Unit V

Steam Generators

Prof. Pramod Chaudhari

 Syllabus
Unit V. Steam Generators: Classifications, constructional details of
boilers, Features of High pressure boilers, IBR act, Boiler Draught
(Natural & Artificial), Boiler performance calculations - EER, efficiency,
Heat Balance sheet.
Introduction:
A boiler may be defined as a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by
combustion of fuel. According to American Society of Mechanical Engineers (A.S.M.E.) a
‘steam generating unit’ is defined as : “A combination of apparatus for producing,
furnishing or recovering heat together with the apparatus for transferring the heat so made
available to the fluid being heated and vaporized”.
The steam generated is employed for the following purposes :
(i) For generating power in steam engines or steam turbines.
(ii) In the textile industries for sizing and bleaching etc., and many other industries like
sugar mills ; chemical industries.
(iii) For heating the buildings in cold weather and for producing hot water for hot water
supply.
The primary requirements of steam generators or boilers are :
(i) The water must be contained safely.
(ii) The steam must be safely delivered in desired condition (as regards its pressure,
temperature, quality and required rate).
When water is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600 times.
CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS:
The boilers may be classified as follows :
1. Horizontal, Vertical or Inclined
If the axis of the boiler is horizontal, the boiler is called as horizontal, if the axis is
vertical, it is called vertical boiler and if the axis is inclined it is known as inclined
boiler. The parts of a horizontal boiler can be inspected and repaired easily but it
occupies more space. The vertical boiler occupies less floor area.
2. Fire Tube and Water Tube
In the fire tube boilers, the hot gases are inside the tubes and the water surrounds the
tubes. Examples : Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
In the water tube boilers, the water is inside the tubes and hot gases surround them.
Examples : Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling, Yarrow boiler etc.
3. Externally Fired and Internally Fired
The boiler is known as externally fired if the fire is outside the shell. Examples : Babcock
and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler etc.
In case of internally fired boilers, the furnace is located inside the boiler shell. Examples :
Cochran, Lancashire boiler etc.
4. Forced Circulation and Natural Circulation
In forced circulation type of boilers, the circulation of water is done by a forced pump.
Examples : Velox, Lamont, Benson boiler etc.
In natural circulation type of boilers, circulation of water in the boiler takes place due to
natural convention currents produced by the application of heat. Examples : Lancashire,
Babcock and Wilcox boiler etc.
5. High Pressure and Low Pressure Boilers
The boilers which produce steam at pressures of 80 bar and above are called high pressure
boilers. Examples : Babcock and Wilcox, Velox, Lamont, Benson boilers.
The boilers which produce steam at pressure below 80 bar are called low pressure boilers.
Examples : Cochran, Cornish, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
6. Stationary and Portable
Primarily, the boilers are classified as either stationary (land) or mobile (marine and
locomotive).
Stationary boilers are used for power plant-steam, for central station utility power plants,
for plant process steam etc.
Mobile boilers or portable boilers include locomotive type, and other small units for
temporary use at sites (just as in small coal-field pits).
7. Single Tube and Multi-tube Boilers
The fire tube boilers are classified as single tube and multi-tube boilers, depending upon
whether the fire tube is one or more than one. The examples of the former type are
Cornish, simple vertical boiler and rest of the boilers are multi-tube boilers.
Indian Boiler Regulation
The Indian Boilers Act was enacted to consolidate and amend the law relating to steam
boilers.
Indian Boilers Regulation (IBR) was created in exercise of the powers conferred by section
28 & 29 of the Indian Boilers Act.
IBR Steam Boilers means any closed vessel exceeding 22.75 liters in capacity and which is
used expressively for generating steam under pressure and includes any mounting or other
fitting attached to such vessel, which is wholly, or partly under pressure when the steam is
shut off.
IBR Steam Pipe means any pipe through which steam passes from a boiler to a prime
mover or other user or both, if pressure at which steam passes through such pipes exceeds
3.5 kg/cm2 above atmospheric pressure or such pipe exceeds 254 mm in internal diameter
and includes in either case any connected fitting of a steam pipe.
COMPARISON BETWEEN ‘FIRE-TUBE AND WATER-TUBE’ BOILERS
SELECTION OF A BOILER
While selecting a boiler the following factors should be considered :
1. The working pressure and quality of steam required (i.e., whether wet or dry or
superheated).
2. Steam generation rate.
3. Floor area available.
4. Accessibility for repair and inspection.
5. Comparative initial cost.
6. Erection facilities.
7. The portable load factor.
8. The fuel and water available.
9. Operating and maintenance costs.
ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD STEAM BOILER: A good boiler should possess the following features
1. The boiler should produce the maximum weight of steam of the required quality at minimum
expenses.
2. Steam production rate should be as per requirements.
3. It should be absolutely reliable.
4. It should occupy minimum space.
5. It should be light in weight.
6. It should be capable of quick starting.
7. There should be an easy access to the various parts of the boiler for repairs and inspection.
8. The boiler components should be transportable without difficulty.
9. The installation of the boiler should be simple.
10. The tubes of the boiler should not accumulate soot or water deposits and should be sufficiently
strong to allow for wear and corrosion.
11. The water and gas circuits should be such as to allow minimum fluid velocity (for low frictional
losses).
BABCOCK AND WILCOX BOILER
It is a water tube boiler suitable for meeting demand of increased pressure and large
evaporation capacity or large sized boiler units. Figure shows the Babcock and Wilcox boiler. It
has three main parts:
(i) Steam and water drum
(ii) Water tubes
(iii) Furnace.
Steam and water drum is a long drum fabricated using small shells riveted together. End cover
plates can be opened as and when required. Mountings are mounted on drum as shown. Drum
is followed by water tubes which are arranged below drum and connected to one another and
drum through headers. Header in which water flows from drum to tubes is called down take
header while headers in which flow is from tubes to drum is called uptake header. Soot
deposition takes place in mud box which is connected to downtake header. “Blow off cock” for
blowing out the sediments settled in mud box is shown in figure. Superheater tubes are also
shown in the arrangement, which are U-shape tubes placed horizontally between drum and
water tubes. Superheating of steam is realized in superheater tubes
Babcock and Wilcox boiler
Below the superheater and water tubes is the furnace, at the front of which fuel feed
hopper is attached. Mechanical stoker is arranged below the hopper for feeding fuel.
Bridge wall and baffles made of fire resistant bricks are constructed so as to facilitate hot
gases moving upward from the grate area, then downwards and again upwards before
escaping to the chimney. A smoke box is put at the back of furnace through which smoke
goes out via chimney, put at top of smoke box. A damper is used for regulating pressure
difference (draught) causing expulsion of hot gases.
The complete boiler unit with all mountings and accessories is suspended by steel slings
from girders resting on steel columns. It is done so as to permit free expansion and
contraction of boiler parts with temperature.
 HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS
In all modern power plants, high pressure boilers (> 100 bar) are universally used as they offer the
following advantages. In order to obtain efficient operation and high capacity, forced circulation of
water through boiler tubes is found helpful. Some special types of boilers operating at super critical
pressures and using forced circulations are described in this chapter.
(a) The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced quantity of steam is
required for the same power generation if high pressure steam is used.
(b) The forced circulation of water through boiler tubes provides freedom in the arrangement of
furnace and water walls, in addition to the reduction in the heat exchange area.
(c) The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water.
(d) The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated.
(e) The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the
possibility of gas and air leakages.
(f) Some special types of high pressure supercritical boilers are described in this chapter.
High Pressure Boilers are …
1) LaMont Boiler 2) Loeffler Boiler
3) Benson Boiler 4) Velox Boiler
Unique Features of the High Pressure Boilers:
1. Method of water circulation
2. Type of tubing
3. Improved method of heating.
1. Method of water circulation. The circulation of water through the boiler may be natural
circulation due to density difference or forced circulation. In all modern high pressure boiler
plants, the water circulation is maintained with the help of pump which forces the water
through the boiler plant. The use of natural circulation is limited to sub-critical boilers due to
its limitations.
2. Type of tubing. In most of the high pressure boilers, the water circulated through the
tubes and their external surfaces are exposed to the flue gases. In water tube boilers, if the
flow takes place through one continuous tube, the large pressure drop takes place due to
friction. This is considerably reduced by arranging the flow to pass through parallel system
of tubing. In most of the cases, several sets of the tubings are used. This type of
arrangement helps to reduce the pressure loss, and better control over the quality of the
steam.
3. Improved method of heating. The following improved methods of heating may be used
to increase the heat transfer :
(i) The saving of heat by evaporation of water above critical pressure of the steam.
(ii) The heating of water can be made by mixing the superheated steam. The mixing
phenomenon gives highest heat transfer co-efficient.
(iii) The overall heat transfer co-efficient can be increased by increasing the water velocity
inside the tube and increasing the gas velocity above sonic velocity.
Lamont Boiler: A forced circulation boiler was
first introduced in 1925 by La Mont. This is a
water tube boiler having forced circulation.
Schematic showing the arrangement inside
boiler is given in Fig. Boiler has vertical shell
having three distinct zones having water tubes
in them, namely evaporator section,
superheater section and economiser section.
Feed water is fed from feed pump to pass
through economiser tubes. Hot water from
economiser goes into drum from where hot
feed water is picked up by a circulating pump.
Pump increases pressure and water circulates
through evaporation section so as to get
converted into steam and enters back to drum.
Steam available in drum enters into
superheater tubes and after getting
superheated steam leaves through steam main.
BENSON BOILER
It is a water tube boiler capable of generating
steam at supercritical pressure. Figure shows
the schematic of Benson boiler. Mark
Benson, 1992 conceived the idea of
generating steam at supercritical pressure in
which water flashes into vapour without any
latent heat requirement. Above critical point
the water transforms into steam in the
absence of boiling and without any change in
volume i.e. same density. Contrary to the
bubble formation on tube surface impairing
heat transfer in the normal pressure boilers,
the supercritical steam generation does not
have bubble formation and pulsations etc.
due to it. Steam generation also occurs very
quickly in these boilers. As the pressure and
temperatures have to be more than critical point, so material of construction should be
strong enough to withstand thermal stresses. Feed pump has to be of large capacity as
pressure inside is quite high, which also lowers the plant efficiency due to large negative
work requirement. Benson boilers generally have steam generation pressure more than
critical pressure and steaming rate of about 130–135 tons/hr. Thermal efficiency of these
boilers is of the order of 90%.

Loeffler Boiler and Velox Boiler for self study

Advantages of High Pressure Boilers
The following are the advantages of high pressure boilers.
1. In high pressure boilers pumps are used to maintain forced circulation of water through
the tubes of the boiler. This ensures positive circulation of water and increases evaporative
capacity of the boiler and less number of steam drums will be required.
2. The heat of combustion is utilized more efficiently by the use of small diameter tube in
large number and in multiple circuits.
3. Pressurized combustion is used which increases rate of firing of fuel thus increasing the
rate of heat release.
4. Due to compactness less floor space is required.
5. The tendency of scale formation is eliminated due to high velocity of water through the
tubes.
6. All the parts are uniformly heated, therefore the danger of overheating is reduced and
thermal stress problem is simplified.
7. The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the
possibility of gas and air leakages.
8. The components can be arranged horizontally as high head required for natural
circulation is eliminated using forced circulation. There is a greater flexibility in the
components arrangement.
9. The steam can be raised quickly to meet the variable load requirements without the use
of complicated control devices.
10. The efficiency of plant is increased up to 40 to 42 per cent by using high pressure and
high temperature steam.
11. A very rapid start from cold is possible if an external supply of power is available. Hence
the boiler can be used for carrying peak loads or stand by purposes with hydraulic station.
12. Use of high pressure and high temperature steam is economical.
 BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
Boiler Mountings. These are different fittings and devices which are necessary for the operation and
safety of a boiler. Usually these devices are mounted over boiler shell. Mountings are must and
without them no boiler is allowed to operate
In accordance with the Indian boiler regulation the Following mountings should be fitted to the
boilers.
(i) Water level indicator
(ii) Safety valves
(iii) High steam and low water safety valves
(iv) Fusible plug
(v) Pressure gauge
(vi) Stop valve
(vii) Feed check valve
(viii) Blow off cock
(ix) Manhole and mud box
Boiler Accessories. These are auxiliary plants required for steam boilers for their proper
operation and for the increase of their efficiency. Commonly used boiler accessories are :
1) Feed pumps
2) Injector
3) Economiser
4) Air preheater
5) Superheater
6) Steam separator
7) Steam trap.
Water level indicator: It is used for knowing
the level of water in boiler as water level
inside boiler should not go below a certain
limit. General arrangement is shown in Fig.
with the different parts in it.
It has two tubes one is front glass tube while
other is metal tube. Water level is seen
through glass tube which is made strong
enough to withstand high steam pressure
and temperature. Two control cocks are
provided for regulating steam and water
passage from boiler to glass tube. For blow
off purpose a blowing cock is also provided
as shown
Dead Weight Safety Valve
Fig. shows a dead weight safety valve. A is the
vertical cast iron pipe through which steam
pressure acts. B is the bottom flange directly
connected to seating block on the boiler shell
communicating to the steam space. V is the gun
metal valve and VS is the gun metal valve seat. D is
another cast iron pipe for discharge of excess
steam from the boiler. W are the weights in the
form of cylindrical disc of cast iron. WC is the
weight carrier carrying the weights W. The cover
plate C covers these weights. The steam pressure
acts in the upward direction and is balanced by
the force of the dead weights W. The total dead-
weights consist of the sum of the weights W, A = Cast iron pipe D = Discharge pipe
weight of the valve V, weight of the weight carrier B = Bottom flange VS = Gun metal valve seat
and weight of the cover plate C.
V = Gun metal valve C = Cover plate
W = Cast iron weights WC = Weight carrier
High Steam and Low Water Safety Valve
High Steam and Low Water Safety Valve: This is a combined form of safety valve and low
water level indicator. Figure. shows the high steam and low water safety valve. It prevents
from excessive pressure as it has a simple lever safety valve loaded by two weights as
shown. Low water safety arrangement is activated through float put in boiler shell and
prevents from overheating due to low water. When the pressure inside goes beyond
limiting value then high steam valve gets lifted up and excess pressure of steam is released.
When the water level goes below critical level then low water valve gets raised up as it is
fulcrumed and is linked to float on one end and balance weight on other end. With raising
of low water valve the hemispherical valve shifts up from valve seat and steam escapes out
with hissing sound. This hissing sound is loud enough to warn attendant about the low
water level in boiler. When the water level is correct then high steam valve simply acts as
the dead weight safety valve. A drain pipe is also provided so that the steam getting
condensed can be drained out. Condensation of steam is possible due to throttle of steam
during its release from valves.
Pressure Gauge: The function of a pressure gauge pressure.
is to measure the pressure exerted inside the
vessel. The gauge is usually mounted on the front
top of the shell or the drum. It is usually
constructed to indicate upto double the maximum
working pressure. Its dial is graduated to read
pressures in kgf/cm2 (or bar) gauge (i.e., above
atmospheric). There are two types of pressure
gauges : (i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge and (ii)
Diaphragm type pressure gauge. A pointer, which
rotates over a circular graduated scale, indicates
the pressure. A pressure gauge is known as
compound pressure gauge if it is designed in such
a fashion so as to measure pressures above and
below the atmosphere on the same dial. The
movement of the free end of the elliptical tube is
proportional to the difference between external
and internal pressure on the tube. Since the
outside pressure on the tube is atmospheric, the
movement of the free end is a measure of the
boiler pressure above atmospheric i.e., gauge
Fusible Plug: The function of a fusible plug is
to protect the boiler against damage due to
overheating for low water level. It is fitted on
the fire box crown plate or over the
combustion chamber at its appropriate place.
A common from of fusible plug is illustrated in
Fig. It consists of a hollow gun metal body
screwed into the fire box crown. The body has
a hexagonal flange to tighten it into the shell.
A gun metal plug having a hexagonal flange is
screwed into the gun metal body. There is
another hollow gun metal plug separated
from the metal plug by an annulus of fusible
metal. The fusible metal is protected from fire
by flange on the hollow gun metal plug.
Under normal condition when the water-level in the boiler shell is normal, the fusible plug
is fully submerged under water. In this case, the heat from the fusible plug is being
conducted to water which keeps the fusible metal at an almost constant temperature and
below its melting point. But when the water level falls below the fusible plug, it gets
uncovered from water and is exposed to steam. The heat conduction from the fusible plug
to steam is very little compared with that to water. Hence fusible plug becomes overheated
and it melts with the result that the hollow gun metal plug falls down making a hole. The
steam and water being under pressure immediately rush to fire box and extinguish the fire.
The fusible plugs should generally be renewed after a period of about two years as they
are liable to become defective over a long period of use (because they are subjected to
heat on one side and scale deposits on the other).
Spring Loaded Safety Valve: For locomotives
and marine engines both the lever and dead-
weight types are unsuitable for obvious
reasons, and the valve must be spring
loaded, as such valve is unaffected by
vibration or deviations from the vertical. Fig.
illustrates what is known as Ramsbottom
spring loaded safety valve. It consists of two
separate valves and seatings having one
lever, bearing on the two valves, and loaded
by a spring, the spring being placed between
the valves. The tension on the spring can be
adjusted by the nuts. By pulling or raising the
lever the operator/driver can relieve the
pressure from either valve separately, and
ascertain it is not sticking on the seating.
Steam Stop Valve: It regulates the flow of
steam from the boiler as shown in Fig. This is
generally mounted on highest part of boiler
shell and performs function of regulating the
flow of steam from boiler. Stop valve
generally has main body of cast steel, valve,
valve seat and nut etc. are of brass. Stop
valve can be easily operated by rotating the
hand wheel which causes lifting or lowering
of spindle, thus causing opening or closing of
valve.
On turning the hand wheel the spindle is
raised or lowered depending upon the sense
of rotation of wheel (clockwise for lowering
and anticlockwise for raising). The passage of
steam flow on opening is shown by arrows.
Feed Check Valve: It is a non return valve at the
end of delivery pipe from feed water pump and
is placed on boiler shell slightly below normal
water level. Figure shows the arrangement in a
feed check valve. It has a check valve whose
opening and closing are regulated by the
position of spindle. By hand wheel rotation the
position of spindle can be altered suitably. Feed
check valve permits unidirectional flow of water
from feed pump to be boiler shell. Under
normal running the pressure of feed water
coming from pump is more than pressure inside
the boiler and so the feed water continues to
enter the shell. While during the non working
of feed pump the pressure in boiler shell is
more and so the check valve gets closed.
Blow off cock: It is used for periodical cleaning
by discharging the water and sediments from
bottom of boiler. Figure shows the blow off
cock. Blow off cock is fitted to the bottom of
boiler shell. Blow off cock has a plug of conical
type put into the mating casing. Plug position is
altered for opening and closing the flow. Plug
has rectangular opening which when comes in
line with inlet and outlet passage then blow off
cock is open and when opening is not in line
then cock is closed. Plug is rotated by spindle.
Blow off cock also helps in regulating the salt
concentration as frequent draining helps in
throwing out the salt deposited over period of
time. Opening blow off cock removes
deposited sediments in boiler.
Boiler Accessories: These are used to enhance the performance of boiler
Commonly used boiler accessories are :
1) Feed pump
2) Injector
3) Economiser
4) Air preheater
5) Superheater
6) Steam separator
7) Steam trap.
Some of them are explained here
Economizer: It is also a heat
recovery device in which feed
water is heated from heat
available with exhaust gases.
Thus hot feed water available Water
from economizer lowers the outlet

fuel requirement in furnace. It

is also a type of heat
exchanger having exhaust gas
and feed water as two fluids.
General arrangement in
economizer is shown in Fig.
Economizer also helps in
removal of dissolved gases by
preheating of water and thus
minimizes tendency of
corrosion and pitting. Hotter
feed water also reduces
thermal strain in boiler parts.
Fig. above shows an independent type vertical tube economiser (called Green’s economiser). It is
employed for boilers of medium pressure range upto about 25 bar. It consists of a large number
of vertical cast iron pipes which are connected with two horizontal pipes ( headers), one at the
top and the other at the bottom. The bottom header through which the feed water is pumped
into the economiser. The water comes into the top header from the bottom header (via vertical
pipes) and finally flows to the boiler. The flue gases move around the pipes in the direction
opposite to the flow of water. Consequently, heat transfer through the surfaces of the pipes takes
place and water is thereby heated.
The use of an economiser entails the following advantages :
1. The temperature range between various parts of the boiler is reduced which results in
reduction of stresses due to unequal expansion.
2. If the boiler is fed with cold water it may result in chilling the boiler metal. Hot feed water
checks it.
3. Evaporative capacity of the boiler is increased.
4. Overall efficiency of the plant is increased.
Air Preheater: The function of the air preheater
is to increase the temperature of air before it
enters the furnace. It is generally placed after
the economiser ; so the flue gases pass through
the economiser and then to the air preheater.
An air-preheater consists of plates or tubes
with hot gases on one side and air on the other.
It preheats the air to be supplied to the
furnace. Preheated air accelerates the
combustion and facilitates the burning of coal.
Degree of preheating depends on :
(i) Type of fuel,
(ii) (ii) Type of fuel burning equipment, and
(iii) Rating at which the boiler and furnace are
operated.
There are three types of air preheaters :

1. Tubular type

2. 2. Plate type

3. Storage type.

Fig. above shows a tubular type air preheater. After leaving the boiler or economiser the
gaseous products of combustion travel through the inside of the tubes of air preheater in a
direction opposite to that of air travel and transfer some of their heat to the air to be
supplied to the furnace. Thus the air gets initially heated before being supplied to the
furnace. The gases reverse their direction near the bottom of the air heater, and a soot
hopper is fitted to the bottom of air heater casing to collect soot.
Superheater are located in the path of the furnace gases so that heat is recovered by the
superheater from the hot gases. There are two types of superheaters :
1. Convective superheater 2. Radiant superheater.
Convective superheater makes use of heat in flue gases whereas a radiant superheater is
placed in the furnace and wall tubes receives heat from the burning fuel through radiant
process. The radiant type of superheater is generally used where a high amount of
superheat temperature is required.
EVAPORATIVE CAPACITY
The evaporative capacity of a boiler may be expressed in terms of :
(i) kg of steam/h, (ii) kg of steam/h/m2 of heating surface, (iii) kg of steam/kg of fuel fired.
EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION
Generally the output or evaporative capacity of the boiler is given as kg of water evaporated
per hour but as different boilers generate steam at different pressures and temperatures (from
feed water at different temperatures) and as such have different amounts of heat ; the number
of kg of water evaporated per hour in no way provides the exact means for comparison of the
performance of the boilers. Hence to compare the evaporative capacity or performance of
different boilers working under different conditions it becomes imperative to provide a
common base so that water be supposed to be evaporated under standard conditions. The
standard conditions adopted are : Temperature of feed water 100°C and converted into dry and
saturated steam at 100°C. As per these standard conditions 1 kg of water at 100°C necessitates
2257 kJ (539 kcal in MKS units) to get converted to steam at 100°C.
Thus the Equivalent Evaporation may be defined as the amount of water at 100°C
evaporated to form dry and saturated steam at 100°C.
Consider a boiler generating ma kg of steam per hour at a pressure p and temperature T.
Let h = Enthalpy of steam per kg under the generating conditions.
h = hf + hfg ...... Dry saturated steam at pressure p
h = hf + x hfg ...... Wet steam with dryness fraction x at pressure p
h = hf + hfg + Cp (Tsup – Tsat) ....Superheated steam at press. p and temp. Tsup
hf1 = hw Specific enthalpy possessed by water before entering boiler.
Then heat gained by the steam from the boiler per unit time
= ms (h – hf1) = ms (h – hw)
The equivalent evaporation (me) from the definition is obtained as
Equivalent Evaporation =
Mass of steam generated X Heat supplied to generate steam in boiler
Heat supplied for to generate steam at 100°C from water at100°C i.e. (Latent heat)
 ms (h − hw )
• =
2257
FACTOR OF EVAPORATION
It is defined as the ratio of heat received by 1 kg of water under working conditions to that
received by 1 kg of water evaporated from and at 100°C. It is denoted by Fe.
(h − hw )
∴ Factor of evaporation = 2257
BOILER EFFICIENCY
‘Boiler efficiency’ is the ratio of heat actually utilized in generation of steam to the
heat supplied by the fuel in the same period.
ms (h − hw )
i.e., Boiler efficiency = 𝑚𝑓 𝐶 𝑉
where, ms = Mass of water actually evaporated into steam per kg of fuel at the working
pressure,
mf = Mass of fuel burnt
C V= Calorific value of the fuel in kJ/kg.
If the boiler, economiser, and superheater are considered as a single unit, then the boiler
efficiency is termed as overall efficiency of the boiler plant.
Boiler Heat balance sheet: It is the systematic representation of heat supplied and heat distributed
on min, hr or per Kg of fuel supplied.
Heat KJ % Heat Utilization KJ %
Supp.
By Qs = 100 a) Steam Generation Q1 = ms (h – hf1) 𝑄1
x 100
combu mf x 𝑄𝑠
stion b) Heat carried by dry flue gases Q2 = mg Cpg ( Tg – Ta) 𝑄2
of fuel CV x 100
𝑄𝑠
c) Heat carried by steam in flue gases Q3 = ms1 (hg1 – hf) 𝑄3
x 100
𝑄𝑠
d) Heat lost due to incomplete 𝐶𝑂 𝑥 𝐶 𝑄4
Q4 = mf x 24000 x 100
𝐶𝑂2 𝑥 𝐶𝑂 𝑄𝑠
combustion
e) Heat lost due to unburnt fuel Q5 = mf1 x CV 𝑄5
𝑄𝑠
x 100
f) Heat unaccounted for Q6 = Q s – ( a + b + c + d 𝑄6
x 100
𝑄𝑠
+e)
Total Qs 100 Q 100
BOILER DRAUGHT
Draught is the pressure difference created for the flow of gases inside the boiler. Boiler unit
has a requirement of the expulsion of combustion products and supply of fresh air inside
furnace for continuous combustion. The obnoxious gases formed during combustion
should be discharged at such an height as will render the gases unobjectionable. A chimney
or stack is generally used for carrying these combustion products from inside of boiler to
outside, i.e. draught is created by use of chimney.
The function of the draught, is to force air to the fire and to carry away the gaseous
products of combustion. In a boiler furnace proper combustion takes place only when
sufficient quantity of air is supplied to the burning fuel.
Draught may be created naturally or artificially by using some external device. Draught can
be classified as below:
In Natural draught pressure difference is created naturally without using any positive
displacement device.
Artificial draught is created using some external assistance causing forced displacement of
gases. It can be created either by using mechanical devices or steam. Artificial draught can
be of induced type, forced type or combination of the two.
Natural Draught—Chimney
Natural draught is obtained by the use of a chimney. The chimney in a boiler installation
performs one or more of the following functions : (i) It produces the draught whereby the
air and gas are forced through the fuel bed, furnace, boiler passes and settings ; (ii) It
carries the products of combustion to such a height before discharging them that they will
not be objectionable or injurious to surroundings. A chimney is vertical tubular structure
built either of masonry, concrete or steel. The draught produced by the chimney is due to
the density difference between the column of hot gases inside the chimney and the cold air
outside.
Diagrammatic arrangement of a chimney of height ‘H’ metres above the grate

We have p1 = pa + ρg gH
where , p1 = Pressure at the grate level (Chimney side),
pa = Atmospheric pressure at chimney top,
 ρg gH = Pressure due to the column of hot gas of height H metres, and
ρg = Average mass density of hot gas.
Similarly, p2 = pa + ρa . gH
where, p2 = Pressure acting on the grate on the open side,
ρa gH = Pressure exerted by the column of cold air outside the
chimney of height H metres, and
ρa = Mass density of air outside the chimney.
∴ Net pressure difference causing the flow through the combustion chamber,
Δp = p2 – p1 = (ρa – ρg) gH
This difference of pressure causing the flow of gases is known as ‘static draught’. Its value
is small and is generally measured by a water manometer.
It may be noted that this pressure difference in chimney is generally less than 12 mm of
water
Chimney Height and Diameter:
Let us assume that the volume of products of combustion is equal to the volume of air
supplied both reduced to the same temperature and pressure conditions.
Let, ma = Mass of air supplied per kg of fuel,
ma + 1 = Mass of chimney gases,
Ta = Absolute temperature of atmosphere, and
Tg = Average absolute temperature of chimney gases

temperature and pressure being same.

Inserting the values of ρa and ρg into Δp = p2 – p1 = (ρa – ρg) gH we get

N/m2 …… 1
a

Assuming that the draught pressure Δp produced is equivalent to H1 metres height of burnt
gases, we have :
 ……. 2

Equating eqns. (1) and (2), we get

Due to losses at various sections along the path of the flue gas, the actual draught available
is always less than that given by the eqn. (1).
If hw is the height, in mm of a column of water which will produce the pressure Δp, then
Chimney diameter :
Assuming no loss, the velocity of the gases passing through the chimney is given by
C = 2gH1
If the pressure loss in the chimney is equivalent to a hot-gas column of h′ metres, then
C = 2gH1 − h′ = 4.43 H1 − h′

The value of K : 0.825 ........ For brick chimneys, and

1.1 ........ For steel chimneys
The mass of the gases flowing through any cross-section of the chimney is given by
mg = ρ g A C
 DRAUGHT LOSSES
The loss in a draught may be due to the reasons mentioned below :
(a) The frictional resistance offered by the flues and gas passages to the flow of flue gases.
(b) Loss near the bends in the gas flow circuit.
(c) Loss due to friction head in equipments like grate, economiser, superheater etc.
(d) Loss due to imparting velocity to the flue gases.
The loss in draught in a chimney is 20 per cent of the total draught produced by it.
ARTIFICIAL DRAUGHT
In the boiler installations of today the total static draught required may vary from 30 to 350
mm of water column.
It may not be possible to build a chimney high enough to produce draught of such a large
magnitude. To meet this requirement artificial draught system should be used. It may be a
mechanical draught or a steam jet draught. The former is used for central power stations
and many other boiler installations while the latter is employed for small installations and
in locomotives.
Forced Draught
In a mechanical draught system, the draught is produced by a fan. In a forced draught system,
a blower or a fan is installed near or at the base of the boiler to force the air through the cool
bed and other passages through the furnace, flues, air preheater, economiser etc. It is a
positive pressure draught. The enclosure for the furnace etc., has to be very highly sealed so
that gases from the furnace do not leak out in the boiler house.
Induced Draught
In this system a fan or blower is located at or near the base of the chimney. The pressure over
the fuel bed is reduced below that of the atmosphere. By creating a partial vacuum in the
furnace and flues, the products of combustion are drawn from the main flue and they pass up
the chimney. This draught is used usually when economisers and air preheaters are
incorporated in the system. The draught is similar in action to the natural draught.
Balanced Draught
It is a combination of the forced and induced draught systems. In this system the forced
draught fan overcomes the resistance in the air preheater and chain grate stoker while the
induced draught fan overcomes draught losses through boiler, economiser, air preheater and
connecting flues.
Advantages Forced Draught over Induced Draught :
1. Forced draught fan does not require water cooled bearings.
2. Tendency to air leak into the boiler furnace is reduced.
3. No loss due to in rush of cold air through the furnace doors when they are opened for
fire and cleaning fires.
4. Fan size and power required for the same draught are 1/5 to 1/2 of that required from
an induced draught fan installation because forced draught fan handles cold air.
Advantages of Artificial Draught
The artificial (mechanical) draught possesses the following advantages :
1. Easy control of combustion and evaporation.
2. Increase in evaporative power of a boiler.
3. Improvement in the efficiency of the plant.
4. Reduced chimney height.
5. Prevention of smoke.
6. Capability of consuming low grade fuel.
7. Low grade fuel can be used as the intensity of artificial draught is high.
8. The fuel consumption per H.P. due to artificial draught is 15% less than that for natural
draught.
9. The fuel burning capacity of grate is 200 to 300 kg/m2-h with mechanical draught
whereas it is hardly 50 to 100 kg/m2-h with natural draught.
Example 1. Calculate the height of chimney required to produce a draught equivalent to 1.7
cm of water if the flue gas temperature is 270°C and ambient temperature is 22°C and
minimum amount of air per kg of fuel is 17 kg.
Solution. Draught in mm of H2O, hw = 1.7 cm = 17 mm
Flue gas temperature, Tg = 270 + 273 = 543 K, Ambient temperature, Ta = 22 + 273 = 295 K
Minimum amount of air per kg of fuel, ma = 17 kg
Height of chimney, H :
Using the relation,

= 353 H (0.00339 – 0.00195) = 0.508 H or H = 33.46 m

Hence, height of chimney = 33.46 m. (Ans.)
Example 2. A chimney has a height of 24 m. The ambient temperature is 25°C. Temperature
of flue gases passing through the chimney is 300°C. If the air-flow through the combustion
space is 20 kg/kg of fuel burned, find the following :
(i) The theoretical draught in mm of water ; (ii) Velocity of the flue gases passing through
the chimney if 50% of the theoretical draught is lost in friction at the grate and passage.
Solution. (i) Theoretical draught :
Using the relation,

hw = Head in mm of water
H = Height of the chimney = 24 m
Ta = Absolute temperature of atmosphere (= 25 + 273 = 298 K)
Tg = Absolute temperature of chimney gases (= 273 + 300 = 573 K)
ma = Mass of air supplied per kg of fuel.
Substituting the values, we get

= 12.9 mm of H2O. (Ans.)

(ii) Velocity of flue gases :
The equivalent gas head,

Available head = 0.5 × 19.95 = 9.975 m

∴ Velocity of the flue gases
Example 3: A boiler has chimney of 30 m height to produce natural draught of 12 mm of
water column. Ambient air temperature is 27C and boiler furnace requires 20 kg of air per
kg of fuel for complete combustion. Determine minimum temperature of burnt gases
leaving chimney.
Solution:
Given: m = 20 kg air per kg of fuel, H = 30 m, Ta = 273 + 27 = 300 K
Draught in terms of water column,

Tg = 432.86 K
Example 4: A boiler house has natural draught chimney of 20 m height. Flue gases are at
temperature of 3800C and ambient temperature is 270C. Determine the draught in mm of water
column for maximum discharge through chimney and also the air supplied per kg of fuel.
Solution:
Given: Height of chimney, H = 20 m, Tg = 653 K, Ta = 300 K
For maximum discharge condition,
Example 5: An oil fuel with a lower calorific value of 44700 kJ is burnt in a boiler with air-
fuel ratio as 20 : 1. Neglecting ash, calculate the maximum temperature attained in the
furnace of the boiler. Assume that whole of the heat of combustion is given to the products
of combustion and their average specific heat is 1.08. Take boiler room temperature as
38°C.
Solution. L.C.V. of fuel = 44700 kJ, Air-fuel ratio = 20 : 1,
Average specific heat, Cpg = 1.08 kJ/kg K, Boiler room temperature, T1 = 38 + 273 = 311 K
Maximum furnace temperature attained, T2 :
Since the whole of heat is taken by the gases, therefore,
Heat of combustion = Heat of gases
i.e., 1 × 44700 = mg × Cpg × (T2 – T1) (mg = mass of gases)
= (20 + 1) × 1.08 (T2 – 311)
Example 6. In a boiler test 1250 kg of coal is consumed in 24 hours. The mass of water
evaporated is 13000 kg and the mean effective pressure is 7 bar. The feed water temperature
was 40°C, heating value of coal is 30000 kJ/kg. The enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 7 bar is 2570.7
kJ. Determine :
i) Equivalent evaporation per kg of coal ii) Efficiency of the boiler.
Solution. Quantity of coal consumed in 24 hours = 1250 kg
Mass of water evaporated = 13000 kg, Mean effective pressure of steam = 7 bar
Feed water temperature = 40°C, Enthalpy of steam at 7 bar = 2570.7 kJ/kg
Heating value of coal, C = 30000 kJ/kg
(i) Equivalent evaporation per kg of coal, me :
Mass of water actually evaporated per kg of fuel,
13000
ma = 1250
= 10.4 kg
Heat required to produce 1 kg of steam
= h – hf1 = 2570.7 – 1 × 4.18 × (40 – 0) = 2403.5 kJ
 = 11.075 kg. (Ans.)

(ii) Efficiency of boiler, ηboiler :

Example 7: The following readings were obtained during a boiler trial of 6 hours duration. Mean
steam pressure = 12 bar ; mass of steam generated = 40000 kg ; mean dryness fraction = 0.85 ;
mean feed water temperature = 30°C, coal used = 4000 kg. Calorific value of coal = 33400 kJ/kg.
Calculate :
(i) Factor of equivalent evaporation, (ii) Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C ;
(iii) Efficiency of the boiler.
Solution. Mean steam pressure, p = 12 bar, Mass of steam generated = 40000 kg
Mean dryness fraction, x = 0.85, Mean feed water temperature = 30°C
Coal used = 4000 kg, Calorific value of coal, C = 33400 kJ/kg
From steam tables, corresponding to 12 bar :
hf = 798.4 kJ/kg, hfg = 1984.3 kJ/kg
Now, h = hf + x hfg = 798.4 + 0.85 × 1984.3 = 2485.05 kJ/kg
Heat of feed water, hf1 = 1 × 4.18 × (30 – 0) = 125.4 kJ/kg
Total net heat given to produce 1 kg of steam
= h – hf1 = 2485.05 – 125.4 = 2359.65 kJ/kg.
i) Factor of equivalent evaporation, Fe :

ii) Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C, me :

iii) Efficiency of boiler, ηboiler :

Example 8. A steam generator evaporates 18000 kg/h of steam at 12.5 bar and a quality of
0.97 from feed water at 105°C, when coal is fired at the rate of 2040 kg/h. If the higher calorific
value of the coal is 27400 kJ/kg, find :
(i) The heat rate of boiler in kJ/h, (ii) The equivalent evaporation, (iii) The thermal efficiency.
Solution. Steam generated, m = 18000 kg/h, Steam pressure, p = 12.5 bar
Quality of steam, x = 0.97, Feed water temperature = 105°C
Rate of coal firing, mf = 2040 kg/h, Higher calorific value (H.C.V.) of coal, C = 27400 kJ/kg
(i) Heat rate of boiler :
At 12.5 bar : From steam tables,
hf = 806.7 kJ/kg, hfg = 1977.4 kJ/kg
∴ h = hf + xhfg = 806.7 + 0.97 × 1977.4 = 2724.78 kJ/kg
hf1 (heat of feed water) = 1 × 4.18 × (105 – 0) = 438.9 kJ/kg
Heat rate of the boiler = Heat supplied per hour
= m(h – hf1)
 = 18000 (2724.78 – 438.9) = 4.1146 × 107 kJ/h. (Ans.)
ii) Equivalent evaporation, me :