paris Agreement includes a series of mandatory measures for the
monitoring, verification, and public reporting of progress toward a country’s
emissions-reduction targets. The transparency rules also provide for support
in capacity building to nations that lack the requisite ability. Among other
requirements, countries must report their greenhouse gas inventories and
progress relative to their targets, allowing outside experts to evaluate their
success. Countries are also expected to revisit their pledges by 2020 and put
forward new targets every five years. Meanwhile, developed countries also
have to estimate how much financial assistance they shall allocate to
developing nations to help them reduce emissions and adapt to the impacts
of climate change. These transparency and accountability provisions are in
the nature of peer group monitoring and pressure to meet the targets
expeditiously.

iii) Mobilize support for climate change mitigation and adaptation in developing
nations.
Many developing countries and small island nations have contributed the
least to climate change but they could suffer the most from its consequences.
The Paris Agreement includes a plan for developed countries and others to
continue to provide financial resources to help developing countries mitigate
and increase resilience to climate change. The 2009 Copenhagen Accord
had provided for financial commitment for developing nations to $100 billion
a year by 2020. The Paris Agreement established the expectation that the
world would set a higher annual goal by 2025 to build on the $100 billion
target for 2020 and would put mechanisms in place to achieve that scaling
up.

While developed nations are not legally bound to contribute a specific amount
to the mitigation and adaptation efforts of developing countries, they are
encouraged to provide financial support and are required to report on the
financing they supply or will mobilize.

7.7.2 Working of the Paris Climate Agreement

For the agreement to take effect, it was necessary to have at least 55 nations who
represented at least 55 per cent of global emission to be on board. This happened
on 5 October 5 2016, and the agreement went into force 30 days later on 4
November 2016. At present, 197 countries—every nation on earth, with the last
signatory being the war-torn Syria—have adopted the Paris Agreement. Of those,
179 including the US accorded the formal approval to the agreement. The only
major emitting countries that have yet to formally join the agreement are Russia,
Turkey, and Iran.

The Paris Agreement aims to cap the global temperature rise at 1.5 degrees Celsius
in this century. Studies however show that the pledges individual countries have
made are not enough to limit the temperature rise to 1.5 degree Celsius. Rather,
117
Contemporary Global Issues the targets countries have laid out could limit future temperature rise between
2.7 and 3.7 degrees Celsius. Moreover, the way many countries are performing
they are already way behind their Paris commitments. Hopefully, over time,
countries will boost up their efforts in emission levels.
US formally entered the agreement through an executive action of President
Barrack Obama. The agreement did not impose any new obligations on US;
besides, there are any numbers of domestic laws, passed by the Congress, to cut
carbon pollution. US formally joined the agreement in September 2016. During
the election campaign for US presidency in 2016, the Republican Party’s candidate
Donald Trump had declared that if elected he would take the US out of the Paris
agreement’s commitments. A ‘climate denier’, candidate Trump had described
climate change as a “hoax” perpetuated by China. Post-victory, President Trump
announced US withdrawal from the agreement. However, US withdrawal will
take at least three years. Under the provisions of the Paris agreement, the process
for withdrawing requires that the agreement be in force for three years before
any country could formally announce its intention to drop out. Then it has to
wait a year before actually leaving the pact. This means the earliest the United
States could officially exit is 4 November 2020—a day after the US presidential
election. Experts are of the view that even a formal withdrawal would not
necessarily be permanent. A future president could rejoin on one month’s notice.
Meanwhile, US representatives continue to participate in UN climate negotiations
so as to take the Paris process further. There is large support at the popular level;
and movements and initiatives at state and local government levels are on to
deepen and accelerate action. Each of these efforts is focused on keeping the
United States working toward the goals of the Paris Agreement despite the decision
of President Trump to take the country of the agreement.

7.7.3 Global Politics and Diplomacy of Climate Change

The Paris Agreement is the culmination of decades of international efforts to
combat climate change. The Rio Earth Summit of 1992 had adopted a series of
environmental agreements, including the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which remains in effect today. An international
treaty, UNFCC aimed to prevent dangerous human interference with earth’s
climate systems over the long term. It did not set limits on greenhouse gas
emissions for individual countries; and also, it did not provided for enforcement
mechanisms. Instead, it established a framework for international negotiations
of future agreements, or protocols, so as to set binding emissions targets. Ever
since 1992, participating countries meet annually at a Conference of the Parties
(COP) to assess their progress and continue talks on how best to tackle climate
change.

The Kyoto Protocol, a landmark environmental treaty, was adopted in 1997 at

the COP3 in Japan. The importance of the Kyoto Protocol is that for first time
nations agreed to legally mandated, country-specific emissions reduction targets.
The Protocol, which came into effect only in 2005, set binding emissions reduction
targets for developed countries only, on the premise that they were responsible
for most of the Earth’s high levels of greenhouse gas emissions. The US signed
but did not ratify the agreement. US President George W. Bush said the agreement
would hurt American economy since developing countries such as China and
India were not included. Thus with three major economies not in it, Kyoto Protocol
118 achieved only very modest emission targets.
The Kyoto Protocol’s initial commitment period extended to 2012; and then was Global Politics of
Environment
extended to 2020 at the COP18 in Doha, Qatar. Several developed nations had
withdrawn from their Kyoto commitments. Nevertheless, an important decision
had been taken at the COP17 in Durban in 2011. It was agreed at Durban to have
a new, comprehensive climate treaty by 2015 that would require all big emitters
not included in the Kyoto Protocol—such as China, India, and the United States—
to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. The pledge taken at Durban led to the
conclusion of the Paris Climate Agreement, 2015. The Paris Agreement would
replace the Kyoto Protocol by 2020.

There are some notable differences between the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris
Climate Agreement. (i) Kyoto Protocol established legally binding emissions
reduction targets, as well as penalties for noncompliance, for developed nations
only. The Paris Agreement requires that all countries—rich, poor, developed,
and developing—do their part and slash greenhouse gas emissions.

(ii) There is greater flexibility provided in the Paris Agreement: for one, the
agreement does not mention the level of commitments nations should make.
Nations can voluntarily set their own emissions targets, which are called nationally
determined contributions (NDCs). Further, countries incur no penalties either
for falling short of their proposed targets. What the Paris Agreement does require,
however, is the monitoring, reporting, and reassessing of individual and collective
country targets over time in an effort to move the world closer to the broader
objectives of the deal. And the agreement sets forth a requirement for countries
to announce their next round of targets every five years—unlike the Kyoto
Protocol which, though desired but, did not provide for periodic enhancement of
targeted goals.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) What is Paris Climate Agreement? Explain its main targets.
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7.8 INDIA AND THE PARIS CLIMATE

COMMITMENTS
India had set for itself three commitments targets under the Paris Climate
Agreement. It is likely to achieve two of the three commitments ahead of the
2030 deadline. The three commitments under the Paris Agreement are: (i) the
greenhouse gas emission intensity of its GDP will be reduced by 33-35% below
2005 levels by 2030. (ii) Forty per cent of India’s power would come from non-
fossil fuel sources. (iii) India will create an additional ‘carbon sink’ of 2.5 to 3
billion tonnes of Co2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030. 119
Contemporary Global Issues In a report submitted to the UNFCCC in December 2018, it was stated that India
is on its way to achieve the target for emission intensity of the economy and
share of non-fossil fuel-based power capacity well before the deadline of 2030.
However, the progress towards achieving the third goal viz. increasing forest
cover in order to create an additional carbon sink is lagging.
The reports stated that emission intensity of India’s GDP came down by 21%
below 2005 levels by 2014 recording slightly more than 2% annual average
improvement in emission intensity. India accounts for only 7% of global emission.
In per capita terms, its emissions are still very low, at only 2.5 tCO2e per person
as of 2014.
By March 2018, 35% of its capacity was based on non-fossil fuels such as
renewables, hydroelectricity and nuclear. India in fact is going beyond its
commitments by raising the ratio of renewables in its energy basket.
India’s aggressive policy on renewable energy is primarily driven by its domestic
incentives to keep its greenhouse gas emissions in check. The most important is
that India’s air pollution levels have become a domestic crisis. According to US
experts, air pollution caused roughly 1.24 million deaths in India in 2017 alone.
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 11 of the 12 cities with
the highest levels of particulate matter pollution in the world are in India.
Secondly, focus on renewables is also because of large needs of households for
energy. Over 30 million homes are still without electricity; and it is a government
commitment to ensure reliable energy access for all its citizens.
Finally, India stands to benefit economically from being a leader in the solar
energy industry. A mix of policy incentives and technological innovations has
reduced the cost of renewable energy by about 50 per cent within two years,
2017-18. It has its own competitive advantage in the area, and will achieve greater
energy security in the process. India is a large developing country that is still
industrializing, but increasingly doing so in sustainable manner. India has set for
itself ambitious targets to use renewable as source of energy: to install 100
gigawatts (GW) of solar energy, 60 GW of wind power, and an additional 15
GW of biomass and small hydro by the year 2022, creating an estimated 330,000
new jobs in the process. India’s solar energy capacity increased eightfold from
2014 to 2018 (2.63 GW to 22 GW), and its wind power capacity increased from
21 GW to 34 GW over the same period. This brings its total renewable energy
capacity to 70 GW. The country aims to reach the target of 227 GW of renewable
capacity by 2022. In parallel, India had also shut down about 25% of its coal-
based power plants by the first half of 2018.
India’s approach to climate change and Paris commitments are guided by
principles and provisions of UNFCCC and Paris Agreement particularly the
principles of Equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and
Respective Capability (CBPR-RC). India is committed to implement the Paris
agreement fully in a collective manner. It is, however, important to ensure that
the actions of developing countries are supported by sustained and adequate
means of implementation including finance, capacity building and technological
support by developed countries, as agreed under the Paris Climate agreement.
The principle of common but differentiated responsibility means that while climate
change is a common responsibility, those who polluted more and developed their
economies have the historic responsibility to do more in mitigating climate change.
120
Check Your Progress Exercise 6 Global Politics of
Environment
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Write a note on India’s climate commitments and its progress in attaining
those commitments.
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7.9 LET US SUM UP

Issues of environmental governance are much hard to handle. It is especially so
when there is a collective discussion and action. The contemporary world is
living in a complete paradoxical situation. On the one hand, there are national
compulsions to provide the best of life and living standards to the citizens. On
the other hand, there are obligations that require a state to ensure that the natural
habitat remains intact. Caught in a dilemma, most of the nations, especially the
developing nations, are heading more towards disasters. The unchecked
development patterns are often at loggerheads with the resource management.
What to opt for and what has to be left out is a major concern. The 21st century
saw many a challenge but many an opportunity to resolve them. As Elliott points
out, there are calls for new global order for environmental care, new planetary
paradigm, environmental revolution and so on. This involves a stronger
recognition of ecological responsibility, environmental stewardship and an
emphasis on human security.

7.10 SOME USEFUL REFERENCES

Elliott, Lorraine. 2004. The Global Politics of the Environment. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan. Heywood, V.H, and k. Gardner, eds.1995. Global
Biodiversity Assessment, Cambridge: UNEP and Cambbridge University Press.
Khor, Martin. 2001. “Globalisation and Sustainable Development: The Choices
Before Rio+10”, International Review for Environmental Strategies, vol.2, no.2.
Sachs, Wolfgang. 1999. Planet Dialectics: Explorations in Environment and
Development, London: Zed Books
Speth, James Gustave. 2004. Global Environmental Challenges, Transitions to
a Sustainable World. Yale: Yale University Press.
Strong, Maurice. 2001. Where on Earth Are We Going. New York: Texere.
Vogler, J.2005. “Environmental Issues” in Baylis and S Smith, eds. The
Globalisation of Politics: An Introduction to International Relations. New Delhi”
Oxford University Press.
[Link], Human Rights and the Environment”, http://
[Link]/new_links/[Link]
121
Contemporary Global Issues
UNIT 8 CHALLENGES TO
PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS
OF MASS DESTRUCTION*

Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs)
8.2.1 Biological Weapons
8.2.2 Chemical Weapons
8.2.3 Nuclear Weapons
8.3 International Non-Proliferation Regime
8.3.1 Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT)
8.3.2 Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty (FMCT)
8.3.3 The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
8.3.4 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
8.4 Challenges and the Road Ahead
8.5 Let Us Sum Up
8.6 Some Useful References
8.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

8.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit you will be reading about proliferation of Weapons of Mass
Destruction. After going through the Unit you should be able to:
Describe and analyse the nature and types of Weapons of Mass Destruction
(WMDs);
Understand and analyse various treaties and institutions that are there to
enforce control and prohibition of the proliferation of the WMDs; and
The legal and political challenges in the path of preventing proliferation of
such weapons

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The international community considers the deliberate use of chemical, biological,
radiological, or nuclear devices as exceptionally repugnant. Since the nuclear
bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during II World War,
the international community has realized the catastrophic impact of the use of
such weapons. The fear of these weapons is so profound that it spawned, on one
hand, an entirely new concept of conflict and conflict management in the form
of deterrence. On the other hand, it also led to the establishment of a robust
international architecture of laws, treaties, agreements, and norms designed to
ban the use and proliferation of such weapons. Despite these efforts, there is
concern across the international community about the spread and limited use of
* Dr. Pragya Pandey, Research Associate, Indian Council of World Affairs, Sapru House,
122 Barakhamba Road, New Delhi
WMD. Fear of use of such weapons is still lurking as the international non- Challenges of the
Proliferation of Weapons of
proliferation efforts have not been able to completely fulfill their objectives. Mass Destruction
Therefore, it becomes important to focus on analyzing the challenges to
proliferation of variety of WMDs.

8.2 WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION (WMDS)

WMD is a term used to describe a weapon with the capacity to indiscriminately
kill a large numbers of living beings. It includes nuclear, biological, chemical
and radiological weapons which are increasingly becoming threat to international
peace and stability.

WMD can be defined as a weapon with the capacity to inflict death and destruction
on such a massive scale and so indiscriminately that its very presence in the
hands of a hostile power can be considered a grievous threat. Modern weapons
of mass destruction are nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons. (Britannica
Encyclopedia).

According to United Nations Regional Centre for Peace and Disarmament in

Asia and the Pacific (UNRCPD), “WMDs constitute a class of weaponry with
the potential to, in a single moment, kill millions of civilians, jeopardize the
natural environment, and fundamentally alter the world and the lives of future
generations through their catastrophic effects” (Weapons of Mass Destruction,
[Link]

According to the US Federal Bureau of Investigation, “WMD refers to materials,

weapons, or devices that are intended to cause (or are capable of causing) death
or serious bodily injury to a significant number of people through release,
dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals or precursors, a disease
organism, or radiation or radioactivity, including (but not limited to) biological
devices, chemical devices, improvised nuclear devices, radiological dispersion
devices, and radiological exposure devices” ([Link]
wmd)

The term ‘weapon of mass destruction’ has been in use since at least 1937, when
it was used to describe massed formations of bomber aircrafts. It was used in
reference to the mass destruction of Guernica, Spain by aerial bombardment.
Later the dropping of the atomic bombs on Japanese cities of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, killing thousands of people, showed the disastrous effects such weapons
can have for the humanity. The arms race during the Cold War resulted in the
US, the Soviet Union, and other major powers building up enormous stockpiles
containing tens of thousands of nuclear bombs, missile warheads and others. At
the same time both superpowers also acquired stockpiles of chemical and
biological weapons - the two other principal types of modern WMDs. In fact,
the military and diplomatic standoff of that era was sometimes described as a
“balance of terror.” In the post Cold War period major concern around all WMDs
has been proliferation, that is, the potential for lesser powers, “rogue states,” or
international terrorist groups to acquire the means to produce and deliver such
weapons. The phrase entered popular usage in relation to the US led invasion of
Iraq in 2003.

Generally speaking there are three major types of WMDs:

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Contemporary Global Issues 8.2.1 Biological Weapons
Biological weapons contain natural toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria,
viruses, or fungi; sprayed or burst over populated areas, they might cause limited
but severe outbreaks of such deadly diseases as anthrax, pneumonic plague,
or smallpox. Biological WMDs were first used in the US in 1763 when British
officers planned to distribute blankets with smallpox. Biological weapons have
not been used in modern war since the Japanese spread plague-infected lice in
areas of China during World War II.

Biological weapons are complex systems that disseminate disease-causing

organisms or toxins to harm or kill humans, animals or plants. They generally
consist of two parts – a weaponized agent and a delivery mechanism. In addition
to strategic or tactical military applications, biological weapons can be used for
political assassinations, the infection of livestock or agricultural produce to cause
food shortages and economic loss, the creation of environmental catastrophes,
and the introduction of widespread illness, fear and mistrust among the public.

Almost any disease-causing organism (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, prions or

rickettsiae) or toxin (poisons derived from animals, plants or microorganisms,
or similar substances produced synthetically) can be used in biological weapons.
The agents can be enhanced from their natural state to make them more suitable
for mass production, storage, and dissemination as weapons. Historical biological
weapons programmes have included efforts to produce: aflatoxin, anthrax,
botulinum toxin, foot-and-mouth disease, glanders, plague, rice blast, ricin,
smallpox and tularaemia among others.

Biological weapon delivery systems can take a variety of forms. Past programmes
have constructed missiles, bombs, hand grenades and rockets to deliver biological
weapons. A number of programmes also designed spray-tanks to be fitted to
aircraft, cars, trucks, and boats. There have also been documented efforts to
develop delivery devices for assassinations or sabotage operations, including a
variety of sprays, brushes, and injection systems as well as means for
contaminating food and clothing.

In addition to concerns that biological weapons could be developed or used by

states, recent technological advances increase the likelihood that these weapons
could be acquired or produced by non-state actors, including individuals and
terrorist organizations. The 20th century saw the use of biological weapons by
individuals and groups committing criminal acts or targeted assassinations,
biological warfare conducted by states, and the accidental release of pathogens
from laboratories. In practice, if a suspicious disease event occur, it is difficult to
determine if it was caused by nature, an accident, or an act of biological warfare
or terrorism. Consequently, the response to a biological event, whether natural,
accidental or deliberate, should be multi-disciplinary, multi-sectoral, and above
all, coordinated. As such, the BWC relies primarily on a network approach based
on coordination with international, regional, and nongovernmental organizations
and initiatives as well as other nonproliferation regimes in order to address the
interconnected nature of biological threats in a holistic manner. Such an approach
ensures that resources are used optimally to provide benefits for many. In this
sense, for example, building capacities across sectors to monitor disease would
not only strengthen the ability to detect and respond to a biological attack, but it
124
would provide states with the capacity to track and mitigate naturally occurring Challenges of the
Proliferation of Weapons of
disease thus vastly improving public health worldwide. Mass Destruction

8.2.2 Chemical Weapons

Chemical WMDs go back as early as 1000 BC, when the Chinese used arsenic
smoke. They were used extensively during the two world wars. Types of chemical
weapons include blister agents, blood agents, choking hazard agents, nerve agents,
tear gas, vomiting agents and psychiatric compounds. These work by either
making contact to the skin or through consumption. Such weapons basically
consisted of well known commercial chemicals put into standard munitions such
as grenades and artillery shells. The modern use of chemical weapons began
with World War I, when both sides to the conflict used poisonous gas to inflict
agonizing suffering and to cause significant battlefield casualties. Chlorine gas
(a choking agent) and mustard gas (a blistering agent) were fired in artillery shells
against entrenched troops during both World War I early in the 20th century and
the Iran-Iraq War (1980–88) toward the end of the century. Compared to
biological, chemical weapon’s effect is immediate. Nevertheless, a chemical attack
would have to have a very sophisticated delivery system in order to have a
significant effect.

As a result of public outrage, the Geneva Protocol, prohibiting the use of chemical

weapons in warfare, was signed in 1925. However, the Protocol had a number of
significant shortcomings, including the fact that it did not prohibit the
development, production or stockpiling of chemical weapons. Also problematic
was the fact that many States that ratified the Protocol reserved the right to use
prohibited weapons against States that were not party to the Protocol or as
retaliation if chemical weapons were used against them.

Poisonous gasses were used during World War II in Nazi concentration camps
and in Asia. The Cold War period saw significant development, manufacture and
stockpiling of chemical weapons. By the 1970s-80s, an estimated 25 States were
developing chemical weapons capabilities. But since the end of World War II,
chemical weapons have reportedly been used in only a few cases, notably by
Iraq in the 1980s against Iran.

After 12 years of negotiations, the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) was

adopted by the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva on 3 September 1992.
The CWC allows for the stringent verification of compliance by State Parties.
The CWC entered into force on 29 April 1997 and the Organization for the
Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) was formally established as a
permanent implementing agency.

8.2.3 Nuclear Weapons

Of the three types of WMDs, nuclear weapons represent the greatest threat.
Nuclear weapons are the most dangerous weapons on earth.  It can destroy a
whole city, potentially killing millions, and jeopardizing the natural environment
and lives of future generations through its long-term catastrophic effects. 
Although nuclear weapons have only been used twice in warfare – in the bombings
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 – about 14,500 reportedly remain in
our world today and there have been over 2,000 nuclear tests conducted to date. 
Disarmament is the best protection against such dangers, but achieving this goal
125
Contemporary Global Issues has been a tremendously difficult challenge. Immediate effect of such weapons
results in causing large scale destruction of life and property. In the long run,
radiation-induced diseases particularly cancers will affect many, often over twenty
years later.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
2) What is a Weapon of Mass Destruction? Briefly describe the biological and
chemical weapons as WMDs.
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8.3 INTERNATIONAL NON-PROLIFERATION

REGIME
The international community has been working to attain the goal of nuclear
disarmament and proliferation of WMD. The United Nations has sought to
eliminate all categories of WMDs since its establishment, and the First
Committee of the General Assembly 1946 has from the beginning been mandated
to deal with disarmament, global challenges and threats to peace that affect the
international community. Other UN bodies have also been negotiating the
elimination of WMDs include the Conference on Disarmament along with its
predecessors, and the Disarmament Commission. A number of multilateral treaties
exist to outlaw several classes of WMDs. These include the Biological Weapons
Convention (BWC) and the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). Multilateral
treaties targeting the proliferation, testing and progress on the disarmament of
nuclear weapons include the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
(NPT), Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT), and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-
Ban Treaty. However despite these treaties and conventions WMDS still continue
to exist, posing a threat to international peace and security. Of particular concern
have been nuclear weapons. Efforts to curb the spread of nuclear material and
technology began only a short time after the world was introduced to the
destructive potential of atomic weaponry. Some of the significant international
treaties to attain the objective of nuclear disarmament include the following.

Table 8.1: Treaties and Conventions to Prevent Proliferation of WMD’s

Chemical Nuclear Biological
Chemical Treaty on  the Prohibition of Nuclear Biological Weapon
Weapons Weapons Convention
Convention
Geneva Protocol Convention on the Physical Geneva Protocol
Protection of Nuclear Material
126
 Challenges of the
Hague Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Proliferation of Weapons of
Convention Mass Destruction

Strasbourg Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban

Agreement Treaty
Treaty of Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
Versailles
Washington Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty
Naval Treaty
Outer Space Treaty
Statute of the International Atomic
Energy Agency
Seabed Arms Control Treaty

8.3.1 Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT)

In 1954, India made the first proposal calling for an agreement to ban nuclear
weapons tests. In 1958, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United
Kingdom began a Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Tests in Geneva,
aimed at reaching agreement on an effectively controlled test ban. However, the
sides could not reach an agreement on the issue of verification procedures. On 5
August 1963, the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) — also known as the Limited
Test Ban Treaty (LTBT), was signed in Moscow by the United States, the Soviet
Union, and the United Kingdom. The Treaty requires Parties to prohibit, prevent,
and abstain from carrying out nuclear weapons tests or any other nuclear
explosions in the atmosphere, in outer space, under water, or in any other
environment if such explosions cause radioactive debris to be present outside
the territorial limits of the State that conducts an explosion, to refrain from causing,
encouraging, or in any way participating in, the carrying out of any nuclear weapon
test explosion, or any other nuclear explosion, anywhere which would take place
in any of the above-described environments. With the signing of
the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in September 1996, the PTBT
became redundant. However, should a PTBT party withdraw from the CTBT, or
not sign the CTBT, it would still be bound by the provisions of the PTBT.

8.3.2 Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty (FMCT)

FMCT is a proposed international agreement that would prohibit the production
of the two main components of nuclear weapons: highly-enriched uranium (HEU)
and plutonium. Discussions on this subject have taken place at the UN Conference
on Disarmament (CD) - a body of 65 member nations established as the sole
multilateral negotiating forum on disarmament. The CD operates by consensus
and is often stagnant, impeding progress on an FMCT. Those nations that joined
the nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) as non-weapon states are already
prohibited from producing or acquiring fissile material for weapons. An FMCT
would provide new restrictions for the five recognized nuclear weapon states
(NWS – United States, Russia, United Kingdom, France, and China), and for the
four nations that are not NPT members (Israel, India, Pakistan, and North Korea).
However, the treaty has not been negotiated yet.

127
Contemporary Global Issues According to the International Panel on Fissile Material’s (IPFM) 2015 Global
Fissile Material Report, Roughly 99% of the HEU stock is owned by nuclear
weapon states, and Russia and the United States have the largest stocks. India,
Pakistan, and North Korea are believed to have ongoing production operations
for HEU. About 88% of plutonium is held by states with nuclear weapons that
are NPT signatories, and most of the remaining 12% is held by Japan, which has
over 47 tons of plutonium. Though the five NWS no longer produce weapons-
grade plutonium, production continues in India, Israel, North Korea and Pakistan.

8.3.3 The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

The NPT is a landmark international treaty in the path of seeking global nuclear
disarmament, with objective to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and
weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy
and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete
disarmament. The Treaty represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral
treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon States. The NPT was
signed on 1 July 1968, by the US, Britain, Soviet Union and 59 other nations.
The final draft of the NPT was signed by the countries in 1968 as “conclusion of
an agreement on the prevention of wider dissemination of nuclear weapons”
considering a danger of a nuclear war, and “consequent need to make every
effort to avert the danger of such a war…” ([Link]
wmd/nuclear/npt/text).

The treaty entered into force in 1970. More countries have ratified the NPT than
any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement. A total of 191 States have
joined the Treaty, including the five nuclear-weapon States have signed it. On 11
May 1995, the Treaty was extended indefinitely. The Treaty is regarded as the
cornerstone of the global nuclear non-proliferation regime and an essential
foundation for the pursuit of nuclear disarmament.

To further the goal of non-proliferation and as a confidence-building measure

between States parties, the Treaty establishes a safeguards system under the
responsibility of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Article III of
the treaty states that any non-nuclear weapon state party to the treaty should
accept the safeguards as negotiated in a separate agreement concluded with
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to fulfill its obligation with a view
to preventing diversion of nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons.
Further the “procedures for the safeguards required by this Article shall be
followed with respect to source or special fissionable material whether it is being
produced, processed or used in any principal nuclear facility or is outside any
such facility. All peaceful nuclear activities “within the territory of such State,
under its jurisdiction, or carried out under its control anywhere” will be covered
by safeguards ([Link]

Article VI of the treaty, lays down “pursue negotiations in good faith on effective
measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race and to nuclear
disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict
and effective international control”. The treaty further explains that each state
Party to the Treaty undertakes not to provide: “(a) source or special fissionable
material, or (b) equipment or material especially designed or prepared for the
processing, use or production of special fissionable material, to any non-nuclear-
128 weapon state for peaceful purposes, unless the source or special fissionable
material shall be subject to the safeguards required by this Article” (https:// Challenges of the
Proliferation of Weapons of
[Link]/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/npt/text). Along with these provisions Mass Destruction
Article IV of the Treaty, maintains that the provisions shall be implemented
without hampering the economic or technological development of the Parties or
international co-operation in the field of peaceful nuclear activities, including
the international exchange of nuclear material and equipment for the processing,
use or production of nuclear material for peaceful.

The provisions of the Treaty, particularly article VIII, envisage a review of the
operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the
States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference. The 2015
Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty, ended without the adoption of a
consensus substantive outcome. After a successful 2010 Review Conference at
which States parties agreed to a final document which included conclusions and
recommendations for follow-on actions, including the implementation of the 1995
Resolution on the Middle East, the 2015 outcome constitutes a setback for the
strengthened review process instituted to ensure accountability with respect to
activities under the three pillars of the Treaty as part of the package in support of
the indefinite extension of the Treaty in 1995. The preparatory process for the
2020 Review Conference is currently underway.

8.3.4 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)

The CBT is the treaty banning all the nuclear explosions – everywhere and by
everyone. The Conference on Disarmament (CD) began its substantive
negotiations on a comprehensive nuclear-test-ban treaty in January 1994 within
the framework of an Ad-hoc Committee established for that purpose. Although
the CD had long been involved with the issue of a test ban, only in 1982 did it
establish a subsidiary body on the item. After more than two years of intensive
negotiations a final draft treaty was presented to the CD in June 1996. The treaty
required states to eliminate nuclear weapons within a time-bound framework.
The Treaty was opened for signature in September 1996. Till date the treaty has
been signed by 185 countries and out of that 168 have ratified it. Out of 44 states
mentioned in Annex 2 of the treaty who had nuclear facilities and were involved
in negotiating the treaty, China, Egypt, Iran, Israel and the United States have
signed but not ratified the Treaty. India, North Korea and Pakistan have not signed
it. India, for its part, stated that it could not go along with a consensus on the
draft text and its transmittal to the United Nations General Assembly. The main
reasons for such a decision, as India pointed out, were related to its strong
misgivings about the provision for the entry-into-force of the treaty, which it
considered unprecedented in multilateral practice and running contrary to
customary international law, and the failure of the treaty to include a commitment,
by the nuclear-weapon states.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Describe and discuss the NPT.
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Contemporary Global Issues
8.4 CHALLENGES AND THE ROAD AHEAD
The WMDs proliferation challenge is not a new phenomenon. Concerns about
WMDs production and proliferation date back at least to 1925, when the Geneva
Protocol was negotiated to respond to the use of poison gas during I World War.
Over the years, the threat to international security posed by WMDs has steadily
become more complex. Events in recent past illustrate the terror impact and
destabilizing effects of such weapons like the use of chemical weapons in the
Iran-Iraq war; the sarin gas attack in the Tokyo subway; Iraqi Scud missile attacks
during the Gulf War; North Korean and Iranian missile nuclear weapon tests
(Holum,1999).
The idea of Non-proliferation involves prevention, detection, disruption,
investigation and prosecution of transfers that contribute to WMD
programmes. To succeed in combating WMD proliferation, we must apply all
elements of national and international power – diplomatic, economic, intelligence
and law enforcement. However, all regimes and mechanisms to prevent
proliferation depend on effective implementation. The international mechanisms
devised for preventing proliferation and production of such weapons leave a lot
of room for ambiguity and often lack when it comes to implementation of such
mechanisms. For example NPT designate IAEA as the competent authority to
verify non-nuclear weapons state’s compliance with its safeguards obligations
with a view to prevent the use of nuclear energy from peaceful use to nuclear
weapons and other explosive devices. But there is no set provision as to how this
has to be ensured. These are contained in a separate bilateral comprehensive
safeguard agreement with IAEA. It gives authority to IAEA to work out a
conclusion about the competence and correctness of state’s declaration of its
nuclear material inventory and fuel cycle facilities. A number of verification
related implementation issues remain unclear as to in what circumstance IAEA
has a right to R&D of nuclear weapon related activities.
The NPT has in fact suffered major blows. Since 1991, uranium enrichment,
plutonium separation, and other possibly weapons-related activities that Iraq,
North Korea, and Iran hid from IAEA inspectors have been discovered. Iraq’s
weapons programme was started after the 1991 Persian Gulf War. North Korea’s
weapons programme later came to be known through intelligence, IAEA
inspections, and North Korea’s own admissions. Moreover, that North Korea
and Iran both obtained enrichment technology from Pakistan suggests dangers
to the NPT regime from non-parties that are not bound by the treaty’s prohibition
against assisting non-nuclear-weapon states in acquiring nuclear weapons (Bunn,
2003).
There has also been criticisms against these treaties of having different terms
and condition for nuclear weapon and non-nuclear weapon states. NPT which is
the treaty having maximum number of signatories, that bans all members except
Britain, China, France, Russia, and the United States from having nuclear weapons
and commits those five states to eventually eliminating their atomic arsenals.
India has been particularly critical of NPT and has not signed on the ground of
treaty being discriminatory in nature. India has termed NPT as a flawed treaty
which creates a divide between nuclear ‘haves’ and ‘haves not’, where it does
not requires the nuclear weapon states to give up their weapons while banning
the possession of such weapons for non-nuclear weapon states. Similar is the
130 case with CTBT.
Longstanding weaknesses in the international non-proliferation regime now Challenges of the
Proliferation of Weapons of
demand serious attention. The continuing challenges from North Korea and Iran, Mass Destruction
and the likely consequences of WMD terrorism, gaps in the policy and legal
framework for non-proliferation pose an unacceptable risk. Very few states have
domestic laws prohibiting proliferation; those laws that do exist are not reliably
enforced. Therefore, the criminalization by all nations of proliferation and the
enactment of strict export control laws are required. Political will and a matching
legal and policy framework that provides the political backing, legal powers,
and financial and personnel resources. Enforcement has to be embedded in a
credible non-proliferation policy that cuts across all parts and levels of
government. Diplomacy and dialogue and sanctions wherever required have been
major tactics used to deal with proliferation challenges.

Despite the long standing efforts including treaties, conventions and agreements
the proliferation of WMDs and their means of delivery continue to be a major
threat to the international peace and security and one of the primary challenges
of our times. Despite some progress, the non-proliferation regime continues to
face extremely serious challenges. The international community is concerned
about the relentless development of North Korea’s nuclear and ballistic missile
programmes which constitute a violation of Security Council’s resolutions.
Besides, North Korea and Pakistan had this clandestine nuclear-for-missile
technology exchange. Such destabilizing actions represent a grave and deliberate
challenge to the non-proliferation regime and international security. More
dangerous are the probabilities of terrorists and other extremist elements getting
access to such weapons. UN has been tirelessly working for establishment,
maintenance, and adaptation of multilateral norms, guidelines, rules, and laws
governing the behaviour of Member States.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Identify the major challenges in achieving the goal of non-proliferation of
WMDs.
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8.5 LET US SUM UP

United Nations record estimates show that some 19,000 nuclear weapons remain
and no negotiations are underway to eliminate such weapons. This is significant
decline from 1980s estimate of 75,000 nuclear weapons at the peak of the Cold
War. Yet great challenges remain ahead for nuclear disarmament. It is crucial to
delegitimize not just the use of WMDs, but the very existence of such weapons.
The WMDs “taboo” must extend to possession, not just “risk of use”, because
disarmament offers the only absolute guarantee against use. A more
131
Contemporary Global Issues comprehensive and egalitarian regime is needed to be constructed in future to
eliminate the danger of WMDs. However, most important is the political will
required to achieve the objective of elimination of such weapons.

8.6 SOME USEFUL REFERENCES

Bauer, Sibylle. 2009. Punishing Acts of WMD Proliferation: More Easily Said
Than Done. [Link]
proliferation-more-easily-said-done
Bunn, George. 2003. The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty: History and Current
Problems. [Link]
Center for the Study of Weapons of Mass Destruction. 2005. Combating WMD
Challenges for the Next 10 Years”. National Defense University Press https://
[Link]/Portals/97/Documents/Publications/Articles/Comabtnig-
[Link]
Council on Foreign Relations. 2009. World Opinion on Proliferation of Weapons
of Mass Destruction. [Link]
proliferation-weapons-mass-destruction
Encyclopedia Britannica, Weapons of Mass Destruction
[Link]
FMCT at a Glance, [Link]
Holum, John D. 1999. “The Proliferation of Weapons Of Mass Destruction:
Challenges and Responses. U. S. Foreign Policy Agenda”, USIA Electronic
Journals, Volume 4, No. 2.
Macintyre, Anthony G., George W. Christopher, Edward Eitzen, Jr., [Link]. 2000.
Weapons of Mass Destruction Events With Contaminated Casualties Effective
Planning for Health Care Facilities, JAMA, January 12.
Sagan, Scott D. 2009. “The Causes of Nuclear Weapon Ploriferation”, Annual
Review of Political Science.
Shultz, George P., William J. Perry, Henry A. Kissinger and Sam Nunn. 2007. “A
World Free of Nuclear Weapons”, Wall Street Journal, January.
The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Text of the Treaty,
United Nations, Office for Disarmament Affairs, [Link]
disarmament/wmd/nuclear/npt/text
United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs [Link]
wmd/chemical/
Weapons of Mass Destruction Proliferation, CSIS, [Link]
defense-and-security/weapons-mass-destruction-proliferatio.
Weapon of Mass Destruction, [Link]
What is CTBT?, CTBTO. [Link]
conferences/2011/afc11-information-for-media-and-press/what-is-the-ctbt/

132
 Challenges of the
8.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Proliferation of Weapons of
Mass Destruction
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Your answer should include following.

Definition WMDs and description of biological and chemicals weapons

of mass destruction.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Your answer should include following.

Main provisions of NPT and

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) Your answer should include following.

Challenges as to why the goal of non-proliferation is proving difficult

to achieve.

133
Contemporary Global Issues
UNIT 9 NON-TRADITIONAL SECURITY
THREATS*

Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Non-Traditional Security: Concept and Content
9.3 Post-Cold War Non-Traditional Security Threats
9.4 Terrorism as Non-Traditional Security Threat
9.4.1 International Terrorism
9.4.2 US’ Global War on Terrorism
9.5 Threat of Terrorism: Case of India
9.5.1 Militancy and Separatism in Jammu and Kashmir
9.5.2 Islamist Terrorism
9.5.3 Insurgency in North-East India
9.5.4 Khalistan Militancy in Punjab
9.5.5 Naxalite Movement
9.6 Let Us Sum Up
9.7 Some Useful References
9.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

9.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, you will be studying about non-traditional security (NTS) threats.
After going through the Unit, you will be able to:
Understand the concept of non-traditional secuirty (NTS);
Types of NTS threats in the contemporary global context; and
Terrorism as the NTS threat and its various manifestations in India.

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Non-traditioinal security has a broadened definition of secuirty: it covers not
only the secuirty of the state but also of the communities. As a perspective to
study IR, NTS perspective highlights nature and sources of new types of threats
to security. NTS threats always there but admittedly have exacerbated in the
post-Cold War era for whatever be the reason – globalisation, new technologies
of information and communication etc. Be that as it may, NTS threats are often
transnational and cross-border in their potency and magnitude. They cannot
obviously be met by a single sovereign state. NTS threats demand regional and
even global resposne. This calls for a change in the behaviour of state and greater
movement towards regional governance norms and mechanisms.

Terrorism is a non-traditional security threat that has afflicted India since its
independence. The case study of India indicates that terrorism is an intractable
issue. It is embeded in domesic poliltics, identity politics and demands for

134 *Dr. Amrita Dey, SIS, JNU, New Delhi & Dr Maheep, SOSS, IGNOU
separation. State response in the form of counter terrorism (CT) and counter Non-Traditional Security
Threats
insurgency (COIN) measures have been ad hoc, inconsistent and often constrained
by domestic political and electoral calculations.

9.2 NON-TRADITIONAL SECUIRTY: CONCEPT

AND CONTENT
Traditional security is described and understood in geo-political terms: it is
confined to relationship among sovereign states; and here, security deals with
issues such as deterrence, the balance of power, alliance relationship, military
capability, etc. Since the end of the Cold War and, more so, in the wake of the
terrorist attacks of 9/11, the traditional understanding of security has increasingly
been questioned in terms of how security should be explained, and by what kind
of approach. The concept of Non-Traditional Security (NTS) has gained ground:
it highlights aspects of security which until recently were not considered as
secuirty threat. NTS as a theoretical perspective has also gained ground in the
discipline of International Relations since it indicates new soures and forces of
insecuirty and conflict.
Two important assumptions underly the NTS perspectives: (i) challengs such as
terrorism, trafficking in arms, narcotics, human beings etc, illegal migration and
envrionmental destruction in the past were generally not considered security
threats. Their impact on security was at most indirect. Dominant theories of IR
also therefore paid little attention to events of this nature. HHhH Since the end
of Cold War in partiuclar, these non-traditional security threats have come to
pose a direct threat to the security and well-being of the people and the state.
Two points bear significance here: the non-traditional secuirty threats have every
potential of tranforming into traditional security threats and lead to confict and
war; and seconldy, the concept of security gets broadened to include now the
security of state and community. It need to be mentioned here that the
intensification of these threats could be linked in some cases to the processes of
globalisation.
So, non-traditional secuirty threats are not new. Problems like ethnic conflict,
migration and refugees, poverty, epitdemics were always there as part of human
living within a sovereign state and across states. What however was not there are
the new characteristics of the NTS threats: scale, speed to rise in a short span of
time, ability to transmit at a quick pace, interwovenness, and, no less important,
inability of a sovereign state to handle these threats single-handedly and within
its territorial jurisdiction. This is the “new face” of an old phenomena (Cabellero-
Anthony, 2010). In fact, some times, states are not even able to define these NTS
threats properly; for instance, financial turmoil, internet hacking etc. Besides,
the sheer diversity of threat is stupendous – ranging from pandemics to
environmental disasters caused by relentless pursuits of development to surfacing
of old ethnic and religious animosities.
Consequently, the concept of security had to expand beyond the traditional idea
of military security, which essentially meant defending the borders of a sovereign
state and legitimate use of force for the defence of national sovereignty and
territory. Barry Buzan et al. (1998) captured the idea of a broadened security
when he identified five segments of security: political, military, economic, societal,
and environmental. In this idea of broadened security, Barry Buzan made two
profound observations: one, changes which take place in the ‘centre’ (developed 135
Contemporary Global Issues countries) affect more profoundly the ‘periphery’ (the developing world); and,
secondly, although all the five elements are interwoven, each highlights a
particular dimension. Once closely interwoven, these elements pose grim threats
to the security of both human beings and the sovereign state.

(ii) Non-traditional security threats simply cannot be met by sovereign states;

they need multilateral cooperation and a coordinated action. In that sense, NTS
calls for a change in the behaviour of the state. Two points bear significance
here: one, the link between the NTS and regional governance is a core element
of the NTS concept; and secondly, the NTS persepctive is found particularly
more relevant to the needs of the Global South.. One of the unintended effects of
the NTS threats is the affirmation of regional approaches to problem solving.
There are calls for regional governance mechanisms and norms setting to tackle
challenges like epidemics and pollution (Caballero-Anthony 2010:2). Apart, as
Buzan stated, NTS threats affect more particularly the devleoping world.

In sum, the NTS concept is based on five assumptions: (a) the non-traditional
challenges or threats could lead directly to conflict or war. (b) NTS threats cannot
be met by a state; so state perspective is insufficient for dealing with NTS
challenges. (c) Ensuring security is the responsbility of the state, the community
and the individual. (d) NTS threats such as climate change or pandemics are
transnational in nature and require non-military responses. (e) Because of the
transnational character of these challenges, international cooperation is essential
(Caballero-Anthony 2016:15).

No denying, NTS offers a new persepctive on security threats and ways of

addressing them. Critics however point out some of its glaring weaknesses: for
one, NTS perspective makes anything as security threat – hunger, poverty, disease
and epidemics, violation of group rights, human and natural catastrophes. Critics
often wonder whether there is a bottom line? Do we put anything and everything
that seriously affects the states and the communities in the big basket of NTS
threats? Secondly, this may mean ‘securitization’ of anything and everything –
illegal migration, organized crime, climate. Thirdly, states remain sovereignty-
centric. They tend to agree to a supranational arrangements only when the
challenges are of a technical nature, are not pliticized and don’t impinge the
perceived national interests. Besdies, regions such Europe which have a long
history of cooperation and regional governance mechanisms are more amenable
than regions with a history of distrust and conflict such as South Asia to instituting
regional governance mechanisms to meet NTS threats.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
3) Define non-traditional security threats. Explain why issues like epidemics,
migration, drug trafficking etc. have become non-traditional security threats?
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136
 Non-Traditional Security
9.3 POST-COLD WAR NON-TRADITIONAL Threats

SECURITY THREATS
Cold War and its ideological underpinnings of socialism and capitalism presented
a simple binary choice. One had to choose between capitalism and socialism – if
one could call it a choice. It was the era, as one eminent American strategic
thinker had put it, of ‘metamyth’. Everything was large and there was this
misplaced belief that all things could be subjected to control. When the Cold
War ended; with it also ended the belief in the supremacy of ideologies. Scholars
talked of post-Cold War ‘peace dividened’ assuring an uninterrupted long peace.

Nothing of that sort happened. When the Cold War ended, many Cold War-related
inter-state conflicts continued. Several of these conflicts, it was observed, were
not ideological or political in nature. Rather, these conflicts were of ethnic, tribal
or environmental in nature; and therefore contineud despite the end of ideological
conflict between capitalist democracy and socialist authoritarianism . In fact,
many of these conflicts resumed with a renewed vigour becoming more ruthless
in terms of human casualties and engulfing many other ethnic and tribal identities.

Secondly, then there were conflicts which were new and mostly of intra-state
dimension. These intra-state conflicts ran along the faultlines of ethnicity, tribe
or religion etc. These intra-state wars were fought with unmentionable brutalities
with no norms and no one ever being held accountable. Of the total 86 armed
conflicts recorded in 1997, as many as 84 were of intra-state nature. The crisis in
Rwanda was one such example in the 1990s which brought untold misery on the
entire nation. It was noted that the outbreak of intra-state conflicts in the 1990s
had high rates of human casualty; almost 90 per cent of those who perished in
those conflicts were unarmed innocent civilians predominantly women and
children. Worst, these conflicts were not fought by soldiers in uniform; and no
international legal convention was observed by the various combatant groups.
Eight out of ten casualties in modern conflicts and wars are civilians. More people
die in small conflicts – often intra-state – than in big wars involving sovereign
states. More casualties are on account of the use of small arms that are easily
available and have remained beyond all conferences and conventions on
disarmament. Approximately 500 million small weapons were in use in the 1990s.

The domestic-international interaction has also resulted into a relatively new

actor – diaspora – entering the scene of international relations. Diasporas, until
then a largely unknown entity in the study of intrnational relations, gained
significant salience in the 1990s. Diasporas were wooed and began to get involved
in the internal politics of the countries of their origin. They became the source of
funding, arms supply, campaigning at international levels and as advocacy and
lobby groups. Diasporas were involved in conflicts; sovereign governments also
decided to use them to leverage with the governments of their ‘host’ societies.
There was thus the debate whether diasporas are ‘peacekeepers’ or peace-
wreckers’.

Thirdly, international system was beset with new challenges. Sovereign states,
in principle, are the subjects of international system: they conclude relations and
agreements with other sovereign states and legitimately exercise authority in
their ‘domestic jurisdiction’. They were not the generator of security for their
citizens. End of the Cold War revealed new types of states – ‘rogue’ states and
137
Contemporary Global Issues ‘failed’ or ‘failing’ states. Neither liberal nor socialist, these states were ruled by
crass authoritarian, chauvinist-nationalist elites, often enjoying public support.
Many of such states were found indulging in what came to be described in the
1990s as ‘ethnic cleansing’. Large scale killing and uprooting of helpless civilian
populations produced the phenomenon of refugees and internally displaced
persons. While sovereign states took the refuge in these being internal matters
falling within the ‘domestic jurisdiction’, such intra-state conflicts threatened
the regional peace and stability. Further, these conflicts produced refugees seeking
shelter anywhere; ‘boat-people’ remain one of the most serious and intractable
problem of the last quarter of a century.

Fourthly, some of the threats emerged from globalisation. Economic globalisation

has not been a uniform process; it has left both positive and negative consequences.
Exploitation of natural resources and development projects, especially those
related to extraction and hydropower etc., produced enormous environmental
consequences which were felt beyond national borders. Many of these projects,
it was realised, did not benefit the host countries; they served the interests of a
tiny wealthy elite aligned with foreign financial interests.

Fifthly, there were other kind of threats which were equally damaging to the
sovereignty and stability of the state. These include threats posed by trafficking
in narcotics, human beings, arms and laundering of illicit money, environmental
degradations etc. No denying, the global political and economic circumstances
of the post-Cold War world demanded a re-definition of both the sovereignty
and role of the state. It was clear that states are not immutable; they are also not
that much sovereign nor were they the only actors in the international system.
Myriad international organisations and international non-governmental actors;
the inexorable process of deepening interdependence among sovereign states
and growing globalisation of production, marketing and consumption all had
raised issues related to the immutability claim of state sovereignty. As UN
Secretary-General Kofi Annan, commenting on NATO intervention in Kosovo
and the UN-authorised mission in East Timor, had stated:

State sovereignty, in its most basic sense, is being redefined by the forces of
globalisation and international cooperation.

The State is now widely understood to be the servant of its people, and not vice
versa. At the same time, individual sovereignty — and by this I mean the human
rights and fundamental freedoms of each and every individual as enshrined in
our Charter — has been enhanced by a renewed consciousness of the right of
every individual to control his or her own destiny. (United Nations 1999)
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Non-traditional security threats are calling for a redefinition of the
sovereignty of state. Discuss.
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 Non-Traditional Security
9.4 TERRORISM AS NON-TRADITIONAL Threats

SECUIRTY THREAT
There is no agreed definition of terrorism. Terrorism is a complex and
controversial phenomenon. It also has a fairly long history of usage. Terrorism
has been practiced by political organizations with both rightist and leftist
objectives, by nationalistic and religious groups, by revolutionaries, and even by
state institutions such as armies, intelligence services, and police. Transnational
terrorism has also been practiced and promoted by one state against another for
ideological or political reasons. Once the distinction between terrorism and other
forms of political violence becomes blurred, it poses problems in conceptualizing
it. Hence, the saying: “One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter.”

In the 20th century, the term ‘terrorism’ is used in a more focussed manner. It is
often used to describe violence targeted directly or indirectly at governments
with a view to influence policy or overthrow an existing [Link] not
easy to define neatly, nevertheless one can identify certain elements characteristic
to terrorism.

The first core element of terrorism is to instill fear in the minds and hearts of the
populace in general. According to Encyclopedia Britannica: “Terrorism involves
the use or threat of violence and seeks to create fear, not just within the direct
victims but among a wide audience.”

The degree to which it relies on fear distinguishes terrorism from both a

conventional war and guerrilla warfare. Conventional armed forces rely on the
strength of their arms to gain victory; and in this pursuit they also indulge in
propaganda and a psychological warfare against the enemy. Likewise, guerilla
forces, though again use lots of propaganda, eventually aim at military victory
over their adversary. In 20th century, guerilla warfare that brought victory was,
for example, for the Viet Cong guerilla movement in Vietnam in the 1970s. To
reiterate: “Terrorism proper is thus the systematic use of violence to generate
fear, and thereby to achieve political goals, when direct military victory is not
possible” (Encyclopedia Britannica). This has led some social scientists to
describe guerrilla warfare as the “weapon of the weak” and terrorism as the
“weapon of the weakest.”

The second core element of terrorism is the shock value of a terrorist act. Terrorists
normally resort to dramatic and high profile violent attacks to generate all round
fear. Typical terrorist acts include hijacking, hostage taking, bombing high profile
buildings and personalities, and suicide bombing. The targets are carefully chosen
so as to enhance the surprise and shock value of the act. Terrorists want to create
an image of themselves as being invincible and omnipresent. One can add few
more dimensions here: terrorists operate secretively; their acts are clandestine;
and terrorists could choose their victims randomly, say bombing a marketplace.
They generally target persons and places which will bring them high publicity
and create a disproportionate image of their prowess.

The third core element of terrorism is that the terrorist hope that “the sense of
terror these acts engender will induce the population to pressure political leaders
toward a specific political end” (Encyclopedia Britannica).

139
Contemporary Global Issues There is the fourth core element: victims of terrorist violence are invariably
innocent civilians. The US government agrees that terrorism is premeditated,
politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets. In
conflict situation, be it the armed forces or the guerillas groups, both abide by
certain international legal norms; for instance, international law which prohibits
intentionally targeting the unarmed civilian population. Terrorists have a disdain
for observing any such norm; often it is the innocent citizen who are the target of
their attacks. Hence, it is said: “One man’s terrorist is everyone’s terrorist”. No
matter how justifiable is the cause, wanton killing of civilians and destruction of
infrastructure remain acts of terrorism.

Thus, there exists a degree of consensus on some of the key elements that
constitute an act of terrorism. While that is so, whether or not an act is classified
as terrorism remains highly subjective. Problem is the term terrorism is used to
describe or not to describe varied types of political violence; hence the definitional
ambiguity continues.

9.4.1 International Terrorism

Scholars have tried to identify various types of terrorism; again, it is not an easy
task. The aims, members, beliefs, and resources of terrorist groups and the political
contexts in which they operate are very diverse. In 20th century, many political
movements, ranging from extreme right to extreme left, have used terrorism for
their political ends. Terror has been used by one or both the sides in anti-colonial
context, for instance in Algeria by the colonial French administration and the
Algerian liberation movement; in disputes between different national groups over
possession of a homeland for instance between the Palestinians and the Israelis;
in conflicts between religious groups, say the Catholic and the Protestants in
Ireland; and in internal conflicts between governments and the rebels for instance
in El Salvador.

Modern technology such as automatic weapons, remote controlled explosive

devices, air travel, information technology, have given terrorists lots of lethality
and mobility to choose their targets. The potency of terrorism continues to increase
and terrorism seems to have become a feature of modern political life. International
community also fears that terrorsits might even lay their hands on weapons of
mass destruction, including nuclear, biologicl and chemicals weapons. There
have been incidens when terrorist groups have used chemical and biological
weapons. Japanese cult AUM Shinrikyo released nerve gas into a Tokyo subway
in 1995. After September 11, a number of letters contaminated with anthrax were
delivered to political leaders and journalists in the United States, leading to several
deaths.

Spread of messianic beliefs, desire to ‘return’ to an imagined ‘golden’ past, ‘Us

vs. Them’ syndrome, diasporic solidairty and access to sources of funding are
some of the factors in the rise and spread of terrorism. Sense of alienation, say as
an outcome of globalisation, and long-held grienvances, real or imagined, are
other reasons.

In the latter half of the 20th century, among the most prominent terrorist groups
have been the the Red Army Faction, the Japanese Red Army, the Red Brigades,
the Puerto Rican FALN, groups related to the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO), the Shining Path, and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). In
140
the 21st centuries some of the most extreme organizations that engaged in Non-Traditional Security
Threats
terrorism possessed a fundamentalist religious ideology (e.g., $amâs and al-
Qaeda). Some groups, including the LTTE, $amâs and Taliban also resorted to
suicide bombing to destroy an economic, military political or symbolic target. A
brief discussion of these groups follows:

The Red Army Faction (RAF), also known as the Baader–Meinhof Group was a
West German far-left militant organization founded in 1970. It was very active
in the late 1970s but seems to have decided to dissolve itself in 1998. The West
German government as well as most Western media and literature considered
the Red Army Faction to be a terrorist organization. The Red Army Faction
engaged in a series of bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, bank robberies
and shoot-outs with police over the course of three decades. The group seems to
revive itself. It was involved in bank dacoity in 2016; but the government
described the incident as a criminal and not a terrorist act.

The Japanese Red Army (JRA) was a communist militant group founded in 1971.
JRA’s stated goals were to overthrow the Japanese government and the monarchy,
as well as to start a world revolution. The group was also known as the Anti-
Imperialist International Brigade (AIIB), the Holy War Brigade, and the Anti-
War Democratic Front. Factions of the Japanese Red Army had close contacts
with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) in the 1970s.

The Armed Forces of National Liberation (FALN) was a Puerto Rican

underground paramilitary Marxist-Leninist organization that sought to liberate
Puerto Rico from US control through an armed struggle. It had wanted to transform
Puerto Rico into a socialist state. It carried out more than 130 bomb attacks in
the United States between 1974 and 1983. Several of the FALN leaders and
activists were arrested and convicted for committing robbery and for possession
of firearms and explosives. In 1999, President Bill Clinton offered clemency to
sixteen of the convicted militants under the condition that they renounce any
kind of violent manifestation.

Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso) was a Peruvian revolutionary organization

that endorsed Maoism and employed guerrilla tactics and violent terrorism. It
was formed in the 1970; its leader Abimael Guzmán believed that the thoughts
of Mao Zedong have a solution for Peru’s rural poor and the indigenous
populations. It thought that a prolonged military offensive alone will liberate
Peru from the stranglehold of foreign capital and feudal landowning class. The
group indulged in bombing, kidnapping and assassination in the 1980s and had
developed strong bases to even attack in urban areas such as Lima city. Guzman
was arrested in 1992 and sentenced to life imprisonment. The Shining Path did
reorganize itself under Oscar Ramirez Durand who was also captured in 1999.
In 2003 Peru’s Truth and Reconciliation Committee issued a report stating that
37,800 of the estimated 70,000 deaths in Peru’s 20-year insurgency conflict were
caused by Shining Path.

In the late 20th century the United States suffered several acts of terrorist violence
by Puerto Rican nationalists (such as the FALN), antiabortion groups, and foreign-
based organizations. During the 1990s, the deadliest attack on US soil was the
bombing of the World Trade Center in New York City in 1993 and the Oklahoma
City bombing two years later, which killed 168 people. In addition, there were
several major terrorist attacks on US government targets overseas, including
141
Contemporary Global Issues military bases in Saudi Arabia in 1996 and the US embassies in Kenya and
Tanzania in 1998. In 2000, US naval ship, the USS Cole, was bombed in the
Yemeni port of Aden.

9.4.2 US’ Global War on Terrorism

On 11 September 2001, 19 terrorists hijacked four flights and crashed three of
the aeroplanes – two in the twin towers of the World Trade Centre complex in
New York and one in Washington, D.C.; the fourth plane fell in the fields in
Pennsylvania. This was the deadliest attack on US soil and resulted in the death
of as many as 2,977 people.

The Al Qaeda-led attacks prompted US president George W. Bush to declare the

Global War on Terrorism (GWOT). The day after the attacks, Bush said: “Every
nation in every region now has a decision to make,” he declared in a national
address. “Either you are with us or you are with the terrorists.” Under the
Operation Enduring Freedom, US and its allies began the aerial bombing of
Afghanistan on 7 October 2001; ground war started on 19 October with US
Special Forces targeting Kandhar. Several other nations– Britain, Turkey,
Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, France and Poland and others – joined the
military campaign to overthrow the Taliban regime and destroy Al Qaeda
infrastructure in Afghanistan. Before the year end, rule of Taliban was over; and
the US-backed Hamid Karzai has taken over as interim president in June 2002.
On 2 May 2011, US Special Forces raided a safe hideout in Abbottabad, Pakistan
and killed Al Qaeda supremo Osama bin Laden. US officially declared end to
the war in Afghanistan as on 28 December 2014; and president Obama announced
that some 10,800 US troop would remain in Afghanistan. However, the
government headed by President Ashraf Ghani continued to reveal its grave
weaknesses; Afghan security forces are not able to hold on to the country. The
strength of US troops was raised by the President Donald Trump; more aerial
and ground attacks all took place with a view to subdue the Taliban and make
them talk peace with Ashraf Ghani government. However, the regrouped Taliban
have made a successful return to insurgency and occupy nearly half of Afghan
territory. In October 2018, US and Taliban leadership entered into a dialogue on
withdrawal of 14,000 US troops and guarantees that Afghan soil will not be used
for terrorist activities after US withdrawal. The elected government of president
Ghani found itself isolated and marginalized.

US and coalition forces invaded Iraq on 19 March 2003 following intelligence

report that Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was in possession of the weapons of
mass destruction. By end of April, US had declared victory in Iraq. Saddam
Hussein was captured from his hideout and was executed on 30 December 2006.
On 30 August 2010, US president Barack Obama declared end to the US combat
mission in Iraq.

In its scope, expenditure, and impact on international relations, the US’ GWOT
is compared with Cold War. It was promised to usher in a new phase in
international relations and has had important consequences for security, human
rights, international law, cooperation, and governance. The GWOT has had many
dimensions: in its military dimension, it involved US-led multinational military
campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq, covert operations in Yemen and many other
places; and military assistance and cooperation with friendly regimes. Its
142 intelligence dimension was equally important: US reorganized and expanded its
intelligence agencies; new technologies were inducted to gather information so Non-Traditional Security
Threats
as to preempt and prevent terrorism; it cut off financial resources of the terrorists;
and captured terrorist suspects and detained them in Guantanamo Bay without
trial. In its diplomatic dimension, GWOT sought to build and maintain a global
coalition with partner countries and a public diplomacy campaign to counter
anti-American sentiments in the Muslim world. The domestic dimension of the
GWOT led US administrations to pass new making laws such as the USA
PATRIOT Act, to create new organizations such as the Department of Homeland
Security and allowed executive and judicial restrictions on civil liberties besides
enhancing control of the borders.

Critics however are of the view that GWOT has not achieved its mission: despite
detaining thousands of terror suspects in Guantanamo and other places, terrorist
incidents took place after 9/11. Many have criticized the GWOT for its violation
of human rights as thousands were detained without trial for years; and torture
became an accepted practice. Besides US used unmanned combat drones to kill
lots of suspected enemies far away from Afghanistan and Iraq including some
who were US citizens. Taliban regime was overthrown but 18 years after, US is
now negotiating peace and military withdrawal with the same Taliban leadership.
Al Qaeda was down but not out; its affiliates continued with their terrorism mission
with bombings in Madrid, London and other places. Al Qaeda affiliates carried
out terrorist bombings on 11March 2004, when four trains were bombed in Madrid
resulting in the death of 191 people and injuries to more than 2000. On 7 July
2005, terrorist bombings on the London Underground and atop a double-decker
bus killed 52 people and injured more than 700. The growth of Daesh (Islamic
State of Iraq and Levant) and the continued wars in Iraq and Syria mean that
neither the threat of terrorism has declined not anti-American sentiments in the
Muslim world have disappeared. There are others who criticize GWOT on
geostrategic grounds: they argue that the war on terror was a smokescreen for
US to advance its expansionist geopolitical agenda – strong military presence in
Afghanistan, Iraq and other countries; control of the important energy sources
and routes; and to counter the strategic challenge posed by various regional
powers.

In the case of Iraq, once the regime of Saddam Hussein was overthrown, US had
no idea how to create peace and stability in Iraq. It had underestimated the
difficulties of building a functioning government from scratch and did not know
how to deal with the Sunni-Shia sectarian divide. Under US watch, Iraq sank
into chaos and civil war; some 200,000 civilians are reported to have died during
2004-07 when infighting was at its peak in Iraq. It was under US watch that
Daesh (ISIL) spread its tentacles in Iraq, Syria and beyond.

President Obama all of a sudden declared GWOT as over in 2013 stating that US
would eschew a boundless, vaguely defined “global war on terrorism” in favour
of more focused actions against specific hostile groups. He promised to end the
wars both in Afghanistan and Iraq although at the end of his presidency in 2016
there were still US troops in both countries. Critics however find Obama’s
declaration to end the US’ GWOT as rhetorical. There were important continuities
with the policies of Bush administration. The Obama administration, for example,
greatly expanded the campaign of targeted killings carried out with drones. Special
operations forces were greatly expanded and increasingly deployed to conduct
low-profile military interventions in countries outside of acknowledged war zones.
143
Contemporary Global Issues And US security agencies continued to exercise the wide-ranging surveillance
powers that they had accumulated during the Bush administration despite protests
from civil liberties groups.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Define terrorism and explain its core elements.
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2) Explain the US’ GWOT.
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9.5 THREAT OF TERRORISM: CASE OF INDIA

What has been India’s experience with terrorism? And how it has dealt with this
non-traditional security threat? India’s experience with terrorism is highly unusual
in scale, scope, and complexity. Since its independence in 1947, India has faced
an unusually large and diverse number of terrorist groups – home-grown, cross-
border, and transnational. These groups come with very diverse ideological and
geographical backgrounds. Scholars point out that political violence in India
interacts and intersects in multiple ways with issues of identity and its assertion
for separateness and autonomy. Ethnicity, caste and religion feed political violence
and terrorism; at the same time, they also impact and shape state’s CT response
or lack of it. Besides, India has a number of, what is called, internal conflicts
which manifest themselves in the form of insurgencies with terrorism as their
principal feature. Groups which can be described as ‘pure terrorist groups’ are
not so common. The overlap between insurgency and terrorism makes the task
of studying terrorism as a security threat a complex exercise in the context of
India. It is not easy to draw a line between terrorism, militancy and insurgency.
Analysts also find India’s CT and counter-insurgency (COIN) responses ad hoc,
inconsistent and even contradictory.
In 2013, there were at least 66 terrorist groups in India. In 2015, India’s Ministry
of Home Affairs listed 39 banned groups. But the list did not include many groups
which were active but were not banned. Then there were groups which were
dormant for some time or were involved in some sort of a negotiation with
authorities. Given the sheer number and diversity of these non-state actors, a
144 brief and broad description follows:
9.5.1 Militancy and Separatism in Jammu and Kashmir Non-Traditional Security
Threats

One of the most complex conflicts is on in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir
(J&K). The ‘Kashmir issue’ also has international dimensions. A separate identity
and autonomy has been the core issue since the accession of J&K with the Indian
Union. Different ethno-religious, separatist insurgent groups emerged in the 1990s
carrying various agendas. The pro-independence secessionists led by the Jammu
Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) launched an armed campaign against the Indian
state in 1996. JKLF defined Kashmiri nationalism in fairly secular terms but did
not hesitate to use the language of Islam to mobilize support. The separatist pro-
independence movement was soon taken over by the pro-Pakistan Islamist groups
like Hizbul Mujahideen who wanted the merger of J&K with Pakistan. They
saw Kashmir as a matter of jihad against an apostate state. Pakistan launched its
own proxy war with India and sponsored a number of cross-border Islamist groups
with terrorism as their tool. There thus emerged the phenomenon of ‘Islamist
terrorism’ in J&K. A third type of organization emerged in the aftermath of terrorist
events of 9/11. Some of the Islamist groups working from across the border
gravitated towards Al Qaeda and other international Islamist terrorist and militant
groups. Pro-Pakistan groups active in J&K such as Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and
Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM) became closer to Al Qaeda. Their expanded ideological
horizon and global connections meant that the two organizations launched their
terrorist attacks beyond J&K and in other parts of India. Be they local militant
groups or cross-border groups working at the behest of the Pakistan state, or
others with links with the international terrorist outfits, they all indulged in
widespread terrorist acts in J&K and other parts of India. The international
collaboration enabled LeT and JeM to evolve both in ideological and tactical
terms. LeT carried out 26/11 terrorist attacks in Mumbai in 2008 far away form
J&K and demonstrated its ability to use modern technology and target high profile
buildings in India’s business capital.

9.5.2 Islamist Terrorism

A fairly long history of communal riots and their marginalization and exclusion
has facilitated radicalization of a section of Muslim community. The scale of
radicalization and potential to carry out terrorist attacks is not clear, but seems to
be limited. There were few home-grown jihadi groups in the 1980s which indulged
in some criminal activities; they were assisted by Pakistan intelligence. The
demolition of Babri Masjid in 1992 led to series of bombings in Mumbai in 1993
which were traced back to Pakistan-based Dawood Ibrahim and the Pakistani
intelligence agencies. Besides, groups like the Students Islamic Movement of
India (SIMI) emerged. More militant SIMI activists floated the Indian Mujahideen
(IM).

Finally, some small footprints of Al Qaeda and Daesh have also been traced.
These transnational jihadist groups see India as part of the Crusader-Zionist-
Hindu conspiracy against the Muslim community. Reports have emerged that
some Indian Muslims participated in the wars in Syria and Iraq under the banner
of Daesh.

9.5.3 Insurgency in North-East India

Many insurgent movements in India exhinit elements of paramilitarism. Insurgent
groups in the North-East states of India have been carrying out terrorist acts for 145
Contemporary Global Issues a long time. The number of insurgent groups and their political agendas is very
large and diverse; and this poses compelx secuirty challenges for the Indian
state. Insurgency became more serious a threat since the 1980s. Of the various
insurgencies, the longest and the most intractable perhaps has been the separatist
Naga movement. Then there are insurgent movements in Mizoram, Tripura and
Manipur. Political unrest and alienation is quite widespread in the North-East.
Demand for separation and autonomy in the North-East has its roots in ethnic,
tribal and religious identity. Large number of ethnic groups insists on their being
separate and distinct from rest of India. Decades of government efforts to contain
and manage the ethnic conflicts have not succeeded so far. On the contrary,
incidents of pure terrorist attacks by the splinter insurgent groups have increased.
Incidents of attacks on the police and security forces have increased in the last
ten years or so. Any effort at peace dialogue does not bear results because there
are too many splinter groups and factions. North-East states share international
borders. Insurgent groups find safe havens in neighbouring countries viz.
Bangladesh, Bhutan and Myanmar; and this complicates the task for Indian
security forces. In short, security challenges in the North-East are heterogonous
and intractable.

9.5.4 Khalistan Militancy in Punjab

The northern state of Punjab experienced Sikh militancy during 1978-1993 for
the demand of a separate state of Khalistan. A group of armed militants emerged
under the leadership of Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale enjoying considerable support
in the Sikh community in Punjab and abroad. Pakistan had a hand in inflaming
the insurgency. However, despite resort to acts of terrorism, the state continued
to look at the Khalistani movement more as a law and order problem until 1984.
The response of the Indian state came eventually in the form of Operation Blue
Star which inflamed violence across the state of Punjab. This was followed by
the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards and
outbreak of anti-Sikh riots in Delhi and several parts of India. Khalistani terrorism
intensified after 1984. A decisive police action, called Operation Black Thunder,
launched in 1988 brought an end to the Khalistan insurgency in India. There
have been sporadic incidents of violence and terrorism thereafter. Soem pro-
Khalistan elements remain active abroad within the Sikh diaspora. Like with the
militant groups in J&K, media continues to report the support by the Pakistani
intelligence agencies to these diasporic Khalistani elements.

9.5.5 Naxalite Movement

Should Naxalite movement be decalred a terrorist movement? There is no easy
answer. Violence and terrorism indulged by Naxalite group is rooted in the rural
and tribal distress and their sense of long exploitation and oppression by a heavy-
handed state. Naxalite movement emerged in the 1970s in West Bengal among
rural landless peasants who for generation faced the exploitation and oppression
at the hands of the class of landlords. The movement drew inspiration from the
writings of Mao Zedong and the 1949 revolution in China which had started
from the rural areas. Thus, it is one movement that is based on class and not
identity; and it seeks to bring out a new and just social order in place of the
existing Indian state. The belief at official level is that development in the areas
under Naxal influence shall resolve the problem of Naxalism. But neither
development has taken place nor any serious CT action has been launched against
146
the Naxal violence. As a result, the movement continues to grow and is now Non-Traditional Security
Threats
spread over nearly 185 of the 602 total districts in India. Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are the most
affected states. The movement has also marked its presence in urban areas among
factory workers and section of the academia. In recent years, it has increasingly
been targeting security personnel and civilian infrastructure for terrorist attacks
and destruction. Economic liberalization has among other things also contributed
to expansion of illegal mining, querying and deforestation; all these have
contributed to further strengthening of the Naxal movement. Continued
marginalization and exclusion of the tribals, the Dalits, the landless and other
rural poor explain the longevity of the movement.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Explain the many dimensions and shades of violent movements in India
and their use of terrorism. Why the state response remains constrained?
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9.6 LET US SUM UP

Non-traditioinal security has a broadened definition of secuirty: it covers not
only the seucirty of the state but also of the communities. As a perspective to
study IR, NTS perspective highlights nature and sources of new types of threats
to security. NTS threats always there but admittedly have exacerbated in the
post-Cold War era. Be that as it may, NTS threats are often transnational and
cross-border in their potency and magnitude. They cannot obviously be met by a
single sovereign state. NTS threats demand regional and even global resposne.
This calls for a change in the behaviour of state and greater movement towards
regional governance norms and mechanisms.
NTS threats were always there; but they were not considered as secuirty threats.
What really makes them signficant threats are now the scale, speed and ability to
transmit fast of these threats.
Terrorism is a major non-traditional security threat. One reason why it is difficult
to tackle it is that the threat remains elusive. Also, it is not easy to conceptualise
terrorism. Analysts neverthelss have found some core elements in terrorism which
distingusihes it from revolutonary movements and insurgencies. Terrorism works
to build fear in the mind of the populace in general and deliberately seeks to
target the innocent civilians. Lack of coordination among sovereign states and
the fact that states continue to shift their position depending on what is in their
national interest are factors as to why international terrorism continues to pose
threat to international peace and security. A good case in this regard is the trajectory
of American war on terrorism. 147
Contemporary Global Issues Terrorism is a non-traditional security threat that has afflicted India since its
independence. The case study of India indicates that terrorism is an intractable
issue. It is embeded in domesic poliltics, identity politics and demands for
separation. State response in the form of counter terrorism (CT) and counter
insurgency (COIN) measures have been ad hoc, inconsistent and often constrained
by domestic political and electoral calculations.

9.7 SOME USEFUL REFERENECES

Acharya, Amitav, [Link]. eds. 2006. Studying Non-Traditional Security in Asia:
Trends and Issues. Singapore: Marshall Cavandish.
Baruah, S., ed. 2009. Beyond Counter-Insurgency: Breaking the Impasse in
Northeast India.
Oxford: Oxford University Press .
Caballero-Anthony, Mely [Link], eds. 2017. Non-Traditional Security in Asia:
Dilemmas in Securitization. Hampshire: Ashgate.
Chima, J.S. 2010. The Sikh Separatist Insurgency: Political Leadership and
Ethnonationalist
Movements. New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Dadwal, Shebonti Ray and Uttam Kumar Sinha, ed. 2015. Non-Traditional
Security Challenges in Asia: Approaches and Responses. Routledge.
Emmerson, Donald, K. ed. 2009. Hard Choices: Security, Democracy and
Regionalism in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Utopia Press.
Encyclopedia Britannica
Ganguly, Sumit. 2016. Deadly Impasse: Indo-Pakistan Relations at the Dawn of
a New Century.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ganguly, Sumit, Manjeet Pardesi and Nicolas Blarel, eds. 2017. The Oxford
Handbook to India’s National Security. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Singh, Rashmi. “India’s Experience with Terrorism”
[Link]

9.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Your answer should include following.

A discussion of the meaning and content of non-traditional security
threats.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Your answer should include following.

148 Changing dynamics of state sovereignty in the context of NTS threats.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 Non-Traditional Security
Threats
1) Your answer should include following.
Identify the core elements of terrorism.
Discuss GWOT.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) Your answer should include following.
Explain violent political movements and their use of terrorism.

149
Contemporary Global Issues
UNIT 10 REFUGEES AND MIGRATION*

Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Conceptual analysis of Migration and Refugees
10.3 Political Economy of Migration
10.4 Global Trends in Migration and Refugee Movement
10.5 Geography of Global Migration
10.6 Resettlement and Return of Refugees
10.7 India’s Perception and Response to Refugee Problem
10.7.1 India’s Approach towards International Conventions on Refugees
10.7.2 Status of Refugees in India
10.8 Let Us Sum Up
10.9 Some Useful References
10.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

10.0 OBJECTIVES
After Studying this unit, you would be able to;
explain various concepts associated with refugees and migrants;.
analyse the positive and negative outcomes as well as potential solutions;
understand the global trends in refugee movement and migration; and
examine how India deals with refugees and migrants.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Migration is a natural phenomenon; man has always migrated. Migration has
played a significant role in the growth of human civilization. A fall-out of the
emergence of Westphalian nation-states has been the demarcation of national
boundaries and borders, thereby restricting the natural movement of people. More
so, with the beginning of the 21st Century, the nation-state grapples with issues
of migration and refugees at international, national and local levels.

This Unit would delve into the conceptual analysis of migration and refugees;
merits and demerits of migration by examining international and regional
perspectives on migration and refugees. Similar civilizational heritage along with
porous borders have witnessed mass influxes in the history of South Asia which
pose whole questions of refugees and migration that are unique. India, that
occupies the chunk of South Asia, stands out from international conventions on
refugees but hosts migrants and shelters refugees as a morally-driven commitment
rooted in its civilizational ethos. No gainsaying, the importance of migration to
economic prosperity, human development, and safety and security ensures that
it will remain a top priority for the world for the foreseeable future.

150 *Dr. Salvin Paul, Dept. of Peace & Conflict Studies & Management, Sikkim University
 Refugees and Migration
10.2 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS ON MIGRATION
AND REFUGEES
Migration encompasses a variety of movements and situations involving all kinds
of people and environments. Migration is entangled with geopolitics, trade and
cultural exchanges; and provides opportunities for states, businesses and
communities to benefit enormously. It improves people’s lives in both the origin
and destination countries and offers opportunities for a better life to millions
worldwide. Majority of people migrate internationally for work, family reunion
and study; many other people leave their homes and countries for other reasons
such as conflict, persecution, disaster, environmental degradation and lack of
human security and opportunity. While most international migration occurs
legally, some of the greatest insecurities for migrants, and much of the public
concern about immigration, is associated with irregular migration. Displaced
populations such as refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) comprise a
relatively small percentage of all migrants; however, they often capture the action
as they frequently find themselves in highly vulnerable situations in need of
assistance.

There is no universal definition of migration or migrants that is accepted and

officially binding at international level. The UN classifies international migrants
into long-term and short-term or temporary migrants, as any person who changes
his or her country of usual residence for at least 12 months for any reason that
are documented or not, falls into the category of long-term migrants whereas
short-term or temporary migrants are above 3 months but less than a year.
International Organisation for Migration (IMO) provides a much broader
definition of a migrant as “any person who is moving or has moved across an
international border or within a State away from his/her habitual place of
residence, regardless of the person’s legal status; whether the movement is
voluntary or involuntary; what the causes for the movement are; or what the
length of the stay is” (IMO, 2018). However, some countries use different criteria
to identify international migrants as well as use different data collection
methodologies which hinder full comparability of national statistics on
international migrants (World Migration Report, 2018). Migrants are a far broader
category of people who leave their places of habitual residence to live elsewhere
and this happens mostly within a country due to urbanization.

The term ‘Refugee’ is derived from Latin word Tugere’, which means to flee for
safety. According to the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating
to the Status of Refugees, “refugee is a person who flee from his country of
origin due to political or other forms of persecutions and is unable or unwilling
to avail the protection of that country and thus loses his nationality.” The African
Union’s 1969 Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems
in Africa, states that a person fleeing external aggression, occupation, foreign
domination, or serious disturbances of public order, is also a refugee. Cartagena
Declaration of Central and South American governments in 1984 further included
people fleeing threats to their lives, safety, or freedom due to generalised violence,
foreign aggression, internal conflicts, and massive human rights violations.

Asylum-seekers are individuals who are seeking asylum but whose claims have
not yet been finally decided on. Refugees often move within large mixed flows
of migrants which might include people fleeing generalised violence, torture, 151
Contemporary Global Issues targeted persecution, as well as economic migrants, victims of trafficking, women
and children at risk, and environmental displacees. Mass influx protection is
more pressing than individualised procedures. Refugees and migrants are legally
distinct as refugees are protected by international refugee law.

Diaspora refers to “individuals and members or networks, associations and

communities, who have left their country of origin, but maintain links with their
homelands. This concept covers more settled expatriate communities, migrant
workers based abroad temporarily, expatriates with the nationality of the host
country, dual nationals, and second-third generation migrants”(IOM, 2011). The
term transnational communities may better describe the reality of contemporary
migration experiences, where migrants may establish and maintain connections
with people in their home communities or migrants in other countries. Indeed,
IOM uses the terms diaspora and transnational communities interchangeably
(IOM, 2017).

Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) are persons or groups of persons who

have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual
residence to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence,
violations of human rights or natural or human made disasters, and who have not
crossed an internationally recognized State border (Guiding Principles on Internal
Displacement, OCHA/UN, 1998). Return migrants are persons “… returning
to his or her country of origin or habitual residence usually after spending at
least one year in another country. This return may or may not be voluntary”
(IOM, 2011).

Irregular migration occurs outside the regulatory norms of the sending, transit

and receiving countries. It is entry, stay or work in a country without the necessary
authorization or documents required under immigration regulations. There is,
however, a tendency to restrict the use of the term “illegal migration” to cases
of smuggling of migrants and trafficking in persons.

Mixed migration is both a new phenomenon and an old reality and treated
differently in various countries. According to the International Organisation for
Migration (IOM), “mixed flows concern irregular movements, frequently
involving transit migration, where refugees, asylum-seekers, economic migrants
and other migrants move without the requisite documentation, crossing borders
and arriving at their destination in an unauthorized manner”. For example, India
refers to the phenomenon as mixed migration; for European policymakers, it is
irregular migration; and in the United States, it is illegal immigration. There
have been recent efforts in European policy debates to conceptualise mixed
migration. Europe’s current “migrant crisis”, caused by the influx of Syrian
asylum-seekers, has dramatically increased awareness of mixed migration.

The primary difference between a Mass influx and a Mixed flow is that the
latter originates from many places whereas the former usually originates from a
specific area. But mixed flows can originate from a single area too, and when
that occurs in a time of conflict.

Non-refoulement is a principle of customary international law. It forbids the

receiving country from returning the asylum seekers to a country in which they
are likely to face persecution on grounds of race, religion, nationality, membership
of a particular social group or political opinion. Countries have interpreted the
152
principle in their own different ways. Several European consider the duty of Refugees and Migration
non-refoulement applied only to refugees already within their territories and not
to those who had reached their frontiers and sought entry. The 1951 United Nations
Convention relating to the Status of refugees, in Article 33(1), provide: “No
Contracting State shall expel or return (“refouler”) a refugee in any manner
whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be
threatened on account of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular
social group or political opinion.” The principle of non-refoulement is the
cornerstone of asylum and of international refugee law. Following from the right
to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution, as set forth in
Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, this principle reflects
the commitment of the international community to ensure to all persons the
enjoyment of human rights, including the rights to life, to freedom from torture
or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, and to liberty and security
of person. The non-refoulement principle prohibits frontier rejections and entry
refusals. The Organisation of African Union (OAU) Convention expressly
prohibited refoulement at national frontiers. The European position began
changing in the 1990s when scores of asylum seekers arrived at the borders of
European nations fleeing the Balkan wars.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Who is a refugee? Explain how a Refugee is different from Migrant and
Diaspora?
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10.3 POLITICAL ECONOMY OF MIGRATION

Migration offers both positive outcomes and negative consequences from varying
perspectives of the origin and destination countries. The impact of migration is
felt first and foremost at the personal and family level. The wage differences
and relative income gains from migration are largest for lower-skilled workers,
whose international movements around the world are the most restricted. The
increase in migrants’ earnings naturally helps the welfare and human development
of migrants’ families, either directly if they are with the migrant in the host country,
or indirectly through remittances.

Emigration can also reduce unemployment and underemployment leading to the

reduction of poverty and foster broader economic and social development in
origin countries in a variety of ways. Remittances are generally a less volatile
and more reliable source of foreign currency than other capital flows in many
developing countries (World Bank, 2016). In 2016, India, China, Philippines,
Mexico and Pakistan were the top five remittance recipient countries, although
153
Contemporary Global Issues China and India were well above the rest, with total inward remittances exceeding
USD 60 billion for each country. When remittances are viewed as a percentage
of GDP, however, the top five countries are Kyrgyzstan (at 35.4%), followed by
Nepal (29.7%), Liberia (29.6%), Haiti (27.8%) and Tonga (27.8%) in 2016. In
2016, remittance inflows to India amounted to USD 62.7 billion, the largest in
the world; and in countries such as Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh,
remittances exceeded 5 per cent of GDP in the same year (World Bank, 2017).
Some of the countries are heavily dependent on remittances; they are described
as ‘remittance economies’.
Migration also results in the transfer of skills, knowledge and technology, and
work culture that could have considerable positive impacts on productivity and
economic growth of the home country. They are seen as a source of investment
in the home country; home governments regularly woo migrants for investment.
It is increasingly recognized that migrants can play a significant role in post-
conflict reconstruction and recovery as well (Van Hear 2011).
There is widespread agreement that migration can also generate economic and
other benefits for destination/ host countries. In countries such as Australia and
Canada, immigration is encouraged so as to keep the locomotive of the economic
growth working. In general, immigration adds workers to the economy, thus
increasing the gross domestic product (GDP) of the host country. There are also
a variety of ways in which migrants can have positive effects on labour
productivity, if migrants are more skilled than national workers or if immigration
has positive effects for innovation and skills agglomeration. Migrants are often
more likely to be risk takers, and this quality has led to enormous contributions
in many destination countries in areas such as technology, science, the arts and a
range of other fields.
Immigration can have a positive effect on the labour market by increasing labour
supply in sectors and occupations suffering from shortages of workers, as well
as helping address mismatches in the job market. These positive labour market
effects are not just evident in high-skilled sectors, but can also occur in lower-
skilled occupations leading to additional employment opportunities for existing
workers. Of course, immigration can also have adverse labour market effects on
wages and employment of domestic workers, but studies show that such negative
impacts tend to be quite small. Immigration of young workers can also ease
pressures on pensions systems of high-income countries with rapidly ageing
populations.
In Europe, there is growing alarmism that migration is accelerating a clash of
civilizations. So Islamophobia is common concerns in many European countries
as public consider that all migration from mainly Muslim countries should be
stopped. Many European Countries overestimate the number of migrants and
Muslims (Ipsos MORI, 2016). These negative perceptions towards migrants may
lead to violence, harassment, threats and xenophobic attitude targeting asylum
seekers and migrants creating challenges for governments to promote integration.
There is also an apprehension that refugees can become a causal link between
the onset and continuation of civil conflict. The presence of refugees and migrants
has a wide range of social, cultural, environmental, and political effects on host
communities. In rural areas, refugees can spark a competition for resources and
aggravate social fault-lines. Friction between refugees and local communities
always could trigger conflict when religiously-inspired nativism escalates anti-
154 refugee rhetoric leading to ethno-religious conflict.
Global migrant stocks are extensive and global in scope but the database of Refugees and Migration
migration flows only encompasses 45 countries. International migration flows
are supposed to constitute both inflows and outflows but countries focus more
on inflows. Australia and the United States count all cross-border movements
but many countries only count entries and not departures. Migration flow data in
some countries are derived from administrative events related to immigration
status such as issuance, renewal, withdrawal of a residence permit. It is also
difficult to classify migratory movements from non-migratory travels such as
tourism or business. Tracking migratory movements also requires considerable
resources, infrastructure and knowledge systems in the digitally globalised world
but developing countries’ ability to collect, administer, analyse and report data
on mobility, migration and other areas is often limited. Finally, many countries’
physical geographies pose tremendous challenges for collecting data on migration
flows. Entry and border management is particularly challenging in countries
constituted of archipelagic and isolated borders, and it is further complicated by
regions having similar civilizational traditions that promote informal migration
for work.

10.4 GLOBAL TRENDS IN MIGRATION AND

REFUGEE MOVEMENT
There were around 258 million international migrants in the world in 2017, which
equalls to 3.4 per cent of the total population (UN DESA, 2017). There is an
increase in international migration over time both numerically and proportionally
at a greater rate than had been anticipated. Of course, migration had shown the
greatest volatility in the past. It is therefore difficult to project migration patterns
with some accuracy (UN DESA, 2003). The post-Cold War era has also witnessed
significant rise of the displaced population – both internal and across borders -
due to civil and transnational conflicts that include violent extremism outside
actual war zones. There were 40.3 million internally displaced persons (IDPs)
worldwide in 2016 and 22.5 million refugees (IDMC, 2017; UNHRC, 2017).
Adding further to the world’s displaced population, more than half a million
Rohingya refugees fled from Myanmar to Bangladesh since late August 2017.

Since 2015, migration has become a securitized agenda of governments and

development partners, following its inclusion in the UN 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development. In September 2016, governments adopted the New
York Declaration, which calls for strengthening international cooperation on
migration and forced displacement and for the development and adoption of
global compacts on migration and on refugees. Both compacts published in 2018
call attention to the issue of socio-economic integration of migrants and refugees
through self-employment and entrepreneurship. Both migrants and refugees can
contribute positively to the development of both origin and destination countries
provided that their skills, capabilities and entrepreneurial spirit are given sufficient
support and recognition.

The global population of forcibly displaced people increased to 68.5 million in

2017 especially from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Myanmar
as well as continuing the Syrian crisis. The Syrian crisis continued to account for
the largest forcibly displaced population globally. There were 12.6 million forcibly
displaced Syrians in 2017, comprising around 6.3 million refugees, 146,700
asylum-seekers, and 6.2 million IDPs. Syrian refugees have found asylum in 155
Contemporary Global Issues 125 countries throughout the world, with the majority being hosted by Turkey
(3,424,200). At the end of 2017, the data from Turkey’s Directorate General of
Migration Management states that the Turkey continued to be the country hosting
the world’s largest number of refugees, with a 21 per cent increase in its refugee
population, from 2.9 million at the beginning of the year to 3.5 million at the end
(Turkey, 2018). UNHCR’s Jordan Fact Sheets mentions that Jordan has the highest
refugee-to-population ratio at 89 refugees per 1,000 persons. The country is home
to more than 2.7 million registered refugees, of whom about 2 million are people
of Palestinian descent who have lived in the country for decades (UNHCR, Jordan
Fact Sheet, 2018). Uganda is one of the largest refugee-hosting countries in Africa,
with about 1.2 million refugees and asylum seekers. The second-largest population
of refugees in 2017 was from Afghanistan, whose refugee population grew by 5
per cent to 2.6 million people by end-2017. Afghan refugees were mostly living
in Pakistan.

Despite the significant media coverage of refugee flows towards developed

countries, developing regions host 84 per cent of the world’s refugee population.
In the context of mixed and complex migration flows where both refugees and
migrants travel along similar routes, it is more difficult to distinguish between
the two groups. The diversification of migrant populations, the routes migrants
take, the places to which they move and the increasingly transnational character
of migration have not only created challenges to the regulation and management
of movement but have also created unique spaces for migrants to contribute to
development in countries of origin, destination and even transit.

UNHCR estimates that, at the end of 2016, those under 18 years of age constituted
roughly 51 per cent of the global refugee population. The proportion of women
remained relatively stable, at between 47 and 49 per cent, over the same period.
Consistent with broader global dynamics, refugees were increasingly based in
urban settings, with 60 per cent of refugees located in urban areas at the end of
2016 (UNHCR, 2016 and 2017). Unaccompanied and separated children lodged
an estimated 75,000 individual asylum applications in 70 countries in 2016
(UNHCR, 2017). Consistent with the overall global trends in asylum application
submissions, Germany received more than half of all reported claims from
unaccompanied and separated children.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) What are the major positive and negative outcomes of migration?
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156
 Refugees and Migration
10.5 GEOGRAPHY OF MIGRATION
Migrations corridors are developed over time. They are shaped by geographic
proximity, trade and economic factors, conflict and human insecurity, community
and ethnic ties, as well as smuggling and trafficking. Many people who migrate
across borders do so within their immediate region. People, therefore, tend to be
displaced to safer locations nearby, whether that is within a country or across a
border. The idea of regional arrangement for the protection of refugee has been
gaining recognition since the absence of an effective international agency for the
protection of refugees in different regions.

Some of the largest migration corridors involving African countries are between
North African countries such as Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia to France, Spain
and Italy, in part reflecting post-colonial connections. There are also significant
labour migration corridors to Gulf states, Egypt to United Arab Emirates and
Saudi Arabia. Most refugees and asylum seekers in Africa are hosted in
neighbouring countries within the region. The main drivers of displacement
include conflict and violence, which in some cases has exacerbated food insecurity
issues. Large income disparities between the origin and destination countries,
and the high levels of unemployment in North Africa, remain significant drivers
of migration. (UNHCR.2017). Eastern Africa continues to experience
considerable levels of outward labour mobility, driven by poverty, low wages
and high unemployment (Manji, 2017). This is most evident in the number of
low and semi-skilled East Africans moving to GCC states on temporary work
contracts. The Gulf states’ proximity to Eastern Africa, the employment
opportunities they offer, as well as recent labour agreements between countries
such as the United Arab Emirates and Kenya (Manji, 2017) and Saudi Arabia
and Ethiopia, (GCAO, 2017) mean that labour migration to GCC countries is
likely to rise. In addition to socio-economic factors, conflict and political
instability remain important drivers of irregular migration to and from Eastern
Africa.

In 2015, European to European migration was the second largest regional

migration corridor in the world. A high degree of intra-regional migration is
made possible by free movement arrangements, which enable citizens to cross
internal borders without being subjected to border checks. The border-free
Schengen Area, which comprises 22 EU member-states and 4 non-EU member
countries, guarantees free movement to over 400 million citizens. However, free
movement in Europe faces challenges; from the second half of 2015 several
Schengen member-states have temporarily reintroduced border controls. There
is also a degree of uncertainty following the June 2016 EU membership
referendum in the United Kingdom about future migration settings arising from
“Brexit” negotiations. In addition, the population of non-European migrants in
Europe reached over 35 million in 2015 mostly from Asia, Africa, and Latin
America and the Caribbean countries.
Mexico remains the largest emigration country in the Latin American-Caribbean
region. Most Mexican emigrants live in the United States, which continues to be
the largest country-to-country migration corridor in the entire world. Many other
Central American countries such as El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras also
have large migrant populations in the United States, as do South American
countries such as Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil and Peru. In 2016, Colombia was
157
Contemporary Global Issues the largest origin of refugees in the Latin America and Caribbean region, driven
by long-standing internal conflict. Refugees from Colombia were hosted in
neighbouring Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and Ecuador. The trend has
reversed in recent times; a fairly large number of migrants have moved from
Venezuela into Colombia and other neighbouring countries. Haiti is the second
largest origin of refugees in the Caribbean region. The most prominent intra-
regional migrant corridors involve Nicaraguans, Panamanians and other Central
Americans moving to Costa Rica for temporary or permanent labour, and Central
Americans (primarily from Honduras, Guatemala and El Salvador) migrating to
Belize because of instability and a lack of employment opportunities in their
home countries. In the Caribbean, the most prominent intra-regional migrant
corridors include Haitians migrating to the neighbouring Dominican Republic.
Southern Cone countries of Chile, Argentina and Brazil which all witnessed
increases of between 16 and 20 per cent in migrant populations between 2010
and 2015 have some of the largest migrant populations in South America,
attracting labour migrants from the Andean countries, as well as Paraguay. The
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela was home to a large number of intraregional
migrants from Colombia and Ecuador but at the beginning of 2019 some two
million Venezuelans had shifted to Colombia, Brazil and other neighbouring
countries.
In 2015, the United States had the largest foreign-born population in the world,
while Canada had the seventh largest in Northern America. Over 85 per cent of
the foreign-born populations in North American region lived in the United States,
where they comprise over 14 per cent of the total population. Refugees in the
United States came from a vast range of countries; however, the largest refugee
populations were from China, Haiti, El Salvador, Guatemala, Egypt and Ethiopia.
Canada is also host to a large refugee population. The largest origin countries are
Colombia and China. China and India have now overtaken Mexico in terms of
recent immigrant arrivals to the United States. The largest immigration pathway
for Asians migrating to the United States is through family sponsored visas.
Asian students accounted for 76 per cent of international students enrolled in
United States higher education institutions in 2014–2015. Migrant populations
in Canada have primarily originated from European countries but by 2015, Asian
countries surpassed it; India is largest source country of migrants going to Canada.
The vast majority of migrants in Oceania live in either Australia or New Zealand.
Tonga, Samoa and Fiji all have high counts of emigrants in comparison with
their native population and very low shares of foreign-born populations. Australia
and New Zealand have high shares of foreign-born populations comprising over
28 per cent and 23 per cent respectively. Australia is the largest host country in
this region, followed by Papua New Guinea and New Zealand. Most of the
refugees in these countries originate from Asia, such as Indonesians in Papua
New Guinea or Afghans and Iranians in Australia. The United Kingdom has
consistently been the main origin country of migrants in New Zealand for decades,
with a notable increase in the number of Asian migrants, particularly from China
and India, as well as a considerable population of people from the Pacific Islands,
including Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. Australia’s refugee resettlement programme is
the third largest in the world and resettles refugees who have been living in
neighbouring countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia who originate from other
countries, such as Myanmar and Afghanistan. New Zealand is also a refugee
resettlement country, announcing the resettlement of 750 Syrian refugees in 2015–
158 2016.
In Asia, India and China have the largest absolute numbers of migrants living Refugees and Migration
abroad who constitute small shares of the total populations of India and China.
Migrants from China made up the fourth largest population of foreign born
migrants in the world after India, Mexico and the Russian Federation. Over two
million Chinese-born emigrants reside in the United States, which was also home
to other large Asian migrant groups from India, the Philippines and Viet Nam.
Other countries with large numbers of migrants residing abroad include
Bangladesh and Pakistan, many of whom are in GCC countries. Refugees from
the Syria and Afghanistan constituted more than a third of the world’s refugees
at the end of 2016.

In North Asia, countries such as Japan are already undergoing negative population
growth, while the Republic of Korea has the lowest birth rate and the fastest-
ageing population profile among OECD countries (Moon, 2015). So both
countries are increasingly promoting temporary foreign labour immigration,
Urbanization in China initiated one of the largest human migrations in history.
The socio-economic dynamics between Western and Eastern China are important
factors, with the West characterized by high population growth rates, a surplus
of workers and lower incomes, while the East contends with a shortage of workers
in metropolitan areas and boasts both higher incomes and education levels (Hugo,
2015).

While India and Pakistan were initially the major origin countries of labour to
GCC countries, the origin of migrant workers has since diversified, attracting
workers from Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangladesh (Oommen, 2015). There are
millions of Bangladeshi and Nepalese labour migrants working in India, primarily
in the informal sector as construction labourers and domestic workers (Srivastava
and Pandey, 2017). Internal migration within South Asia countries is extensive
and larger in scale than international migration, related primarily to temporary
and seasonal migration from rural to urban areas (Srivastava and Pandey, 2017).
In Bangladesh, disasters such as Cyclone Mora in May 2017 displaced hundreds
of thousands of people (Solomon, 2017). In Nepal, disasters caused by the Gorkha
and Udayapur earthquakes in 2015 led to immense internal displacement (IOM,
2016) while around half a million people were estimated to be displaced by
severe flooding in Sri Lanka in May 2017 (IOM, 2017).

In Southeast Asia, the largest intra-regional migration corridor based on foreign-

born population data is from Myanmar to Thailand, and relates both to
displacement due to conflict and violence and to cross-border migration for
income generation, family reunion and other reasons. The increase in labour
migration to GCC States has created tremendous demographic change in
destination countries. Today, with the exceptions of Oman and Saudi Arabia,
migrants make up the majority of the population in GCC countries comprising
88 per cent of the population in the United Arab Emirates, 76 per cent in Qatar
and 74 per cent in Kuwait (UN DESA, 2015). Income differentials between origin
and destination countries are a key driver of migration, with the Gulf countries
providing higher wages and greater employment opportunities to labour migrants
(Jacobsen and Valenta, 2016).

Countries bordering Syria are the principal hosts of Syrian refugees, Turkey,
Lebanon and Jordan are all among the top 10 host countries in the world in 2016
(UNHCR, 2017). In 2015, there were just under 5 million migrants born in Central
Asia who were living in the Russian Federation (UN DESA, 2015). People from 159
Contemporary Global Issues Central Asia also migrate to Europe and China, where work and family ties are
relatively strong. Germany, for example, was home to just over 1 million migrants
from Kazakhstan in 2015, second only to the Russian Federation, where 2.56
million Kazakh-born people resided (UN DESA, 2015). Kazakhstan is now
predominantly a country of transit and of immigration, attracting skilled workers
from various countries and, increasingly, becoming a destination for migrant
workers from Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Explain the experience of Migration and Refugees in various regions across
the world.
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10.6 RESETTLEMENT AND RETURN OF

REFUGEES
One of the key mandates of UNHCR is to seek permanent solutions for refugees.
Within this context, voluntary repatriation, local integration and resettlement are
the traditional solutions sought by UNHRC. Resettlement is a concrete way to
achieve solidarity and sharing responsibility. The number of countries that are a
part of UNHCR’s resettlement programmes increased from 33 in 2015 to 37 in
2016. States in Europe and Latin America established new resettlement
programmes, or made new resettlement commitments. The traditional resettlement
countries of Australia, Canada and the United States continued to conduct the
majority of the world’s refugee resettlements. In 2016, almost 190,000 refugees
were admitted for resettlement and Syrian, Congolese, Iraqi and Somali refugees
were the key beneficiaries.

Local integration involves finding a permanent home in the country of asylum

and integrating with the local communities. In course of time, the process should
lead to permanent residence rights and the acquisition of citizenship in the country
of asylum. The objective is to integrate refugees to pursue sustainable livelihoods
and contribute to the economic life of the host country, and live among the host
population without discrimination or exploitation. The acquisition of citizenship
through naturalization is used as a way for local integration for refugees.

During 2016, over 550,000 refugees returned to their countries of origin.

Prolonged and renewed conflicts have contributed to low levels of voluntary
repatriation. The majority of returns (384,000) were to Afghanistan, primarily
from Pakistan. The return to the country of origin is often the preferred solution
for many refugees though repatriation should be based on a free and informed
decision with the full commitment of the country of origin to the reintegration
160
process to ensure that returnees are able to safely rebuild their lives. Unfortunately, Refugees and Migration
the contexts in which such returns took place in 2017 were often complex, with
many refugees returning under adverse circumstances to situations in which
sustainable reintegration could not be assured. In some cases, so-called
spontaneous returns took place under a degree of duress in which thresholds for
voluntary, safe, and dignified return not being met. In 2017, refugees returned to
43 countries of origin from 94 former countries of asylum, as reported by UNHCR
offices and after reconciliation of departure and arrival figures. It should be noted
that countries of origin reported only arrivals of returning refugees, with no
distinction between those who returned through voluntary repatriation or returned
spontaneously or in conditions that were not considered conducive for lasting
solutions.

The responsibility to protect refugees falls on individual sovereign states. States

derive their responsibility to protect refugees by good faith being signatory to
international conventions and agreements as well as based on their national
legislation, their political and moral commitment, or by reason of customary
international law. All states are supposed to protect the fundamental human rights
of refugees under customary international law. The conventional law concerning
refugee trace back to the Article 14 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(1948) which states, “that everyone has the right to seek and enjoy in other
countries asylum from persecution.”

The New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly in September 2016 declares that all Member States
are committed to “a more equitable sharing of the burden and responsibility for
hosting and supporting the world’s refugees, while taking account of existing
contributions and the differing capacities and resources among States.” The
General Assembly sets out, in this declaration, the key elements of a
Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF) designed to ease
pressures on countries hosting large numbers of refugees, enhance refugee self-
reliance, expand access to third-country solutions, and support conditions in
countries of origin for return in safety and dignity.

The different international conventions and treaties that deal with the human
rights of refugees are: Universal Declaration of Human Rights; the1951
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol; International
Covenants on Civil and Political Rights, 1966; International Covenants on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966; and International Labour
Organisation’s (ILO) migrant workers conventions of 1949 and 1975.

Human rights of refugees under regional arrangements are provided by:the

Organization of African Unity (OAU); Organization of American States (OAS);
Council of Europe (COE); and the Bangkok Principles, 1966.

International organizations that deal with the human rights of refugees are: the
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA);
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD);International
Labour Organization (ILO);World Bank; the United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees (UNHCR); Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
(IDMC);United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC); and the
International Organization for Migration (IOM).
161
Contemporary Global Issues Check Your Progress Exercise 4
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Explain the various international conventions, treaties and organizations
that deal with the human rights of refugees.
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10.7 INDIA’S PERCEPTION AND RESPONSE TO

REFUGEEE PROBLEM
It is well known that even without being signatory to the 1951 Refugees’
Convention and its 1967 protocol that do not recognize the presence of the
UNHCR, and without having domestic law or procedure governing the protection
of refugees, India shelters largest refugee population in South Asia. The provisions
of the 1951 Refugees Convention and its Protocol can be relied on when there is
no conflict with any provisions in the municipal laws. However, India has acceded
to other international instruments whose provisions are relevant to the rights of
refugees, so India cannot refuse asylum to bona fide seekers of shelter from
other countries. Though there is no binding regional agreement concerning
refugees in South Asia, India has a long history of sheltering refugees. Refugees
are simply viewed as foreigners in India. While India lacks a formal legal
framework for refugee protection, its administrative policies over the years have
generally been in line with international legal norms on refugees.

In the nineteenth century, India’s colonial government enacted the Foreigners

Act, 1864, the first statute to ban, detain, and expel foreigners. But when the
Second World War broke out, the colonial government found even the 1864 statute
too lenient for the absolute powers it demanded, so it was replaced by the
Foreigners Act, 1940. After the war ended, and amidst the large-scale displacement
that followed, the 1940 wartime legislation was further consolidated as the
Foreigners Act, 1946 (‘Foreigners Act’). India has hosted 10 million refugees,
the largest refugee movements in history, during partition in 1947, another major
influx in 1959 of Tibetan refugees followed by massive influx in 1971 when
more than 10 million refugees from the erstwhile East Pakistan reached India as
refugees. The next major influx of refugees came from Sri Lanka in 1983 and
from Afghanistan in 1986.

The 1971 refugees were voluntarily repatriated en masse after the violence in
Bangladesh subsided, bringing the crisis to an end. On the other hand, the Tibetan
mass influx into India, beginning in 1959 and still continuing, remains in search
of a permanent solution. For Sri Lankan Tamil refugees, their stay in India has
been marked by heavy surveillance following Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi’s
assassination. The Chakma and Hejong refugees who once lived in the Chittagong
hill tracts, most of which are located in Bangladesh have been living as refugees
162
in India for more than five decades, mostly in the North-East and West Bengal. Refugees and Migration
According to the 2011 census, 47,471 Chakmas live in Arunachal Pradesh alone.
In 2015, the Supreme Court of India had directed the central government to give
citizenship to both Chakma and Hajong refugees. In September 2017, the
government of India decided to provide citizenship to these groups, despite
opposition from many groups in Arunachal Pradesh, where these refugees are
concentrated.

There are also refugees from Iran, Mayanmar and Sudan in small numbers in
India. The Government of India has extended its support directly to Tibetans, Sri
Lankans and the Chakmas from Bangladesh, while other groups such as the
Afghans, Burmese, Sudanese and others fall under the mandate of UNHCR in
India. The statistics of refugees in India are incomplete for variety of reasons.
First, they do not convey a historical sense of the large refugee populations India
has hosted in its past. Second, there are a large number of unrecognised refugees
in India who remain uncounted. These include large populations of unregistered
refugees from Nepal and Bhutan as well as asylum seekers who were denied
asylum as a result of structural failures in UNHCR’s refugee status determination
mechanism.

Refugees in India are treated under the law applicable to aliens. Besides,
Foreigners Act 1946 (Section 3, 3A, 7, 14), Registration of Foreigners Act 1939
(Section 3, 6), Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920, Passport Act, 1967,
Extradition Act, 1962 and the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 are the
laws that govern refugees in India. Jurisdiction over issues of citizenship,
naturalization and aliens rests with the Indian parliament. However, influxes of
refugees have been handled by administrative decisions rather than through
legislative requirements. This administrative discretion is exercised within the
framework of the 1946 Foreigners Act, and refugee policy in the country has
essentially evolved from a series of administrative orders passed under the
authority of section 3 of the said Act.

The Foreigners Act failed to treat those people who enter India on intelligible
criteria. So all the people, regardless of being tourists, travellers, expatriate
workers, fugitives, refugees, and migrants are treated uniformly under a single
regime. The Foreigners Act compels foreigners to prove their identities; present
themselves at police stations; control their movements, activities, and residences;
confine them in internment camps; and, of course, to leave India. The law’s
deportation power enables the government to complete deportations without even
minimal judicial review. This power of deportation has been delegated and sub-
delegated to a mid-level police officer who can order a foreigner to leave India.

Refugee problem is dealt with by multiple institutions in India. The Home Ministry
generally looks after the rehabilitation and settlement of refugees; and the Ministry
of External Affairs is responsible for bilateral negotiations with other countries.
The state governments are entrusted with the protection and maintenance of the
refugee camps at the local level. The absence of a legislative regime for refugee
protection leaves the status of refugees somewhat precarious in India – based on
the tolerance and goodwill of the government in power. So refugees get different
kinds of treatment in terms of rights and privileges, and also different legal status
under the domestic laws and regulations. Although UNHCR refugee certificates
are legally recognized by the government, in practice the Union Ministry of
Home Affairs, the Foreigners Regional Registration Office, and the local police 163
Contemporary Global Issues authorities take cognizance of the refugees; and ‘extended stay’ has, to date,
normally been granted to all UNHCR recognized refugees.

Judicial courts in India are lenient towards asylum seekers; but courts have been
hampered to enforce provisions of international human rights instruments and
refugee law norms in the absence of incorporating national legislation. Though,
Supreme Court acknowledges the central government’s “unrestricted right to
expel”, it has ordered regional authorities to stop the harassment of refugee
communities by the local inhabitants on the basis of interpretation of Article 21
of the Constitution that states that “person” instead of ‘citizen’ gets the protection
of life and liberty including the foreigners. Besides the minimal right to life and
liberty, which does not protect against detention and deportation under the
Foreigners Act, refugees arguably have the right not to be discriminated against
in relation to other refugees.

10.7.1 India’s Approach towards International Convention on

Refugees
144 countries have signed the Refugee Convention but India has not been part of
it. This is a curious anomaly for a country which has sheltered millions of refugees
during the life of the Convention. Though India’s refusal to sign the Convention
has never been clearly communicated, Bhairav Acharya (2016) states four
apparent reasons which he has speculated from official documents. First, Delhi
was irked by the Eurocentrism of the original Refugee Convention that ignored
the “largest mass migration in human history,” experienced during the Partition
of India. Second, the Refugee Convention’s treatment of a refugee solely as an
individual rather than as constituent of a group or community contradicts with
India’s unique national imagination and fluid conception of citizenship. So refugee
individualism conceptually conflicts with mass influx situations because
individuals in a mass influx are unable to prove individual persecution, leaving
them vulnerable to refoulement. The Refugee Convention’s silence regarding
mass influxes constitutes a continuing failure. Third, the Refugee Convention
fails to deal with mixed migration, which lacks a definition, although there is
broad consensus on its features. India has long faced mixed migration, particularly
across its eastern land and sea frontiers. UNHCR’s first official response, the
“10-Point Plan of Action,” was published only in 2006, identifying five areas
around the world for special attention. South Asia was not included in those
areas, despite its familiarity with the mixed migration. Finally, Delhi wants the
Refugee Convention to contain strong ‘burden-sharing’ provisions. The argument
resonates in India after its experience of sheltering around 10 million refugees in
1971 with inadequate foreign assistance.

10.7.2 Status of Refugees in India

Sri Lankan Tamil refugees are housed in 243 camps in Tamil Nadu who are
welcomed on the basis of kinship with their demographically proximate hosts.
But militant refugee groups brought the Sri Lankan conflict onto Indian soil that
culminated into the assassination former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. Tamil
refugee issues have deeply impacted on their host community, even influencing
the course of Tamil Nadu politics and bilateral relations with Sri Lanka. That
was never the case with Tibetan refugees who were deliberately dispersed across
that protected them from Chinese reprisals near the border though Tibetans
164 demographic dissimilarities often lead to conflict with locals.
Tibetan refugees were granted asylum by the government of India under the Refugees and Migration
principle of non-refoulement. Under executive decision all the Tibetan refugees
were issued “Indian Registration Certificates” as “refugee” with “Tibetan
nationality.” Once India acknowledged Tibet is part of China, India started issuing
Special Entry Permit (SEP) for the purpose of registration either for pilgrimage
or education or others for the duration of one month and for one year respectively.
Many Tibetan refugees take the longer Special Entry Permit (SEP) and then
apply for a Registration Certificate. A travel document called the “Identity
Certificates” is also issued by the government of India upon completion of the
“Application for Issuance of Certificate of Identity” and after obtaining the “No
Objection to Return to India” (NORI) Certificate by the concerned state
government. NORI is renewable in every two years while the Identity Certificates
is renewable after six years period.

Even today, the issue of illegal Bangladeshi immigrants is used by political parties
to garner votes in elections in north-east India. The local communities and tribal
groups have alleged that refugees from Bangladesh and the continuous flow of
illegal immigrants have led to a change in the social demography of that area,
thereby making the locals a minority in their own homeland. The National Registry
for Citizens in Assam is an outcome of such politics. There has also been historic
migration from Nepal aided by an open border agreement further pushed by a
decade-long civil war. Nepalese in mixed flows sought refuge, temporary shelter,
and employment in India. While the exact number of people undertaking irregular
migration within the region is not known, partly because of its relatively porous
borders, there are estimated to be large irregular migrant populations within the
region (Srivastava and Pandey, 2017). India is home to populations of irregular
migrants from Bangladesh, Nepal, and to a lesser extent, Sri Lanka. .

Of late, Rohingya Muslims refugee status has attracted international media

attention. Over 40,000 Rohingya Muslims escaped Myanmar to take shelter in
India and the UNHCR has issued identity cards to about 16,500 Rohingya in
India, to “prevent harassment, arbitrary arrests, detention and deportation” of
refugees. However, India has categorized them as illegal immigrants and a security
threat, appealed to Myanmar to take back the Rohingya refugees under the
assumption that they belong to Burmese stock. Ironically, Burmese do not consider
the Rohingyas as their citizens and treat them as immigrants from Bangladesh
who came during the British colonial rule. Moreover, Bangladesh is the favourite
destination for the Rohingyas and they consider themselves as natives of the
Burmese state and expect protection from Myanmar State.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) How Refugees are legally treated in India?
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Contemporary Global Issues 2) Why India is not a signatory of International Conventions on Refugees?
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10.8 LET US SUM UP

There is a heightened concern of migration and its various manifestations in the
recent past as it has become increasingly a complex legal and political process at
transnational level having inter-linkages with multitude of public policy issues
of geography and demography. Though many write and speak about refugees
and migration in an interchangeably confusing manner, to make it lucidly subtle
‘all refugees are migrants but all migrants are not refugees’. Migration as a
phenomenon occurs due to various factors relating to economic prosperity,
inequality, demography, violence and conflict, and environmental change.
Contrary to the general perception, largest numbers of refugees are sheltered in
the current world by least developed and developing countries such as Turkey,
Sudan and Bangladesh whereas Northern America and Europe still remain green
pastures for the professional migrants. By the very nature, the complex dynamics
of migration can never be fully measured, understood and regulated in the current
global milieu. India’s ambivalent stand on migration and refugees is a response
to the contradicting position of the International Refugee Convention on non-
refoulement and burden sharing.

Indian legal system has no uniform law to deal with its refugee population. India
is a refugee prone region and needs to review its ambivalent refugee law policy
in line with its tradition. A future asylum law should set out a right against
statelessness and procedural provisions for acquiring citizenship within clear
timeframes. It needs to clearly mention about inclusion, exclusion, and cessation
criteria for refugee status; the principle of non-refoulement; procedures to apply
for asylum; and create institutions to determine asylum claims, etc.

10.9 SOME USEFUL REFERENCES

Acharya, Bhairav., “The Future of Asylum in India: Four Principles to Appraise
Recent Legislative Proposals.” in NUJS Law Review, 9, 2016.
Bhattacharjee, Saurabh., “India Needs a Refugee Law”, in Economic and Political
Weekly,43, 9, March 2008.
Gibson, J., and D. McKenzie, Australia’s Pacific Seasonal Worker Pilot Scheme:
Development Impacts in the First Two Years, New Zealand: University of Waikato,
2011.
Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration, Intergovernmentally
Negotiated and Agreed Outcome, 13 July 2018, available at: [Link]
pga/72/wp-content/uploads/sites/51/2018/07/180713_Agreed-Outcome_Global-
[Link],
166
Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, OCHA/UN, 1998, available Refugees and Migration
at:[Link]
India’s Position on Legal Status of Refugess, Introduction, 2010, available at:http:/
/[Link]/bitstream/10603/128419/12/09_chapter%[Link]
International Organization for Migration (IOM), World Migration Report, 2018,
available at:[Link]
International Organization for Migration (IOM), World Migration Report, 2011,
available at:[Link]
IOM’s Strategy to Enable, Engage and Empower Diaspora, IOM, Geneva, 2017,
available at:[Link]
diaspora.
Ipsos MORI, Perceptions are Not Reality: What the World Gets Wrong, December,
2016, available at:[Link]/ipsos-mori/en-uk/perceptions-are-not-reality-
what-world-gets-wrong?language_content_entity=en-uk.
Koser, K., Dimensions and dynamics of irregular migration, Population, Space
and Place, 16, 3, 2010.
Laczko, F., Improving data on migration: A 10-point plan. Migration Policy
Practice, 7, 1, January–March 2017, available at:[Link]
system/files/smuggling_report.pdf.
Manji, F., No Win-Wins in Kenya’s Modern-Day Voyages in Search of Work.
Brookings Institution, 26 May, 2017, available at:[Link]/blog/future
development/2017/05/26/no-win-wins-in-kenyas-modern-dayvoyages-in-search-
of-work/.
Migration Advisory Committee, Migrants in Low-Skilled Work: The Growth of
EU and Non-EU Labour in Low-Skilled Jobs and its Impact on the UK, London,
2014, available at:[Link]/government/uploads/system/uploads/
attachment_data/file/333083/MAC-Migrants_in_low-
skilled_work__Full_report_2014.pdf.
Oommen, G.Z., South Asia–Gulf migratory corridor: Emerging patterns, prospects
and challenges. Migration and Development, 5, 3, 2015.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), The fiscal
impact of immigration in OECD countries. In: International Migration Outlook
2013. OECD, Paris, 2013.
Srivastava, R., and A. Pandey., Internal and International Migration in South
Asia: Drivers, Interlinkage and Policy Issues, United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization, New Delhi, 2017, available at:http://
[Link]/images/0024/002494/[Link].
UN General Assembly., New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants:
resolution / adopted by the General Assembly, A/RES/71/1, 3 October
2016, available at:[Link]
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Global Trends: Forced
Displacement in 2017, Geneva, 2017.

167
Contemporary Global Issues United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Global Trends
Forced Displacement in 2016, Geneva, 2017.
Van Hear, N., “Diasporas, recovery and development in conflict-ridden societies”,
in The Migration-Development-Nexus:A Transnational Perspective on Changing
Paradigms and Organizations, T. Faist, M. Fauser and P. Kivisto, eds., London,
Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
World Bank, Migration and Development, A Role for the World Bank Group,
Washington, D.C., 2016.
World Bank, Migration and Remittances: Recent Developments and Outlook,
Migration and Development Brief 27, World Bank, Washington D.C., 2017,
available at:[Link]
[Link].

10.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Refugees flee from country of origin due to generalised violence, foreign
aggression, internal conflicts, and massive human rights violations. In contrast,
migrants are a far broader category of people who leave their places of habitual
residence to live elsewhere on various reasons. Diaspora refers to expatriate
communities who maintain links with their homelands.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

The wage differences-the welfare of migrants’ families-reduce unemployment
and underemployment-reduction of poverty-social development-Remittances-
transfer of skills, knowledge and technology-risk takers-labour supply-adverse
labour market effects on wages and employment of domestic workers-ease
pressures on pensions systems-clash of civilizations-Islamophobia-continuation
of civil conflict-Friction between refugees and local communities- limited data
on migration flows.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Migrations corridors-geographic proximity-Africans moving to GCC States-
intraregional migration in Europe-Schengen Area- Brexit-Mexicans in the United
States-Colombia is the largest origin of refugees -Venezuela intraregional migrants
from Colombia and Ecuador-the US has the largest foreign-born population in
Northern America-China and India have now overtaken Mexico in terms of recent
immigrant arrivals to the US-migrants in Oceania are living in either Australia
or New Zealand-In Asia-India and China have the largest absolute numbers of
migrants living abroad-in Far East Japan negative population growth-the Republic
of Korea the lowest birth rate and the fastest-ageing population-labor migration
to GCC countries -Internal migration within Southern Asia- intraregional
migration corridor in Southeast Asia-Central Asians to the Russian Federation.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

UDHR (1948), Convention of Refugees (1951) and its 1967 Protocol, ICCPR
(1966), ICESCR (1966); ILO (1949& 1975), OAU, OAS, COE, The Bangkok
168
Principles(1966); UN DESA,OECD, The World Bank, UNHCR, IDMC, UNODC, Refugees and Migration
IOM.

Check Your Progress Exercise 5

1) The Foreigners Act, 1864-the Foreigners Act, 1940-the Foreigners Act, 1946-
Registration of Foreigners Act 1939-Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920-
Passport Act, 1967, Extradition Act, 1962-the Protection of Human Rights
Act, 1993.

2) Eurocentrism- refugee solely as an individual rather than as a constituent of

a group or community- fails to deal with mixed migration-lack of ‘burden
sharing’ provisions.

169
Contemporary Global Issues
UNIT 11 HUMAN SECURITY*

Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Defining Human Security: UNDP Definition
11.2.1 Security as a State/National Concept
11.2.2 Shift to ‘People-centred’ Concept
11.3 Human Security, Human Rights and Human Development
11.3.1 Modern Concept of Human Security
11.4 Varied Dimensions of Human Security
11.5 Human Security and Traditional Security
11.6 Let Us Sum Up
11.7 Some Useful References
11.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

11.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, you will be reading about human security. After going through this
Unit, you would be able to understand:
The concept of human security;
Difference between human security and traditional security; and
Interdependent nature of human rights, human development and human
security

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Conflicts are an inherent part of human nature. Conflicts can be settled by adhering
to peace at any cost. Peace cannot be achieved unless use of violence is shunned
to settle conflicts and non-violence is observed. The term non-violence should
be understood not as an absence of physical injury but as an active force of love
towards one and all - including human beings, animals and plants. While conflicts
destroy the harmonious fabric of human society, peace brings them together.
Conflict divides people, peace unites them. If human beings are to live a peaceful
and harmonious life, the first requisite is the absence of conflict that leads to a
secure and peaceful life. Violence perpetuates disharmony, peace brings tolerance,
love and amity. In today’s parlance, human security is what defines a peaceful
life – an environment devoid of conflict, stress and negativity. Human Security
is an emerging pattern for understanding worldwide susceptibilities wherein the
notion of traditional security is challenged and given as an alternative concept of
human security; it is considered as a primary condition for ensuring national,
regional and global security.

The concept of human security and its evolution is a consequence of developments

of a post-Cold War, multi-disciplinary understanding of security involving a

170 Dr. Sailaja Gullapalli, Research Associate, Gandhi Smriti, 5, Tees January Marg, New Delhi
number of research areas, including development studies, international relations, Human Security
strategic studies and human rights. The report of the United Nations Development
Programme (1994) Human Development Report is considered as one of the
thought-provoking publication in the field of human security. The Report
emphasized two important concepts – freedom from want and freedom from fear
for all. These two concepts are like two pillars that elevate the sacredness of the
concept of human security.

11.2 DEFINING HUMAN SECURITY: UNDP

DEFINITION
Dr. Mahbub Ul Haq was the first to draw global attention to the concept of human
security in the United Nations Development Programme’s 1994 Human
Development Report. It was discussed in the UN’s 1995 World Summit on Social
Development in Copenhagen (Denmark). The UNDP’s 1994 Human
Development Report’s definition of human security says that the scope of global
security should be expanded to include threats in seven areas as of importance.

Political Security: Political security is concerned with the fact whether people
live in a society that honours their basic human rights. As per the report by
Amnesty International, some of the violations include political repression,
systematic torture, ill treatment, disappearance in most of the countries. Human
rights violations are often the consequence of political unrest. In many cases, the
state itself has been identified as the violator of human rights by repressing
individuals and groups; the state is also found to exercise control over free flow
of ideas and information.

Economic Security: Economic security means an assurance of basic income for

an individual who, by productive work or labour or in whatever profession or
work one may get into, earns a livelihood. It is important to note that only about
a quarter of the world’s people or a minuscule percentage of people are presently
economically secure. Most of the developing countries are struggling with
provision of employment to their citizens. It is also not confined to developing
countries but also in developed countries as well. Also, most of the governments
try to come to power by assuring its people the benefits of employment. Often,
unemployment problems had led to clashes among people of different states/
provinces and have even led to massive violence and untoward incidents.

Health Security: Health Security is one of the most vital components of any
policy as forwarded by governments. It aims to assure protection from diseases
and unhealthy lifestyles. In developing countries, the major causes of death are
infectious and parasitic diseases, which kill millions of people annually. In
developed countries too, health care has become an important aspect of public
life and many of these nations are even facing a shortage of medical staff.
According to the United Nations, in both developing and developed countries,
threats to health security are usually greater for poor people in rural areas, and
particularly among women and children. Absence of healthy diet, malnutrition
and insufficient supply of medicine, clean water and food aggravate the situation.

Food Security: Food security requires that all people at all times have both physical
and economic access to basic food. As per the report of the United Nations, it is
not the overall availability of food that poses a challenge but an improper and
171
Contemporary Global Issues poor distribution of food and a lack of purchasing power to some extent. While
importing of food items remained a constant feature in the past among many
countries, ever since food security as a basic right has gained prominence, it is
being addresses at both national and international levels. Food security is also
closely related to economic security wherein the purchasing power often
determines the quality of the food taken.
Environmental Security: it is relatively a new addition to the rights as assured by
the national and international organizations and governments. It aims to protect
people from both the short and long-term ravages of nature, man-made disasters,
and deterioration and depletion of the natural environment and resources. Some
of the major concerns of both the national and international organizations related
to environmental security are air and water pollution, lack of clean water, and
access to safe environmental standards. In industrial countries, one of the major
threats is air pollution. Global warming and climate change, caused by the
emission of greenhouse gases, is another environmental security issue.
Individual and Community Security: Individual security aims to protect people
from physical violence, be it from the state or any other external state/forces,
from violent individuals, groups, state and sub-state actors; protection includes
safety from domestic abuse, or from predatory adults. It also aims to protect
people from small to heinous crimes and violent activities. Community security
aims to protect people from the loss of general relationships, ideals and from
social, sectarian, religious and ethnic violence. Communities that are smaller in
number, minorities, ethnic groups, etc., are particularly vulnerable to violence
and its effects. About half of the world’s states have come across one or other
forms of inter-ethnic strife.
Most of the UNDP’s seven categories of threats would receive adequate global
attention and resources due to constant monitoring and policy formulations. This
has led to an important development in the sense that two significant concepts
emerged out of these initiatives for human security. One, is the “Freedom from
Fear”’ and the other ‘“Freedom from Want”’. The UNDP 1994 report has
reiterated that human security requires attention to both freedom from fear and
freedom from want. In course of time, there have been variations in this because
questions have been raised as to what kind of threats people face, the part of the
world they come from and the state’s initiatives to ensure security for them.
Further, the mechanisms for responding to these threats have varied widely and
these have also been contemplated thoroughly by the authorities concerned.
(i)Freedom from Fear: This school seeks to limit the practice of Human Security
in protecting individuals from violent conflicts while recognising that these violent
threats are strongly associated with poverty, lack of state capacity and other forms
of inequities. This approach argues that limiting the focus to violence is a realistic
and manageable approach towards Human Security. Emergency assistance,
conflict prevention and resolution, peace-building are the main concerns of this
approach.
(ii)Freedom from Want: This school advocates a holistic approach in achieving
human security and argues that the threat agenda should be broadened to include
hunger, disease and natural disasters because they are inseparable concepts in
addressing the root of human insecurity and they kill far more people than war,
genocide and terrorism combined. Different from “Freedom from Fear”, it expands
the focus beyond violence with emphasis on development and security goals.
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11.2.1 Security as a State/National Concept Human Security

In original, the concept of security to individual or groups in a state was based

on the concept of territorial sovereignty. The moment, there was violation in
this, it was considered as a breach of security and the traditional methods of
protection for people through arms was taken up. Human security, therefore,
was secured by ensuring state/national security. This would hold the sovereignty
of the nation as a supreme characteristic of state protection. This means protection
of people living within territorial boundaries and also the protection of boundaries
of the state from external aggression. Territorial integrity therefore was the prime
concern. The more secure, one’s boundaries are from external threats, the more
secure a nation is. The responsibility of protection of national security/state
security or people security was that of the government’s in general. It is supposed
to invest finances and human resources to secure the state. When sovereignty is
guaranteed and enforced, the state security including sovereignty is automatically
ensured.

11.2.2 Shift to ‘People-centered’ Concept

The concern for human security rose from the consequent losses of people and
nations in the frequent wars that shook the world in the early 20th century.
International organizations that subsequently came up brought this concern
forward and reiterated their commitment to secure people and nations henceforth.
“The Second World War and subsequent deliberations in various UN-based
conferences brought out the limitations of state or national sovereignty-based
security and the need for protecting people’s lives”. This concept turned the
focus on rights and security of people. This led the United Nations General
Assembly to adopt the ‘Universal Declaration on Human Rights’ that called for
safeguarding the rights of the people and protecting them in various ways to
ensure a good life for the people. This Declaration was adopted on 10th December,
1948 and categorically states at the end of its Preamble that the United Nations
General Assembly:
Proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLERATION OF HUMAN
RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all
nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society,
keeping this declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching
and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and
by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their
universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the
peoples of Member States themselves and among the people’s of
territories under their jurisdiction.
Further, The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action adopted on 25th June
1993 states clearly that (Part 1, Para 1) (Human Rights, 1994, p.194):
The World Conference on Human Rights reaffirms the solemn
commitment of all states to fulfill their obligations to promote universal
respect for, and observance and protection of, all human rights and
fundamental freedoms for all in accordance with the Charter of the
United Nations, other instruments relating to human rights, and
international law. The universal nature of these rights and freedoms is
beyond question.
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Contemporary Global Issues In this framework, enhancement of international cooperation in the
field of human rights is essential for the full achievement of the purposes
of the United Nations.

Human rights and fundamental freedoms are the birthright of all human
beings; their protection and promotion is the first responsibility of the
governments.

It goes to the credit of then president of the United States of America, Franklin
D. Roosevelt, who in his address to the Nation in 1941 outlined four essential
freedoms stating that “we look forward to a world founded upon four essential
human freedoms.
‘The first is freedom of speech and expression – everywhere in the
world.
The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way
– everywhere in the world.
The third is freedom from want – which, translated into world terms,
means economic understandings that will secure to every nation a
healthy peace-time life for its inhabitants – everywhere in the world.
The fourth is freedom from fear, which translated in into world terms
means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in
such thorough fashion that no nation would be able to commit an act of
physical aggression against any neighbour – anywhere in the world.”
(p.41, Human Rights, 1994).

President Roosevelt wanted these to be achieved not in a distant millennium.

This vision “is a definite basis for a world attainable in our own time and
generation.” (p.41, Human Rights,1994).

This clearly demonstrates that the end of the world wars led to a significant
development and concern for human rights and security. To this day, this security
is often discussed as the most valuable contribution of mankind towards each
other for a safer and better world.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
4) Explain the concept of human security as described in the 1994 Human
Development Report.
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 Human Security
11.3 HUMAN SECURITY, HUMAN RIGHTS AND
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
In the sphere of Human Rights, a well-known subject since the formation of the
international organizations, the discussion mostly on how the rights of the human
beings should be ensured by the state irrespective of class or any other difference.
While the concept of a good life also has been included in the sphere of human
rights, the policies by the governments around the world centred on how each
and every aspect of human life has to be protected and safeguarded. Out of this
emerged the concepts of human development and more recently, the concept of
human security. The national governments, international organizations and also
the world economic organizations are also taking active part in prescribing a
safe and fulfilled life for one and all throughout the world. Development does
not mean only economic development. It includes social, political, cultural and
environmental aspects of human life as well. The inclusion of the non-economic
aspects has gained more attention of the world and therefore the concepts of
human rights, human development and human security have become much
integrated concepts. This, in a way, ensures a balanced development in society
and also ensures the inclusion of all while formulating policies for the welfare of
the people.

The international financial institutions are also actively involved in promoting

this initiative as it secures a better life for people. In fact, some of the terms and
conditions while disbursing loans are centred on human rights and the standards
of living a nation is trying to provide for its citizens. More and more issues are
closely intertwined with these concepts like rehabilitation of affected people in
the natural and man-made disasters, non-exploitation of labour, prohibition of
child labour and safety standards ensured for the employees and so on. The focus
is mainly on seeking the assistance of developmental agencies in planning and
influencing an additional holistic development that guarantees human security.
The aim is to protect the vulnerable segments of the society and promote human
security. The development and security initiatives are to be reflected in the policies
as initiated by the agencies and governments concerned.

11.3.1 Modern Concept of Human Security

Security, traditionally, meant the absence of threat from external aggression and
protection of territorial boundaries of a nation. Security was something that eluded
the world till the wars lasted. An initiative at the international level was taken to
give fillip to the concept of security worldwide. But the beginning of the Cold
War that lasted till the 1990s changed the concept of security. There was an
element of insecurity in the world with different nations aligning with the US
and erstwhile USSR. While the Cold War ended in 1990s, it gave rise to new
issues and concerns around the world. The world was free from bloc politics but
what really bothered the nations was development that was relegated to the
background during the previous years.

An initiative was taken by nations that intended to focus more on human

development and human rights as the harbingers of security. Thus the emergence
of Human Security as an important element of human life came into prominence.
The traditional concept of security did not encompass all the aspects of human
life. Nowhere was the social or cultural aspect taken into consideration while 175
Contemporary Global Issues formulating policies. Therefore, in order to include all – the poor, the needy, the
marginalized, the disabled and so on – the concept of human right and
development expanded to new proportions. It was comprehended that the human
rights approach should be reinforced with welfare measures and security of the
people should be realized through this. The need of the hour was people-centred
security that was absolutely essential for national, regional and global stability.
Therefore the concept included many disciplines that are directly concerned with
each other and intermingled with astuteness. These included a fusion of concepts
of human security encompassing development studies, strategic studies, human
rights, economics and international relations. The UNDP’s 1994 Human
Development Report (HDR 1994) was a landmark that brought forth the need for
human security to fight global insecurities that troubled people all over the world
for a long time.

The HDR 1994 has brought out few significant points which are summarized as
below:
i) It mentioned the idea of sustainable human development wherein people
feel protected at all times.
ii) It categorically mentioned that the conflicts which are likely to emerge in
future should be confined to the disputing parties and not to be spilled into
others.
iii) It should address the main concerns of the parties which may even include
deep socio-economic disparities and deprivation.
iv) Security should mean development and not armed action that could be
avoided at all costs.
v) Security should mean safeguards in areas such as income security, health
security, natural environment security and security from petty and serious
crimes and so on.

Sabina Alkire, a noted expert on economic and development studies, describes

the objective of human security as important to “safeguard the vital core of all
human lives from critical pervasive threats, in a way consistent with long-term
human fulfillment.” Her work deserves to be cited in full in this context as she
explains the concept of human security with a detailed emphasis. Human security
maintains: (i) the joint focus on both poverty and violence; (ii) its ‘people-centered’
nature; (iii) multi-dimensionality; (iv) cultural and pervasive threats to the vital
core of peoples’ lives; and (v) the objective of human security be specified and
translated into operational policies and projects by principled procedures.

Below is further elaboration of the concept of human security:

1) Human security aims to safeguarding human lives from the threat of violent
conflicts, diseases and so forth through appropriate institutions and thus
institutionalizes protection. The focus is more on human beings than on
threat. Human security seeks to envelop some aspects of human life like
building capabilities among people to satisfy their basic needs.

2) Human security is ‘people-centered’ and the development initiatives

associated with human welfare. It means human security should be provided
irrespective of age, religion, gender, nationality etc.
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3) Human security focuses on human lives and their protection from simple to Human Security
critical threats. Simple threats that include basic insecurity that troubles
people on a daily basis or critical threats that affect basic functions of human
life.

4) Human security aims at human fulfilment through governance, participation,

capacity building and so forth for both short and long terms.

5) Human security is a global concept and encompasses regions and countries

across the globe. It is not just the individuals but also communities should
live in collective peace and security and contribute immensely towards the
same.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Briefly describe the relationship between human security, human rights and
human development.
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11.4 VARIED DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN SECURITY

So far, we have studied about the concept and emergence of human security. It
stands for one of the best ways to achieve a contented life for human beings from
all angles. Some of its varied dimensions are given as under:
1) Human security is a collective issue. It is not restricted to few dimensions
of security for example, territorial security. It is much beyond the territorial
issues and seeks a quality life of individuals all over the world. It is concerned
with economic aspects as much as cultural areas.
2) It has an interlinking dimension of the issues. For example, economic
insecurity can lead to crimes related to it; malnutrition can lead to long-
term and disastrous health effects on individuals. Therefore, its integral
approach can never be ignored.
3) Human security is a people-centered concept. The very aim of this concept
is to increase awareness and also work towards a safe and secure life of
individuals as well as communities as a whole.
4) Human security is one such concept wherein the issues of concern can be
identified and solved at an early stage. For example, identifying disturbed/
affected areas and working from an early stage so as to prevent further
damage is an important task.
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Contemporary Global Issues 5) Human security is an all encompassing concept. It concerns nations-
developed and developing; people-rich and poor; issues-from sustaining
culture to tackling crimes. Intervention can be one of the effective methods
to ensuring a secure life.

11.5 HUMAN SECURITY AND TRADITIONAL

SECURITY
Human security and traditional security are often compared to understand the
main objectives and aims.
1) Traditional security deals with the security of national territory and its people.
Human security deals with people’s security both individual and collective
in other spheres different from territorial security.
2) Traditional security focus is on the territorial integration and safeguarding
of physical boundaries of a state. Nevertheless, both are interdependent
concepts. Only when there is no physical threat of aggression, does a state
can concentrate on achieving human security goals for its citizens.
3) Human security has more to do with economic, social and environmental,
food and other related issues. Traditional security aims to uphold national
sovereignty; human security and its objectives centre on individual’s/
community’s development for a better life.
4) Traditional security is state-oriented subject. Human security is people-
oriented arena.
5) The threats dealt by traditional security include external aggression and
protection of people from enemies. Human security deals with threats like
environmental degradation, pollution, diseases, crimes etc.
6) Traditional security and related aspects are solely in the purview of the state.
Only the government makes for a decisive role. Human security and the
related issues are dealt by individuals, communities, non-governmental, local
and international communities and organizations.
7) The aim of both traditional and human security is same- protection of people
from all kinds of insecurities. Both are interdependent concepts and argue
for a strong system wherein people’s welfare stands as the ultimate aim.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Describe the difference between human security and traditional security.
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 Human Security
11.6 LET US SUM UP
The concept of human security and its evolution is a consequence of developments
of a post-Cold War, multi-disciplinary understanding of security involving a
number of research areas, including development studies, international relations,
strategic studies and human rights. The report of the United Nations Development
Programme (1994) Human Development Report is considered as one of the
thought-provoking publication in the field of human security. The Report
emphasized two important concepts- freedom from want and freedom from fear
for all. These two concepts are like two pillars that elevate the sacredness of the
concept of human security. Most of the UNDP’s seven categories of threats would
receive adequate global attention and resources due to constant monitoring and
policy formulations. This has led to an important development in the sense that
two significant concepts emerged out of these initiatives for human security.
One, is the “Freedom from Fear”’ and the other ‘“Freedom from Want”’. The
UNDP 1994 report has reiterated that human security requires attention to both
freedom from fear and freedom from want. In course of time, there have been
variations in this because questions have been risen as to what kind of threats
people face, the part of the world they come from and the state’s initiatives to
ensure security for them. Further, the mechanisms for responding to these threats
have varied widely and these have also been contemplated thoroughly by the
authorities concerned. The concern for human security rose from the consequent
losses of people and nations in the frequent wars that shook the world in the
early 20th century. International organizations that subsequently came up brought
this concern forward and reiterated their commitment to secure people and nation’s
security and safety.

11.7 SOME USEFUL REFRENCES

Alkire, Sabina. 2003. A Conceptual Framework for Human Security. (CRISE),
working Paper 2, London, University of Oxford, 2003 (online).
Caroline Thomas. 2000. Global Governance, Development & Human Security:
The Challenges of Poverty and Inequality. London: Pluto Press.
Mahbub-ul-Haq. 1999. Reflections on Human Development, London: Oxford
University Press.
King, Garry, and Christopher Murray., Rethinking Human Security, Political
Science Quarterly, vol. 116, no.4
Somavia, Juan. 1999. People’s Security-Globlalising Social Progress.
UNDP. 1994. Human Development Report. New York: Oxford University Press.

10.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Your answer should include following.
Human security as defined in the UNDP Report of 1994
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Contemporary Global Issues Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Your answer should include following.
the linkage between human security, human rights and human
development.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) Your answer should include following.
Human security as against the idea of traditional state security

180