Section 4: Science and Technology in Nation Building

Introduction

The development of science and technology in the Philippines has already come a
long way. Even before the time of Spanish colonization in the Philippines, various people and
communities already practiced science and utilized their knowledge in creating technological
gadgets and weapons for the to survive. The knowledge they had developed was passed on to
succeeding generations, treasured and still being practiced nowadays by indigenous
communities.
The development of the country is attributed to the valuable contributions brought about
by the different colonizers of the country. Education, commerce, engineering, medicine, and
agriculture prospered in the Philippines because of the influence made by the Spaniards and
Americans.
The unfurling of our independence gave chance to Filipinos to improve the quality of
living through various discoveries and inventions through the leadership of the different
presidents who led the country for more than half of the century.

Desired learning Outcomes

At the end of this session, the students must have:

1. discussed how early Filipinos applied scientific principles in their daily living;
2. enumerated critical points in the history of science and technology in the
Philippines and how these developments influenced society and the
environment; and
3. identified the contributions of Filipino scientists in science and technology;
4. discussed the contributions of the different leaders of the nation related to science and
technology.

Lesson Proper

Pre-colonial Period
 Scientific and technological developments in the Philippines began in the pre-colonial
period. Even before the Spaniards came to the Philippine islands, early Filipino settlers were
already using plants and herbs as medicines. Systems of farming and animal-raising were also
implemented. Moreover, early Filipinos had already developed different modes of transportation,
whether terrestrial or maritime.
A complicated engineering feat was achieved by the natives of the Cordilleras where they
built rice terraces by hand. Through these terraces, the people were able to cultivate crops on the
mountainsides to cold temperatures. The incorporated an irrigating system that uses water from
the forests and mountain tops to achieve an elaborate farming system. The rice terraces of the
Cordilleras, which are still functional, show the innovative and ingenious way of the natives to
survive in an otherwise unfriendly environment.
The early Filipinos involved themselves in various endeavors where their creativity and
the will to survive were their motivation to utilize available resources in their environment.
 Ethno medicine using plants and herbs
 Mode of Transportation: Kalesa, balangay, land bridges
 farming
 pottery
 animal-raising
 rice terraces
 irrigation system
 alphabet (alibata/baybayin)
 trade
 Colonial Period
Spanish Era
Colonization by the
Spaniards provided the
Philippines with modern means
of construction. Walls, roads,
bridges, and other large
infrastructures were built using
some of the engineering skills
and tools brought by the
Spaniards. In addition, the Spanish government developed health and education systems that
were enjoyed by the principalia class.

Binondo Church Santa Cruz Bridge

 The Spanish Friars Kalye Crisologo in Vigan
The colonization of the Philippines contributed to growth of science and technology in
the archipelago. The Spanish introduced formal education and founded scientific institution.
During the early years of Spanish rule in the Philippines. Parish schools were established where
religion, reading, writing, arithmetic and music was taught. Sanitation and more advanced
methods of agriculture was taught to the natives. Later the Spanish established colleges and
universities in the archipelago including the University of Santo Tomas.
Accounts by Spanish friars in the 1580s showed that astronomy was already known and
practiced. The accounts also give the local names of constellations, such as Moroporo for the
Pleiades and Balatik for Ursa Major among others.
In 1687, Isaac Newton included an explicit reference to the Philippines in his classic
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by mentioning Leuconia, the ancient Ptolemaic
name for the Philippines.
The study of medicine in the Philippines was given priority in the Spanish era, especially
in the later years. The Spanish also contributed to the field of engineering in the islands by
constructing government buildings, churches, roads, bridges and forts. Biology is given focus.
Contributors to science in the archipelago during the 19th century were botanists, Fr. Ignacio
Mercado., Dr. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera and Dr. Leon Ma Guerrero, chemist Anaclento del
Rosario, and medicine scholars Dr. Manuel Guerrero, Dr, Jose Montes and Dr. Elrodario
Mercado.
The Galleon Trade have accounted in the Philippine colonial economy. Trade was given
more focus by the Spaniard colonial authorities due to the prospects of big profits. Agriculture
and industrial development on the other hand were relatively neglected.[4] The opening of the
Suez Canal saw the influx of European visitors to the Spanish colony and some Filipinos were
able to study in Europe who were probably influenced by the rapid development of scientific
ideals brought by the Age of Enlightenment.

American Era
The progress of science and technology in the Philippines continued under American
rule. On July 1, 1901 The Philippine Commission established the Bureau of Government
Laboratories which was placed under the Department of Interior. The Bureau replaced the
Laboratorio Municipal, which was established under the Spanish colonial era. The Bureau dealt
with the study of tropical diseases and laboratory projects. On October 26, 1905, the Bureau of
Government Laboratories was replaced by the Bureau of Science and on December 8, 1933, the
National Research Council of the Philippines was established. The Bureau of Science became the
primary research center of the Philippines until World War II.
Science during the American period was inclined towards agriculture, food processing,
medicine and pharmacy. Not much focus was given on the development of industrial technology
due to free trade policy with the United States which nurtured an economy geared towards
agriculture and trade.[5]
 In 1946 the Bureau of Science was replaced by the Institute of Science. In a report by the
US Economic Survey to the Philippines in 1950, there is a lack of basic information which were
necessities to the country's industries, lack of support of experimental work and minimal budget
for scientific research and low salaries of scientists employed by the government. In 1958, during
the regime of President Carlos P. Garcia, the Philippine Congress passed the Science Act of 1958
which established the National Science Development Board.

Bureau of Science

A HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

By: Olivia C. Caoili

Introduction
The need to develop a country's science and technology has generally been recognized as
one of the imperatives of socioeconomic progress in the contemporary world. This has become a
widespread concern of governments especially since the post-world war II years.
Among Third World countries, an important dimension of this concern is the problem of
dependence in science and technology as this is closely tied up with the integrity of their political
sovereignty and economic self-reliance. There exists a continuing imbalance between scientific
and technological development among contemporary states with 98 per cent of all research and
development facilities located in developed countries and almost wholly concerned with the
latter's problems. Dependence or autonomy in science and technology has been a salient issue
in conferences sponsored by the United Nations.
 It is within the above context that this paper attempts to examine the history of science
and technology in the Philippines. Rather than focusing simply on a straight chronology of
events, it seeks to interpret and analyze the interdependent effects of geography, colonial trade,
economic and educational policies and socio-cultural factors in shaping the evolution of present
Philippine science and technology.
As used in this paper, science is concerned with the systematic understanding and
explanation of the laws of nature. Scientific activity centers on research, the end result of which
is the discovery or production of new knowledge. This new knowledge may or may not have
any direct or immediate application.
In comparison, technology has often been understood as the "systematic knowledge of the
industrial arts." As this knowledge was implemented by means of techniques, technology has
become commonly taken to mean both the knowledge and the means of its utilization, that is, “a
body, of knowledge about techniques." Modern technology also involves systematic
research but its outcome is more concrete than science, i.e., the production of "a thing, a
chemical, a process, something to be bought and sold."
In the past, science and technology developed separately, with the latter being largely a
product of trial and error in response to a particular human need. In modern times, however, the
progresses of science and technology have become intimately linked together. Many scientific
discoveries have been facilitated by the development of new technology. New scientific
knowledge in turn has often led to further refinement of existing technology or the invention of
entirely new ones.
Precolonial Science and Technology
There is a very little reliable written information about Philippine society, culture and
technology before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1521. As such, one has to reconstruct a picture
of this past using contemporary archaeological findings, accounts by early traders and foreign
travelers, and the narratives about conditions in the archipelago which were written by the
first Spanish missionaries and colonial officials. According to these sources, there were
numerous, scattered, thriving, relatively self-sufficient and autonomous communities long
before the Spaniards arrived. The early Filipinos had attained a generally simple level of
technological development, compared with those of the Chinese and Japanese, but this was
sufficient for their needs at that period of time.
 Archaeological findings indicate that modern men (homo sapiens) from the Asian
mainland first came over-land and across narrow channels to live in Palawan and Batangas
around 50,000 years ago. For about 40,000 years, they made simple tools or weapons of stone
flakes but eventually developed techniques for sawing, drilling and polishing hard stones. These
Stone Age inhabitants, subsequently formed settlements in the major Philippine islands such as
Sulu, Mindanao (Zamboanga, and Davao), Negros, Samar, Luzon (Batangas, Laguna, Rizal,
Bulacan and the Cagayan region). By about 3,000 B.C., they were producing adzes ornaments of
seashells and pottery of various designs. The manufacture of pottery subsequently became well
developed and flourished for about 2,000 years until it came into competition with imported
Chinese porcelain. Thus, over time pottery making declined. What has survived of this ancient
technology is the lowest level, i.e., the present manufacture of the ordinary cooking pot among
several local communities.
Gradually, the early Filipinos learned to make metal tools and implements -- copper, gold,
bronze and, later, iron. The Iron Age is considered to have lasted from the second or third
century B.C. to the tenth century A.D. Excavations of Philippine graves and work sites have
yielded iron slags. These suggest that Filipinos during this period engaged in the actual
extraction of iron from ore, smelting and refining. But it appears that the iron industry, like the
manufacture of pottery, did not survive the competition with imported cast iron from Sarawak
and much later, from China.
By the first century A.D., Filipinos were weaving cotton, smelting iron, making pottery
and glass ornaments and were also engaged in agriculture. Lowland rice was cultivated in diked
fields and in the interior mountain regions as in the Cordillera, in terraced fields which utilized
spring water.
Filipinos had also learned to build boats for the coastal trade. By the tenth century A.D.,
this had become a highly developed technology. In fact, the early Spanish chroniclers took note
of the refined plank-built warship called caracoa. These boats were well suited for inter-island
trade raids. The Spaniards later utilized Filipino expertise in boat-building and seamanship to
fight the raiding Dutch, Portuguese, Muslims and the Chinese pirate Limahong as well as to
build and man the galleons that sailed to Mexico.
By the tenth century A.D., the inhabitants of Butuan were trading with Champa
(Vietnam); those of Ma-i (Mindoro) with China. Chinese records which have now been
translated contain a lot of references to the Philippines. These indicate that regular trade
relations between the two countries had been well established during the tenth to the
fifteenth centuries. Archaeological findings (in various parts of the archipelago) of Chinese
porcelains made during this period support this contention. From the Sung (960-1278) and
Yuan (1260-1368) Dynasties, there are descriptions of trade with the Philippines, and from the
Sung and Ming (1360-1644) Dynasties there are notices of Filipino missions to Peking.
The most frequently cited Chinese account in Philippine history textbooks is that of Chao
Ju-Kua in 1225. He described the communities and trading activities in the islands of Ma-i
(Mindoro) and San-hsu (literally three islands which present-day historians think refer to the
group of Palawan and Calamian Islands). The people of Ma-i and San-hsu traded beeswax,
cotton, true pearls, tortoise shell, medicinal betelnuts, yu-ta cloth (probably jute or ramie?)
and coconut heart mats for Chinese porcelain, iron pots, lead fishnet sinkers, colored glass
beads, iron needles and tin. These were practically the same commodities of trade between
the islands and China which the first Spanish colonial officials recorded when they came to
the Philippines more than two centuries later.
The Filipinos in Mindanao and Sulu traded with Borneo, Malacca and parts of the Malay
Peninsula. This trade seems to have antedated those with the Chinese. By the time the
Spaniards reached the archipelago, these trade relations had been firmly established such that the
alliance between the rulers of Manila and Brunei had become strengthened by marriage. It was
through these contacts that Hindu-Buddhist, Malay-Sanskrit and Arab-Muslim Cultural and
technological influences spread to the Philippines. There have also been some references (by
early travelers during the precolonial period) to trade relations between Japan and the
Philippines. To date however, Philippine historians have not found any prehispanic references
to the Philippines in Japanese literature of the period.
By the time the Spaniards came to colonies the Philippines in 1565; they found many
scattered, autonomous village communities (called barangays) all over the archipelago. These
were kinship groups or social units rather than political units. They were essentially subsistence
economies producing mainly what they needed.
These communities exhibited uneven technological development. Settlements along the
coastal areas which had been exposed to foreign trade and cultural contacts such as Manila,
Mindoro, Cebu, Southern Mindanao and Sulu, seem to have attained a more sophisticated
technology. In 1570, for example, the Spaniards found the town of Mindoro "fortified by a
stone wall over fourteen feet thick," and defended by armed Moros -- "bowmen, lancers,
and some gunners, linstocks in hand." There were a "large number of culverins" all along the
hillside of the town. They found Manila similarly defended by a palisade along its front with
pieces of artillery at its gate. The house of Raja Soliman (which was burned down by Spaniards)
reportedly contained valuable articles of trade -- "money, copper, iron, porcelain, blankets, wax,
cotton and wooden vats full of brandy." Next to his house was a storehouse which contained:
much iron and copper; as well as culverins and cannons which had melted. Some small and
large cannon had just begun. There were the clay and wax moulds, the largest of which was for
a cannon seventeen feet long, resembling a culverin...
These reports indicate that the Filipinos in Manila had learned to make and use modern
artillery. The Spanish colonizers noted that all over the islands, Filipinos were growing rice,
vegetables and cotton; raising swine, goats and fowls; making wine, vinegar and salt;
weaving cloth and producing beeswax and honey. The Filipinos were also mining gold in such
places as Panay, Mindoro and Bicol. They wore colorful clothes, made their own gold jewelry
and even filled their teeth with gold. Their houses were made of wood or bamboo and nipa.
They had their own system of writing and weights and measures. Some communities had
become renowned for their plank-built boats. They had no calendar but counted the years by
moons and from one harvest to another.
In the interior and mountain settlements, many Filipinos were still living as hunters.
They gathered forest products to trade with the lowland and coastal settlements. But they also
made "Iron lance-points, daggers and certain small tools used in transplanting."
On the whole, the pre-colonial Filipinos were still highly superstitious. The Spaniards
found no temples or places of worship. Although the Filipinos knew how to read and write in
their own system, this was mainly used for messages and letters. They seem not to have
developed a written literary tradition at that time.(20) This would have led to a more
systematic accumulation and dissemination of knowledge, a condition that is necessary for the
development of science and technology. Because of the abundance of natural resources, a
benign environment and generally sparse population, there seemed to have been little
pressure for invention and innovation among the early Filipinos. As governor Francisco de
Sande observed in 1575, the Filipinos do not understand any kind of work, unless it be to do
something actually necessary -- such as to build their houses, which are made of stakes after
their fashion; to fish, according to their method; to row, and perform the duties of sailors;
and to cultivate the land...
Developments in Science and Technology
During the Spanish Regime
The beginnings of modern science and technology in the Philippines can be traced
to the Spanish regime. The Spaniards established schools, hospitals and started scientific
research and these had important consequences for the rise of the country’s professions. But the
direction and pace of development of science and technology were greatly shaped by the role of
the religious orders in the conquest and colonization of the archipelago and by economic and
trade adopted by the colonial government.
The interaction of these forces and the resulting socio-economic and political changes
must, therefore, be analyzed in presenting a history of science and technology in the Philippines.
Spanish conquest and the colonization of the archipelago were greatly facilitated by the
adoption of an essentially religious strategy which had earlier been successfully used in Latin
America. Known as reduccion, it required the consolidation of the far-flung, scattered barangay
communities into fewer, larger and more compact settlements within the hearing distance of the
church bells. This was a necessary response to the initial shortage of Spanish missionaries in the
Philippines. This policy was carried out by a combination of religious conversion and military
force.
The net result of reduccion was the creation of towns and the foundation of the present
system of local government. The precolonial ruling class, the datus and their hereditary
successors, were adopted by the Spanish colonial government into this new system to serve as
the heads of the lowest level of local government; i.e. as cabezas de barangay. The colonial
authorities found the new set-up expeditious for establishing centralized political control over
the archipelago -- for the imposition and collection of the tribute tax, enforcement of
compulsory labor services among the native Filipinos, and implementation of the compulsory
sale of local products to the government.
The Filipinos naturally resisted reduccion as it took them away from their rice fields,
the streams and the forests which were their traditional sources of livelihood and also
subjected them to the onerous economic exactions by the colonial government. Thus the first
century of Spanish rule brought about serious socio-economic dislocation and a decline
kin agricultural production and traditional crafts in many places. In the region
surrounding the walled city of Manila, Filipinos migrated from their barangays to the city in
order to serve in the convents and thus avoid the compulsory labor services in the shipyards
and forests. Over the centuries, this population movement would greatly contribute to the
congestion of Manila and its suburbs.
The religious orders likewise played a major role in the establishment of the colonial
educational system in the Philippines. They also influenced the development of technology and
promotion of scientific research. Hence, these roles must next be examined.
Various decrees were issued in Spain calling for the establishment of a school system in
the colony but these were not effectively carried out. Primary instruction during the Spanish
regime was generally taken care of by the missionaries and parish priests in the villages and
towns. Owing to the dearth of qualified teachers, textbooks and other instructional materials,
primary instruction was mainly religious education. Higher education was provided by
schools set up by the different religious orders in the urban centers, most of them in
Manila. For example, the Jesuits founded in Cebu City the Colegio de San Ildefonso (1595) and
in Manila, the Colegio de San Ignacio (1595), the Colegio de San Jose (1601) and the Ateneo de
Manila (1859). The Dominicans had the Colegio de San Juan de Letran (1640) in Manila.
Access to these schools was, however, limited to the elite of the colonial society -- the
European-born and local Spaniards, the mestizos and a few native Filipinos. Courses
leading to the B.A. degree, Bachiller en Artes, were given which by the nineteenth century
included science subjects such as physics, chemistry, natural history and mathematics.
On the whole, however, higher education was pursued for the priesthood or for clerical
positions in the colonial administration. It was only during the latter part of the nineteenth
century that technical/vocational schools were established by the Spaniards.(26)
Throughout the Spanish regime, the royal and pontifical University of Santo Tomas
remained as the highest institution of learning. Run by the Dominicans, it was established as a
college in 1611 by Fray Miguel de Benavides. It initially granted degrees in theology,
philosophy and humanities. During the eighteenth century, the faculty of jurisprudence and
canonical law was established. In 1871, the schools of medicine and pharmacy were opened.
From 1871 to 1886, the University of Santo Tomas granted the degree of Licenciado en
Medicina to 62 graduates. For the doctorate degree in medicine, at least an additonal year of
study was required at the Universidad Central de Madrid in Spain.
The study of pharmacy consisted of a preparatory course with subjects in natural history
and general chemistry and five years of studies in subjects such as pharmaceutical operations at
the school of pharmacy. At the end of this period of the degree of Bachiller en Farmacia was
granted. The degree of licentiate in pharmacy, which was equivalent to a master's degree, was
granted after two years of practice in a pharmacy, one lof which could be taken simultaneously
with the academic courses after the second year course of study. In 1876, the university
granted the bachelor's degree in pharmacy to its first six graduates in the school of pharmacy.
Among them was Leon Ma. Guerrero, who is usually referred to as the "Father of Philippine
Pharmacy" becuase of his extensive work on the medicinal plants of the Philippines and their
uses. The total number of graduates in pharmacy during the Spanish period was 164.
There were no schools offering engineering at that time. The few who studied engineering
had to go to Europe. There was a Nautical School created on 1 January 1820 which offered a
four-year course of study (for the profession of pilot of merchant marine) that included
subjects as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, hydrography, meteorology,
navigation and pilotage. A School of Commercial Accounting and a School of French and
English Languages were established in 1839.
In 1887, the Manila School of Agriculture was created by royal decree but it was able
to open only in July 1889. The School was designed to provide theoretical and practical
education of skilled farmers and overseers and to promote agricultural development in the
Philippines by means of observation, experiment and investigation. Agricultural stations were
also established in Isabela, Ilocos, Albay, Cebu, Iloilo, Leyte and parts of Mindanao. The
professors in the School were agricultural engineers. The School was financed by the
government but it appears that its direction was also left to the priests. The certificates of
completion of the course were awarded by the University of Santo Tomas or the Ateneo
Municipal. It seems that the School was not successful as Filipinos did not show much
inclination for industrial pursuits.
In 1863, the colonial authorities issued a royal decree designed to reform the existing
educational system in the country. It provided for the establishment of a system of
elementary, secondary and collegiate schools, teacher-training schools, and called for
government supervision of these schools. The full implementation of this decree, however, was
interrupted by the coming of the Americans in 1898.
Higher education during the Spanish regime was generally viewed with suspicion and
feared by the colonial authorities as encouraging conspiracy and rebellion among the native
Filipinos. For this reason, only the more daring and persevering students were able to undertake
advantaged studies. The attitude of the Spanish friars towards the study of the sciences and
medicine was even more discouraging. As one Rector of the University of Santo Tomas in the
1960s said: "Medicine and the natural sciences are materialistic and impious studies." It was not
surprising, therefore, that few Filipinos ventured to study these disciplines. Those who did were
poorly trained when compared with those who had gone to European universities. Science
courses at the University of Santo Tomas were taught by the lecture/recitation method.
Laboratory equipment was limited and only displayed for visitors to see. There was little or no
training in scientific research. Sir John Bowring, the British Governor of Hongkong who
made an official visit to the Philippines in the 1850s wrote:
Public instruction is in an unsatisfactory state in the Philippines--the provisions are little
changed from those of the monkish ages.
In the University of Santo Tomas... no attention is given to the natural sciences... nor
have any of the educational reforms which have penetrated most of the colleges of Europe
and America found their way to the Philippines.
In spite of the small number of Filipino graduates from the UST in medicine and the
sciences they still faced the problem of unemployment. This was because the colonial
government preferred to appoint Spanish and other European-trained professionals to
At the start of the American regime, a German physician of Manila submitted a report to
the authorities on the conditions at UST's medical college. The report mentions, among others,
its lack of library facilities, the use of outdated textbooks (some published in 1845), that no
female cadaver had ever been dissected and the anatomy course was a "farce", that most
graduates "never had attended even one case of confinement or seen a case of
laparotomy" and that bacteriology had been introduced only since the American occupation
and "was still taught without microscopes!" Many of these graduates later joined the
revolutionary movement against Spain.
 With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the consequent ease in travel and
communications that it brought about, the liberal ideas and scientific knowledge of the West
also reached the Philippines. The prosperity that resulted from increased commerce between
the Philippines and the rest of the world enabled Filipino students to go to Europe for
professional advanced studies. These included Jose Rizal who was able to pursue studies in
Medicine and specialize in ophthalmology in Spain and Germany; Graciano Apacible who
studied medicine in Madrid; Antonio Luna who obtained his Ph.D. in pharmacy in Madrid and
later worked with renowned scientists in Ghent and Paris; Jose Alejandrino who took up
engineering in Belgium, and others. It was this group of students which set up the Propaganda
Movement in Europe that eventually led to the Philippine revolution against Spain.
The religious orders provided most of the teaching force and institutions of learning in the
colony. This was similar to the situation that had earlier prevailed in Europe (where they had
come from) during the medieval ages. Inevitably, members of the religious orders also took the
lead in technological innovation and scientific research. This involvement invariably arose from
their need to provide for basic necessities as they went around the archipelago to perform their
missionary work of propagating the Catholic faith and to finance the colleges, hospitals and
orphanages that they had established.
The Spaniards introduced the technology of town planning and building with stones, brick
and tiles. In many places, religious (such as Bishop Salazar in Manila) personally led in these
undertakings. Because of the lack of skilled Filipinos in these occupations, the Spaniards had to
import Chinese master builders, artisans and masons. The native Filipinos were drafted, through
the institution of compulsory labor services, to work on these projects. In this manner, the
construction of the walls of Manila, its churches, convents, hospitals, schools and public
buildings were completed by the seventeenth century.
Towards the end of the sixteenth century, the religious orders had established several
charity hospitals in the archipelago and in fact provided the bulk of this public service. These
hospitals became the setting for rudimentary scientific work during the Spanish regime long
before the establishment of the University of Santo Tomas (UST) college of medicine.
Research in these institutions were confined to pharmacy and medicine and concentrated on the
problems of infectious diseases, their causes and possible remedies. Several Spanish missionaries
observed, catalogued and wrote about Philippine plants, particularly those with medicinal
properties. The most notable of these was Father Fernando de Sta. Maria's Manual de
Medicinas Caseras published in 1763 which was so in demand that it had undergone several
editions by 1885.
By the second half of the nineteenth century, studies of infectious diseases such as
smallpox, cholera, bubonic plague, dysentery, leprosy and malaria were intensified with the
participation of graduates of medicine and pharmacy from UST.(45) At this time, native
Filipinos began to participate in scientific research. In 1887, the Laboratorio Municipal de
Ciudad de Manila was created by decree. Its main functions were to conduct biochemical
analyses for public health and to undertake specimen examinations for clinical and medico-legal
cases. It had a publication called Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas showing scientific
studies being done during that time.
There was very little development in Philippine agriculture and industry during the first
two centuries of Spanish rule. This was largely due to the dependence of the Spanish colonizers
on the profits from the Galleon or Manila-Acapulco trade, which lasted from 1565 to 1813. It
was actually based on the trade with China which antedated Spanish rule. The galleons brought
to Latin America Chinese goods -- silk and other cloths, porcelain and the like -- and brought
back to Manila Mexican silver. When the Spanish and Portuguese thrones were united from
1581 to 1640, goods brought to Manila by ships from Japan and Portuguese ships from Siam,
India, Malacca, Borneo and Cambodia were also carried by the galleons to Mexico. During the
time, Manila prospered as the entrepot of the Orient.
The Filipinos hardly benefited from the Galleon trade. Direct participation in the trade was
limited to Spanish inhabitants of Manila who were given shares of lading space in the galleons.
Many of them simply speculated on these trading rights and lived off on their profits. It was the
Chinese who profited most from the trade. They acted as the trade's packers, middlemen,
retailers and also provided services and other skills which the Spanish community in Intramuros
needed.
Spanish preoccupation with the Manila Galleon eventually led to the neglect of agriculture
and mining and the decline of native handicrafts and industries in the Philippines. The
deleterious effects of the trade on the archipelago's domestic economy had been pointed out by
some Spanish officials as early as 1592. But this seems to have been largely ignored by colonial
policy-makers. Only the local shipbuilding industry continued to prosper because of necessity --
to build the galleons and other ships required for internal commerce and the defense of the
archipelago. This had become quite well developed according to a French visitor in the
nineteenth century. He observed:
In many provinces shipbuilding is entirely in the hands of the natives. The excellence of
their work is proof that they are perfectly capable of undertaking the study of abstruse sciences
and that mathematical equations are by no means beyond their comprehension.
Agricultural development was left to the resident Chinese and the Spanish friars. The
latter saw in the cultivation of their large estates around Manila a steady source of financial
support for their churches, colleges, hospitals and orphanages in Intramuros. The friar estates
profited from the expanding domestic food market as a result of the population growth of Manila
and its suburbs. But the friars contribution in the development of existing agricultural
technology was more of quantitative than qualitative in nature. The profitability of their estates
was largely derived from the intensive exploitation of native technology and their free
compulsory personal services.
Successive shipwrecks of and piratical attacks on the galleons to Mexico led to
declining profits from the trade and triggered an economic depression in Manila during the
latter part of the seventeenth century. This situation was aggravated by increasing restrictions
on the goods carried by the Manila Galleon as a consequence of opposition coming from
Andalusion merchants and mercantilists in Spain.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Bourbon dynasty ascended to the
Spanish throne and brought with it political and economic ideas of the French Enlightenment.
This paved the way for more government attention to the economic development of the
Philippines. Enterprising Spaniards began to exploit the mineral wealth of the islands, develop
its agriculture, and establish industries. These efforts were further encouraged by the need to
promote economic recovery after the British Occupation of Manila in 1762-1764.
Research in agriculture and industry was encouraged by the founding of the Real
Sociedad Economica de los Amigos del Pais de Filipinas (Royal Economic Society of Friends
of the Philippines) by Governador Jose Basco y Vargas under authority of a royal decree of
1780. Composed of private individuals and government officials, the Society functioned
somewhat like the European learned societies during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
and a modern National Research Council, It undertook the promotion of the cultivation of
indigo, cotton, cinnamon, and pepper and the development of the silk industry. During the
nineteenth century, it was endowed with funds which it used to provide prizes for successful
experiments and inventions for the improvement of agriculture and industry: to finance the
publication of scientific and technical literature, trips of scientists from Spain to the Philippines,
professorships; and to provide scholarships to Filipinos.
In 1789, Manila was opened to Asian shipping. This inaugurated an era of increasing
Philippine exports of rice, hemp, sugar, tobacco, indigo and others and rising imports of
manufactured goods. In 1814, Manila was officially opened to world trade and commerce;
subsequently other Philippine ports were opened.
Foreign capital was allowed to operate on an equal footing with Spanish merchants in
1829. By this means agricultural production particularly of sugar and hemp, was accelerated
and modernized. Local industries flourished in Manila and its suburbs -- weaving,
embroidery, hatmaking, carriage manufacture, rope-making, cigar and cigarettes-
making. Much of the finished products of these industries were exported. Yet although
Philippine exports kept rising during the nineteenth century, imports of manufactured goods also
rose and foreign, particularly English capital dominated external trade and commerce. This
partly because of short-sighted Spanish colonial trade policies and the relative inexperience
and lack of capital of Spanish colonial trade policies and the relative inexperience and lack of
capital of Spanish and Filipino merchants.
The prosperity arising from expanded world trade and commerce in the nineteenth century
led to Manila's rapid development as a cosmopolitan center. Modern amenities -- a waterworks
system, steam tramways, electric lights, newspapers, a banking system -- were introduced into
the city by the latter half of the nineteenth century. Undoubtedly, commercial needs led to the
Spanish governments establishment of a Nautical School, vocational schools and a School of
Agriculture during the nineteenth century. Various offices and commissions were also
created by the Spanish government by the Spanish government to undertake studies and
regulations of mines, research on Philippine flora, agronomic research and teaching,
geological research and chemical analysis of mineral waters throughout the country. However,
little is known about the accomplishments of these scientific bodies.
Meteorological studies were promoted by Jesuits who founded the Manila Observatory in
1865. The Observatory collected and made available typhoon and climatological observations.
These observations grew in number and importance so that by 1879, it became possible for Fr.
Federico Faura to issue the first public typhoon warning. The service was so highly appreciated
by the business and scientific communities that in April 1884, a royal decree made the
Observatory an official institution run by the Jesuits, and also established a network of
meteorological stations under it. In 1901, the Observatory was made a central station of the
Philippine Weather Bureau which was set up by the American colonial authorities. It remained
under the Jesuit scientists and provided not only meteorological but also seismological and
astronomical studies.
The benefits of economic development during the nineteenth century were unevenly
distributed in the archipelago. While Manila prospered and rapidly modernized, much of the
countryside remained underdeveloped and poor. The expansion of agricultural production for
export exacerbated existing socio-economic inequality that had been cumulative consequence of
the introduction of land as private property at the beginning of Spanish rule. There was
increasing concentration of wealth among the large landowners -- the Spaniards, especially the
religious orders, the Spanish and Chinese mestizos, the native Principalia -- and poverty and
landlessness among the masses. This inequality, coupled with abuses and injustices committed
by the Spanish friars and officials gave rise to Philippine nationalism and eventually the
Revolution of 1896.
At the end of the Spanish regime, the Philippines had evolved into a primary agricultural
exporting economy. Progress in agriculture had been made possible by some government
support for research and education in this field. But it was largely the entry of foreign capital
and technology which brought about the modernization of some sectors, notably sugar and hemp
production. The lack of interest and support for research and development of native industries
like weaving, for example, eventually led to their failure to survive the competition with foreign
imports. Because of necessity and the social prestige attached to university education, medicine
and pharmacy remained the most developed science-based professions during the Spanish
regime.

Science and Technology during the First Republic

There was very little development in science and technology during the short-lived
Philippine Republic (1898-1900). The government took steps to establish a secular educational
system by a decree of 19 October 1898; it created the Universidad Literaria de Filipinas as a
secular, state-supported institution of higher learning. It offered courses in law, medicine,
surgery, pharmacy and notary public. During its short life, the University was able to hold
graduation exercises in Tarlac on 29 September 1899 when degrees in medicine and law were
awarded.

Developments in Science and Technology

During the American Regime
Science and technology in the Philippines advanced rapidly during the American regime.
This was made possible by the simultaneous government encouragement and support for an
extensive public education system; the granting of scholarships for higher education in science
and engineering; the organization of science research agencies and establishment of science-
based public services.
The Americans introduced a system of secularized public school education as soon as
civil government was set up in the islands. On 21 January 1901, the Philippine Commision,
which acted as the executive and legislative body for the Philippines until 1907, promulgated Act
No. 74 creating a Department of Public Instruction in the Philippines. It provided for the
establishment of schools that would give free primary education, with English as the medium of
instruction. This was followed by the setting up of a Philippine Normal School to train Filipino
teachers. Secondary schools were opened after a further enactment of the Philippine in
Commission in 1902. The Philippine Medical School was established in 1905 and was
followed by other professional and technical schools. These were later absorbed into the
University of the Philippines.
The colonial authorities initially adopted a coordinated policy for the promotion of higher
education in the sciences and government research institutions and agencies performing technical
functions. The University of the Philippines was created on 18 June 1908 by Act of the
Philippine Legislature. Among the first colleges to be opened were the College of
Agriculture in Los Baños, Laguna in 1909, the Colleges of Liberal Arts, Engineering and
Veterinary Medicine in 1910 and the College of Law in 1911. By 1911, the University had an
enrollment of 1,400 students, Four Years later, its enrollment had almost doubled (to 2,398) and
the University included two new units, a School of Pharmacy and a Graduate School of Tropical
Medicine and Public Health. In 1916, the School of Forestry and Conservatory of Music were
established; and in 1918, the College of Education was opened.
Except in the College of Medicine, where there were already a number of Filipino
physicians who were qualified to become its faculty members when it was opened in 1907,
most of the early instructors and professor in the sciences and engineering at the University of
the Philippines were Americans and other foreigners. Qualified Filipinos were sent abroad for
advanced training and by this means foreign faculty were gradually replaced by Filipinos. For
example, in 1920, Filipino Ph.D. graduates of U.S. universities took over the Department of
Agriculture Chemistry in the College of Agriculture. By December 1926, the university's
enrollment in all colleges had reached 6,464 and out of a total teaching staff of 463, only 44
were Americans and other foreigners.
Before 1910, the American colonial government encouraged young men and women to get
higher professional education as much as possible in American colleges. In 1903, the Philippine
commission passed an Act to finance the sending of 135 boys and girls of high school age to the
United States to be educated as teachers, engineers, physicians and lawyers. One third of these
were chosen by the governor-general on a nation-wide basis and the rest by the provincial
authorities. In exchange for this privilege, the pensionados, as they came to be called, were to
serve in the public service for five years after their return from their studies. Between 1903 and
1912, 209 men and women were educated under this program in American schools. After the
establishment of the University of the Philippines, scholarships for advanced studies of a
scientific or technical nature in American Universities were given only in preparation for
assignment to jobs in the public service.
The Philippine Commission introduced science subjects and industrial and vocational
education into the Philippine school system but they found that industrial and vocation courses
were very unpopular with the Filipinos. When the Manila Trade School was opened in 1901,
the school authorities found it difficult to get students to enroll in these courses. Because of their
almost 400 years of colonial experience under the Spaniards, middle class Filipinos had
developed a general disdain for manual work and a preference for the prestigious professions
of the time, namely, the priesthood, law and medicine. Education in these professions came to
be regarded as the means of making the best of the limited opportunities in the Spanish colonial
bureaucracy and thus of rising from one's social class. Hence, even at the newly-opened
University of the Philippines, it was difficult to get students to enroll in courses which required
field work such as, for example, agriculture, veterinary medicine, engineering and other
applied science. Scholarships were thus offered by the government to attract a sufficient
number of students to enroll in courses that were needed to fill up the technical positions in
the government service.
In the field of medicine, the Philippine Commission provided for as many scholarships
as there were regularly organized provinces in the Islands. These were awarded by the
school departments after competitive examinations in the provinces. A recipient of these
scholarships was required to return to the province from whence he came and to serve as a
physician for as many years as his medical education was paid for by the
government. This policy was adopted not only to assure the medical school a continuing
supply of carefully selected students but also to ensure a balanced geographical distribution
of physicians in the different provinces and to counteract their tendency to settle in the
large urban areas.
Selected graduates of the schools of medicine and nursing were also sent on government
scholarship to universities in the United States for postgraduate courses and training in
special fields. In 1921, the Rockefeller foundation provided for six fellowships for qualified
Filipinos in universities in the United States and Europe, two each in he fields of public
health (preventive medicine), public health laboratory work and teacher training in nursing
education. Over several years, the Foundation provided more than thirty of these fellowships
and also financed shorter observation trips of many other health officials.
It also greatly aided in the establishment and development of the Graduate School of
Public Health and Hygiene in the University of the Philippines.
When the Bureau of Public Works was created in 1901, the Americans found that there
were no competent Filipino engineers, and American engineers had to be imported. As a
consequence, a special effort was made to attract Filipinos to pursue advanced studies leading
to careers as engineers. In many cases government financial assistance was provided to enable
them to complete their professional studies in the United States. Upon achieving their
professional qualifications they were employed as junior engineers in the Bureau of Public
Works. Many of them rapidly advanced in their positions. Their career progress can be seen
from the fact that whereas in 1913 there were only 18 Filipino engineers out of a total of 145
engineers in the Bureau of Public Works, the rest being American; by the end of 1925, out of
190 engineers in the Bureau, only 16 were Americans and 174 were Filipinos.
The establishment of the University of the Philippines satisfied the short-run needs for
professionally trained Filipinos in the colonial government's organization and programs. What
the authorities did not recognize was that by providing for an extensive public school system at
the elementary and secondary levels they had increased tremendously the social demand for
professional education. The University of the Philippines remained the only publicly-
supported institutions for higher education, and, since it could not meet the increasing social
demand for universities was left to the initiative of enterprising Filipinos. For many Filipinos,
private education became the alternative for professional education.

Many of the existing private nonsectarian universities were organized during the early
period of the American regime to help meet the increasing demand for professional education
and the country's need for trained manpower. At the same time, these schools remained
distinctively Filipino in orientation as they were conceived by their founders as a means to
conserve the national heritage and prevent the complete Americanization of the Filipinos.
At the outset of the American regime, there was no definite government policy on private
schools. Because of the widespread disorganization that followed a more of these schools were
set up, government regulation and control was found necessary. The first attempt to regulate
private schools was through the Corporation Law (Act No. 1459) enacted by the Philippine
Commission in 1906. In effect, it treated the schools like commercial firms or business
enterprises except that they would be under the supervision of the Department of Public
Instruction rather than the Department of Trade and Industry.
In 1917, Act No. 2076 (Private School Act) was enacted by the Philippine Legislature. The
Act recognized private schools as educational institutions and not commercial ventures. It
required the Secretary of Public Instruction to "maintain a general standard of efficiency in
all private schools and colleges so that...(they shall) furnish adequate instruction to the
public..." and authorized him to "inspect and watch" these school and colleges. The
supervision of these schools was entrusted to a staff of four within the Department of
Public Instruction -- a superintendent, an assistant superintendent and two supervisors.
 The number of private colleges increased rapidly. In 1925 a survey of the educational
system of the Island was authorized Survey which was headed by Paul Monroe made a
comprehensive investigation of all public and private institutions of learning in the country.
The Monroe Survey found most private schools substandard. It reported that most of these were
physically ill equipped and with more part-time than full-time faculty members. Among the
private colleges and universities, it found out that: "The equipment of all these institutions is
owefully inadequate, the laboratory for the teaching of science being but a caricature of the real
thing".
As a consequence of the findings of the Monroe Survey, the Government took steps to
improve the machinery for the supervision of private schools. The Philippine
Legislature created the Office of Private Education to look into such matters as physical plant,
school facilities, libraries, laboratory equipment and student load, and administrative work
such as enforcement of relevant government regulations, evaluating credits taken by
students, managing admission of foreign students and the like. As a result of the increased
outlay for supervision of private schools, their standards were improved.
During the American regime, the development of science gained more government support
along with efforts to establish an old extensive public school system and public health programs.
The old Laboratorio Municipal was absorbed by the Bureau of Government Laboratories created
by the Philippine Commission in 1901. In 1905, the latter was reorganized and renamed Bureau
of Science. It remained the principal government research establishment until the end of the
Second World War. It had a biological laboratory, a chemical laboratory, a serum laboratory for
the production of vaccine virus, serums and prophylactics, a library. Most of the senior
scientists in the Bureau were initially Americans but as Filipinos acquired the necessary training,
they gradually took over their positions.
The Bureau of Science served as a valuable training ground for Filipino scientists. It
performed the needed chemical and biological examinations for the Philippine General Hospital
and Bureau of Health and manufactured the serums and prophylactics needed by the latter.
Pioneering research was done at the Bureau of Science on such diseases as leprosy,
tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria and beri-beri. Results of these studies were
readily available to the Bureau of Health for use in its various programs. Studies on the
commercial value of tropical products, tests of Philippine minerals and roadbuilding
materials, the nutritional value of foods, and other were similarly done at the Bureau of
Science. From 1906, it published the Philippine Journal of Science which reported not only
work done in local laboratories but also scientific developments abroad which had relevance
to Philippine problems.
The American colonial authorities organized other offices which, by the nature of their
operations, contributed further to the growth of scientific research. These were the Weather
Bureau (1901), the Board (later Bureau) of Health (1898), Bureau of Mines (1900), Bureau of
Forestry (1900), Bureau of Agriculture (1901), Bureau of Coast and Geodetic Survey (1905),
Bureau of Plant Industry (1929) and Bureau of Animal Industry (1929) (82) From 1927, there
were proposals from professional societies for the creation of a National Medical Research
Council and a National Research Council similar to those in the United States, Canada, and
Australia. The Philippine Legislature passed an extensively emulated abroad."
Act in 1933 creating the National Research Council of the Philippine Islands (NRCP).
Aside from working for the promotion of scientific research, the NRCP actively participated
in the deliberations and drafting of provisions affecting science and industry in the 1934
Constitutional Convention.
Educational and science policy during the American regime was not coordinated with
colonial economic policy. While Filipinos were provided opportunities for higher education in
the sciences and engineering, the economy remained basically agricultural. To a great extent,
Philippine economic development was determined by free trade relations established in 1909
between the Philippines and the United States, and these continued long after independence
was achieved in 1946. As a result of this policy, the Philippine economy became tied to that of
the United States, remaining primarily an exporter of agricultural crops and raw materials
and an importer of American manufactured goods. Undoubtedly this delayed Philippine
industrialization. The relative underdevelopment of the physical sciences vis-a-vis the medical
and agricultural sciences may be traced to this policy. Basic and applied research in the medical,
agricultural and related sciences received much greater government support during the American
regime than did industrial research.
Science and Technology
During the Commonwealth Period
 In 1935, the Philippine Commonwealth was inaugurated and ushered in a period of
transition to political independence. The Constitution acknowledged the importance of
promoting scientific development for the economic development of the country by incorporating
a provision (Article XIII, Section 4) declaring that "The State shall promote scientific research
and invention, Arts and Letters shall be under its patronage..."
The government, which was by this time completely under Filipino management,
continued to expand its public school system to accommodate the increasing number of
schoolchildren. The Government abolished Grade VII as the terminal grade in the
elementary curriculum and also instituted the "double-single session" plan thus reducing the
time allotment or dropping certain subjects in the elementary school. The government also
enacted Commonwealth Act No. 180 (13 November 1936) reestablishing the Office of
Private Education which had been abolished in 1932.
On the whole, higher education was provided mainly by the private sector. By 1936, there
were 425 private schools recognized by the government, 64 of which we institutions at the
College level and 7 were universities. These were Centro Escolar University, Far Easter
University, National University, Philippine Women's University, Silliman University,
University of Manila and the University of Santo Tomas. Together with the University of the
Philippines these had a total of 19,575 college students in all universities in the country. The
combined significant increase in trained scientists and engineers in the Philippines before the
Second World War.
The Commonwealth government worked towards the development of economic self-
reliance which would be necessary to sustain genuine political independence. It created the
National Economic Council to prepare an economic program and advise the government on
economic and financial questions. Several government corporations were reorganized and
new ones were created to perform such varied functions as the exploitation and development
of natural resources (e.g., the National Power Corporation); the development and promotion of
local industries (such as the National Development Company (NDC) and its subsidiaries,
the National Abaca and Other Fibers Corporation); promotion of agricultural production and
marketing; and the like. The NDC was especially mandated to undertake the development of
successful researches of government science agencies (such as the Bureaus of Science, Animal
Industry and Plant Industry) for commercial production.
 The Commonwealth government likewise adopted measures to encourage and provide
assistance to private Filipino businessmen in the establishment of industries and manufacturing
enterprises. For example, it created new agencies, such as the Bureau of Mines, to provide
assistance to businessmen undertaking mining exploration and development. It also increased
appropriations for the Bureaus of Science, Plant and Animal Industry, and thereby
encouraged more scientific research for industrial purposes.
In spite of all these efforts, the Commonwealth government was unable to achieve its goal
of economic self-reliance. This was primarily because foreign trade and tariff policies
remained under the control of the American government. Free trade relations also
continued and thus perpetuated the preferential treatment of exports of agricultural raw
materials. Moreover, the Pacific War broke out in 1941 and the Philippines was occupied by
Japanese troops.
The occupation of the Philippines by the Japanese during the War brought educational and
scientific activities practically to a halt as able bodied citizens joined the resistance movement.
Worse still, much of the country was reduced to ruins during the battles ought for the liberation
in 1944-45. Manila, which was the center of all educational and scientific activities, was razed
to the ground, destroying everything that had been built up before. It was in this condition that
the Philippines became an independent state. The government had to contend with economic
reconstruction, normalization of operations as well as the task of planning the direction of
economic development.
Science and Technology since Independence
The underlying pattern of education and training of scientists, engineers and
physicians established during the America regime, as well as the direction of government
support for scientific research and development, has basically remained unchanged since
independence in 1946. State support for education continues to be concentrated at the
elementary school level; private colleges and universities provide education for the majority of
the collegiate population.
The number of state universities and colleges has been increasing since 1946. However,
their growth has not been based on a rational plan. Partisan political considerations often
determined the creation, location and staffing of these institutions. Hence, many of them were
ill-equipped and ill-prepared to provide quality higher education particularly in the sciences and
engineering. State universities and colleges vary in standards arising largely from the uneven
distribution of faculty development programs. The University of the Philippines System remains
the most developed with extensive graduate and undergraduate degree programs in the sciences
and engineering. It receives over half of the national budget for state universities and colleges.
Private universities and colleges have similarly increased in numbers since 1946.
However, these vary in standards. Most non-sectarian universities and colleges are organized
and managed like business enterprises and are heavily dependent on tuition fees. To operate
profitably, they tend to concentrate on low-cost courses like business administration, liberal arts
and education, and encourage large enrollments in these. Sectarian universities and college tend
to be financially better endowed. Hence, they have been able to impose selective admissions,
lower faculty-student ratios and provide laboratory and library facilities requires for science
and engineering program. The large number of private colleges and universities to be
supervised and the limited Department of Education and Culture (now the Ministry of
Education, Culture and Sports) staff to do it has hampered effective government supervision
and control of their standards.
The number of college students and graduates from public and private universities and
colleges has shown tremendous increases since 1946. Nevertheless, the proportion of those
in agriculture, medical and natural sciences, and engineering has remained relatively low. There
are very few graduates in the physical sciences. Most students (and graduates) in agriculture
come from state institutions while most of those in engineering and medical sciences come from
private institutions. In both, the majority of college students and graduates continue to be in
teacher training/education and commerce/business administration courses. This situation results
from the fact that students tend to enroll in courses where there are perceived employment
opportunities and which their families can afford. Engineering and science courses entail longer
periods of study and have generally been more expensive to pursue.
The rise of professional organizations of scientists and engineers followed closely the
growth of higher education in the Philippines. The earliest organizations were in medicine and
pharmacy, professions which were the first to be introduced during the colonial era. As the
number of graduates in a particular discipline increased, associations were formed to promote
professional interests and regulate standards of practice and these were modelled after their
counterparts in the United States. Self-regulation by professional associations was eventually
institutionalized in government laws which established professional examining boards and
licensing procedures.
In certain cases, professional organizations initiated changes in the collegiate curriculum
for their specialization and worked for improvements in educational standards. The Philippine
Medical Association (PMA) actively worked to improve standards of medical education by
limiting enrollment in medical colleges and adding courses required for the medical degree.
Academic members of the profession have led in questioning the relevance of Western-
oriented medical curriculum to Philippine conditions. This has resulted in recent innovations
in medical training such as more exposure of students to community medicine and the
experimental curriculum to produce doctors for rural areas. In the field of engineering, the
Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers initiated a series of conference to discuss
curriculum revisions for its profession. Results of these conferences were then endorsed to the
Department of Education and Culture (DEC) for official adoption. In other branches of
engineering, the government through DEC convened meetings of educators, members of
professional examining boards, representatives of professional organizations and the private
sector to update and adopt uniform core curricula for all universities and colleges to follow.
These developments took place in 1973-1974.
On the whole, there has been little innovation in the education and training of scientists
and engineers since independence in 1946. This is in part due to the conservative nature of self-
regulation by the professional associations. Because of specialized training, vertical
organization by disciplines and lack of liaison between professions, professional associations
have been unable to perceive the dynamic relationship between science, technology and
society and the relevance of their training to Philippine conditions.
Paralleling the increasing number of state colleges and universities has been a rise in
government science agencies since 1946. In 1947, the Bureau of Science was reorganized into
an Institute of Science.(95) In the same year, an Instituter of Nutrition, and in 1952, the
Science Foundation of the Philippines (SFP) were created and placed (along with the
Institute of Science) under the Office of the President.(96) The Institute of Nutrition was to
perform research, advisory and extension functions while the Science Foundation was to
stimulate research in the sciences and engineering and promote science consciousness among
the people. In 1952, the Commission on Volcanology was also created and placed under the
National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP). Its function was primarily basic
research on volcanology.
Scientific work in government suffered from a lack of support, planning and
coordination during the early postwar years. The U.S. Economic Survey Mission to the
Philippines in 1950, noted in its Report the dearth of basic information needed by industries of
the country, the neglect of experimental work and the meager appropriation in the national
budget for scientific research, including the low salaries of government scientists. The
Bell Mission recommended, among other things, the systematic exploration of the
country's natural resources to determine their potentialities for economic development.
Following the Bell Mission's Report, the Institute of Science was reorganized in
1951. Renamed Institute of Science and Technology, it acquired the status of a government-
owned corporation and was placed under the office of Economic Coordination. Added to its
former functions of resources survey, testing and standardization, were the responsibility for
improving industrial processes and stimulating technological development.
In 1957, a report was submitted to the President pointing out the deterioration of
Philippine science since the early years of the American regime. The report analyzed the causes
of this decline -- the lack of government support; dearth of scientists of high training and
ability; low morale of scientists and a lack of public awareness of Science. It made several
recommendations towards a long-range development of science in the country. Consequently,
Congress enacted the Science Act of 1958.
The Science Act created the National Science Development Board (NSDB) to formulate
policies for the development of science and coordinate the work of science agencies. The
Act also created the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) and the National
Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) and placed these, along with the NRCP, under the
NSDB.
In the 1960s additional science agencies were created by law which thereby expanded
NSDB's organization and functions. These were the Philippine Inventors Commission
(1964), Philippine Coconut Research Institute (1964), Philippine Textile Research Institute
(1967), and Forest Products Research and Industries Development Commission (1969).(102)
Several existing agencies were also attached to NSDB for policy coordination -- the NRCP,
Metals Industry Research and Development Center (MIRDC), the SFP, Philippine Science High
School (PSHS) and Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR).
The creation of these science agencies undoubtedly shows increasing government
concern and support for the development of Philippine science and technology. In 1974, a
national science
In 1982, NSDB was further reorganized into a National Science and Technology
Authority (NSTA) composed of four research and Development Councils; Philippine Council for
Agriculture and Resources Research and Development; Philippine Council for Industry
and Energy Research Development; Philippine Council for Health Research and Development
and the NRCP. NSTA has also eight research and development institutes and support
agencies under it. These are actually the former organic and attached agencies of NSDB
which have themselves been reorganized.
The expanding number of science agencies has given rise to a demand for high calibre
scientists and engineers to undertake research and staff universities and colleges. Hence,
measures have also been taken towards the improvement of the country;s science and
manpower. In March 1983, Executive Order No. 889 was issued by the President which
provided for the establishment of a national network of centers of excellence in basic sciences.
As a consequence, six new institutes were created: The National Institutes of Physics,
Geological Sciences, Natural Sciences Research, Chemistry, Biology and Mathematical
Sciences. Related to this efforts was the establishment of a Scientific Career System in the
Civil Service by Presidential Decree No. 901 on 19 July 1983. This is designed to attract more
qualified scientists to work in government and encourage young people to pursue science
degrees and careers.
Summary and Conclusion
This paper has shown that the development of science and technology in the Philippines
has been greatly influenced by its historical experience as a colony of Spain and the United
States. Colonial policies, particularly those on economic development and external trade, have
over the centuries fostered a primarily agricultural, export-oriented economy dependent on
the outside world as market for its products and a source of manufactured goods. This has
led to a neglect and lack of support for industrialization.
 This problem of colonial development has effected the historical development of
Philippine science and technology. The agricultural science generally tended to receive more
funding and support compared to the physical sciences. This pattern of support persisted
despite the introduction of the other sciences into the country's educational system during the
American regime.
The continuing dependence of the Philippine economy on the United States even after
independence in 1946, as a result of the free trade relations and the virtual imposition of the
"parity" amendment to the Philippine Constitution by the US Congress has perpetuated the
predominantly agricultural and rural character of Philippine economy and society. This
dependent development of Philippine society and economy has had serious repercussions for
the advancement of Philippine science and technology. Increasing social demand for higher
education has led to the growth of highly-trained professional manpower, particularly
scientists, engineers and physicians. However, because of the underdeveloped state of the
economy, many of these science-based professionals have either been unemployed or
underemployed. Consequently, many of them have been forced to migrate to developed
countries, thus creating a "brain drain" or loss of valuable human resources for the Philippines.
(108) Worse still, this "brain drain" helps to perpetuate Philippine dependent
development as many of those who leave are highly educated and better trained professionals
who are needed in the country's development efforts. There is thus a need for the
government to critically reexamine the interrelations between past and present education and
science policies with those of its economic development policies in order to be able to redirect
these towards the goal of attaining a strong, self-reliant economy and society. A well
developed national science and technology is a critical factor in the achievement of this goal.
Post-colonial
After achieving independence from the colonizers, the Philippines under different
administrations, continued to promote programs in science and technology. Each leadership had
its own science and technology agenda.
One of the presidents who ushered in advancements in science and technology was
former President Ferdinand Marcos. Under his term, many agencies were established and
strengthened to promote science and technology in the country.
Marcos Era
During Ferdinand Marcos' presidency, the importance given to science grew. In the
amended 1973 Philippine Constitution, Article XV, Section 9 , he declared that the
"advancement of science and technology shall have priority in the national development." In his
two terms of presidency and during Martial Law, he enacted many laws promoting science and
technology.

In his Second State of the Nation Address on January 23, 1967, he declared that science
was necessary for the development programs, and thus, directed the Department of Education to
revitalize the science courses in public high schools. The Department of Education, with the
National Science Development Board (NSDB), is organizing a project to provide selected high
schools with science teaching equipment over a four-year period.
In his Third State of the Nation Address on January 22, 1968, he recognized that
technology was the leading factor in economic development, and channeled additional funds to
support projects in applied sciences and science education.
In his Fourth State of the Nation Address on January 27, 1969, he gave a big part of the
war damage fund to private universities to encourage them to create courses in science and
technology and to research. He stated that he planned a project to have medical interns do a tour
of duty in provincial hospitals to arouse their social conscious and reduce the "brain drain." On
April 6, 1968, he proclaimed 35 hectares in Bicutan, Taguig, Rizal as the site of the Philippine
Science Community. The government also conducted seminars for public and private high
school and college science teachers, training programs and scholarships for graduate and
undergraduate science scholars, and workshops on fisheries and oceanography.
In his Fifth State of the Nation Address on January 26, 1970, he emphasized that the
upgrading of science curricula and teaching equipment is crucial to the science development
program. He added the Philippine Coconut Research Institute to the NSDB to modernize the
coconut industry. The NSDB also established the Philippine Textile Research Institute. The
Philippine Atomic Energy Commission of the NSDB explored the uses of atomic energy for
economic development. Marcos assisted 107 institutions in undertaking nuclear energy work by
sending scientists to study nuclear science and technology abroad, and providing basic training to
482 scientists, doctors, engineers, and technicians.
In his Seventh State of the Nation Address on January 24, 1972, he spoke about his major
development projects in reforming sectors of education. Such projects included research and
development schools, technical institutes, science education centers, and agricultural colleges
and vocational high schools.
In 1972, he created the National Grains Authority to provide for the development of the
rice and corn industry to fully harness it for the economy of the country. (Presidential Decree No.
4, s. 1972).He established the Philippine Council for Agricultural Research to support the
progressive development of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries for the nation. It was attached to
the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources for administrative purposes. He provided
further support for the promotion of scientific research and invention with Presidential Decree
No. 49, s. 1972. This decree contains details on the protection of intellectual property for the
creator or publisher of the work. He established the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and
Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) under the Department of National Defense to
provide environmental protection and to utilize scientific knowledge to ensure the safety of the
people. (Presidential Decree No. 78, s. 1972).
In 1973, he created the Philippine National Oil Company to promote industrial and
economic development through effective and efficient use of energy sources. (Presidential
Decree No. 334, s. 1973).
 In 1976, he enacted a law under Presidential Decree No. 1003-A, s. 1976 to establish the
National Academy of Science and Technology, which is composed of scientists with "innovative
achievement in the basic and applied sciences," to serve as a reservoir of scientific and
technological expertise for the country.
In 1978, he created a Task Force on the formulation of a national action program on
science and technology to assess policies and programs of science and technology. (Executive
Order No. 512, s. 1978). In his Fourteenth State of the Nation Address on July 23, 1979, he said
that the government invested funds and time in organizations for scientific research, such as the
NSDB, the Philippine Council for Agricultural Research and Resources, the Plant Breeding
Institute, the International Rice Research Institute, the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the Bureau
of Forest Products. While these projects have had breakthroughs, the market machinery did not
adapt and invest in this technology due to the high-risk front-end costs.
In 1979, he constituted the Health Sciences Center created by R.A. No. 5163 as an
autonomous member within the University of the Philippines System to improve the internal
organization and unity of leadership within its units. (Executive Order No. 519, s. 1979).
In 1980, he created the National Committee on Geological Sciences to advise
government and private entities on matters concerning development in geological sciences.
(Executive Order No. 625, s. 1980).
In 1982, he reorganized the National Science Development Board and its agencies into a
National Science and Technology Authority to provide central direction and coordination of
scientific and technological research and development. (Executive Order No. 784, s. 1982). He
granted salary increases to the people with teaching positions in the Philippine Science High
School due to their necessity in the advancement of national science. (Executive Order No. 810,
s. 1982). He enacted a law on the completion of the National Agriculture and Life Sciences
Research Complex at the University of the Philippines at Los Baños. (Executive Order No. 840,
s. 1982).
In 1986, he established the Mindanao and Visayas campuses of the Philippine Science
High School to encourage careers in science and technology and to be more accessible to the
talented students in the Mindanao and Visayas areas. (Executive Order No. 1090, s. 1986).
Presidential Decree No. 78 (December 8, 1972) reorganized the Weather Bureau into the
Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) and
transferred it from the Department of Commerce and Industry to the Department of National
Defense.
The National Academy of Science and Technology is the
highest recognition and scientific advisory body of the Philippines
under the Department of Science and Technology
It was created through Presidential Decree 1003-A issued by
President Ferdinand E. Marcos in 1976 to honor and recognize
Filipino scientists who made worthy contributions in the
[Link] advancement of science and technology in the country.

The Cultural Center of the Philippines (Filipino: Sentrong

Pangkultura ng Pilipinas, or CCP) is a government owned and controlled
corporation established to preserve, develop and promote arts and culture
in the Philippines.[1][2] The CCP was established through Executive Order
No. 30 s. 1966
A popular venue for international exhibits and
performances, the CCP was built in 1966 in Pasay City under
Marcos' Executive Order 30. The 62-hectare complex opened
on Sept. 8, 1969.

The Lung Center of the Philippines was established

through Presidential Decree No. 1823 on January 16, 1981 to provide the Filipino people state-
of-the-art specialized care for lung and other chest diseases
 Bataan Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant, completed but never fueled, on
Bataan Peninsula, 100 kilometres (62 mi) west of Manila in the Philippines. It is located on a
3.57 square kilometre government reservation at Napot Point in Morong, Bataan. It was the
Philippines' only attempt at building a nuclear power plant.
The Balik Scientist program under the DOST was first established in 1975 through
Presidential Decree No. 819 under the administration of former president Ferdinand Marcos.

Originally a part of the CCP complex, the PICC was touted as Asia's first international
convention center that has been hosting local and foreign meetings and conventions.
It was inaugurated on Sept. 5, 1976 under Marcos' Presidential Decree No. 520.
At the southwest end of the CCP was the Manila Film Center, originally built as a
national film archive spearheaded by Imelda Marcos.
Commissioned by Imelda Marcos in 1974 for the Miss Universe competition in Manila,
the Folk Arts Theater was designed to seat 10,000. Today, it is still being used as a theater
although it should have been torn down a long time ago since it was done in a record time of
only 77 days.
 Completed in 1973, the San Juanico Bridge is the country's longest. It spans from Samar
to Imelda's home province, Leyte, as it was the late dictator's birthday gift to her.
"The 'Love Bridge,' the press would call it. The public hated it," Conrado de Quiros
writes in "Dead Aim," in 1997.

Originally known as Philippine Heart Center of Asia, this hospital in Quezon City was
built under Presidential Decree No. 673 by Marcos. Since it was inaugurated in 1975, it has been
the site of thousands of surgeries, including what was claimed to be the first successful renal
transplant in the country.
 Formerly the "National Kidney Foundation of the Philippines," the hospital was erected
in 1981 and claimed to have hosted many firsts in the Philippines, but already after the Marcos
regime. These included the first double kidney and pancreas transplant in Asia in 1988; the first
kidney and liver transplant in Asia in 1990; and the first bone marrow transplant in the
Philippines in 1990.
Established in 1981 to address health care for lung and pulmonary disease, this hospital
in Quezon City was built under Marcos' Presidential Decree No.
1823. A fire destroyed much of the center in 1988. In 1999, it
reopened and is still under construction.
The Mariano Marcos State University is a multidisciplinary,
state-funded institution of higher learning that serves the Ilocos
Region and its surrounding regions in the Philippines. Established on
January 6, 1976 by virtue of PD 1279

Special Topic
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND PRACTICES
Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices (IKSPs) are local knowledge
developed over centuries of experimentation and are passed orally from generations to
generation. It was found to be an important catalyst to sustainable development due to
their direct connection to resource management and conservation
With over 7,600 islands in the Philippines and three major island groups, it’s no wonder
that different cultural practices, traditions, and groups are present in the country. Among the
archipelago’s existing communities, there are indigenous tribes who have managed to keep their
cultural identity, despite the non-recognition and marginalization they’re facing.
Although there are quite a number of indigenous tribes or ethnic groups in the country,
they remain some of the most poor, least privileged, and impeded members of society. They
mostly reside in the mountains, and hence were not affected by Spanish or American
colonization, which is the primary reason they were able to retain their customs and traditions.
There are two main ethnic groups comprising several upland and lowland indigenous
tribes living within the Philippines – from the northern and southern parts of the Philippines. The
indigenous people living in the northern part of the country are called the Igorots, whereas those
non-Muslim indigenous tribes living in the south are referred to as Lumad.
Throughout history, Indigenous peoples have been responsible for the development of
many technologies and have substantially contributed to science.
Science is the pursuit of the knowledge. Approaches to gathering that knowledge are
culturally relative. Indigenous science incorporates traditional knowledge and Indigenous
perspectives, while non-Indigenous scientific approaches are commonly recognized as Western
science. Together, they contribute substantially to modern science.
Although the value of integrating Indigenous science with Western science has been
recognized, we have only begun to scratch the surface of its benefits.
Indigenous perspectives are holistic and founded upon interconnectedness, reciprocity
and the utmost respect for nature. Both Western and Indigenous science approaches and
perspectives have their strengths and can greatly complement one another.
Indigenous knowledge can be broadly defined as the knowledge that an indigenous
(local) community accumulates over generations of living in a particular environment (Rÿser
2011). Indigenous forestry knowledge systems largely encompass local technologies,
innovations, know-how, skills, practices and beliefs uniting local people to conserve forest
resources and their cultural values. These have developed over thousands of years of direct
human contact with the environment (Armstrong et al. 2006). Traditional knowledge often refers
to a more generalized expression of knowledge associating a people or peoples with ‘time-
honored’ ideas and practices associated with an individual or family (Rÿser 2011). This
knowledge is not limited to know-how, skills, innovations, practices, processes, learning and
teaching, but also includes knowledge that is associated with biodiversity, traditional lifestyles
and natural resources (WIPO 2012). While distinctions exist between the meanings of the terms,
there is also sufficient overlap; hence, indigenous knowledge is often equated or used
interchangeably with the term traditional knowledge, local knowledge, traditional forestry
practices, indigenous practices and indigenous knowledge systems.
In the Philippines, about 14–17 million of the total population are indigenous peoples
belonging to 110 ethno-linguistic groups mainly concentrated in Northern Luzon (33%) and
Mindanao (61%), with few groups in the Visayas area (UNDP, 2010). Molintas (2004)
underlined that many of these indigenous peoples can be found in remote forested and hilly
uplands. Some have also stood their ground successfully and maintained a close link with their
ancestral past.
Many indigenous peoples in the Philippines such as the Ifugaos in Cordillera Mountains
continued to thrive in their relatively remote and yet self-sufficient communities. They were able
to uphold their traditions as reflected in their music, dances, rituals, folklore, wood carving,
agriculture and forestry practices. For instance, they believe that many endemic trees such as
Ficus spp. are associated with spirits (anito), so they conserved them (Lim et al. 2012). The
indigenous peoples also observe customary laws that lay the foundation for justice, unity and
peace within their tribes.
Special Feature: The Ifugaos
The Ifugao province is well-known for its rice terraces that are inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Both
the muyongs and rice terraces are the ancestral domains2 of the Ifugaos under the provisions of Indigenous Peoples
Rights Act (Republic Act 8371 1997). There are two ethnolinguistic groups: Ayangan and Tuwali (DENR 2014).
The Ayangans are common in the northeast and southwestern portion of the province while the Tuwalis live at the
northwestern part. About 72% of the people are mainly engaged in farming for livelihood and employment. Ifugao
province has 11 municipalities.
According to Butic and Ngidlo (2003), the Ifugao mountain ranges called pugu or duntug are predominantly covered by
privately or clan-owned forests that are collectively termed as muyong (Figure 2). These watersheds provide ample
water supply and nourishment to rice paddies and help minimize soil erosion.
A typical view of Ifugao Rice Terraces showing muyong (woodlot) and payoh (rice terraces).
Uyongs were generally described by the key informants as a traditional land-use zoning system that is usually placed
along mountain peaks down to mid-slopes. These woodlots are also sources of their fuel wood, wood for house
construction and various edible fruits such as the areca nut (Areca catechu). The Bagong Pagasa Foundation Inc. (as
cited by Serrano & Cadaweng 2005) noted the sizes of muyongs often range from half to three hectares and have
emerged as a land-use system because of the following possible reasons:
Ifugaos are aware of the relationship between forest and water table and hence retaining verdant cover at the hilltop will
create a stable water source.
Muyongs are deemed major source of fuel wood for the local people.
Size of woodlots indicates economic status; hence the larger the muyongs, the greater the respect and recognition a clan
or family will get from others.
Some elderly Ifugaos, Banaue, Philippines | © rweisswald / Shutterstock

Muyong was also described by the key informants as a buffer that delineates boundaries. Other land uses that are linked
with muyongs are settlement or numboblayan/boble, natural forest or bilid, grasslands called buludna, swidden farms or
uma and, most importantly, rice terraces or payoh. Peripheral vegetation cover of muyongs is often cleared to indicate
boundary delineations among farm owners. This helps avoid land property disputes. In some cases, uma and abandoned
swiddens have converted to muyongs to enhance forest protection and production benefits.

Customary forest laws

Customary laws are reflections of rich traditions and beliefs that guide forest conservation. Key informants have
identified some of these laws that are relevant to promoting the sustainable management of muyongs. These include the
following:
Ficus trees are not being harvested for timber and fuel wood since they help maintain sufficient groundwater supply for
muyongs and payoh.
Local people refrain from cutting century-old endemic trees such as dipterocarps because they believe that these trees
harbour the spirits of their ancestors;
Before cutting old trees, they conduct rituals to seek the permission of their ancestors. A shaman locally known as
mumbaki directs the rituals.
In the olden times, selection cutting was being practiced since there is a specific tree species that can be used for
crafting rice god and constructing native houses, namely narra (Pterocarpus indicus).
When a child is baptized, the parents plant four seedlings in their muyong, which indicates the giving of their blessings
to their child.
Maid biyang umedi, which means no trespassing in muyong areas, is being observed to avert illegal hunting of wild
animals.
In the work of Serrano and Cadaweng (2005), remarkable customary laws are also identified. These are:
One may gather dead branches as fuel wood from other muyongs even without permission from the owner. Such
privilege is reciprocated by cleaning and tending the muyong as a form of payment for the fuel wood collected.
If a tree is harvested, the person who gathered should replace it with two seedlings. The owner determines what tree he
wants to give.

If a person is caught stealing from muyong, he or she is brought to the tribal elders and will be severely reprimanded.

To settle boundary conflicts, an ordeal called haddaccan – involving the two conflicting parties – is performed. Such an
ordeal can be carried out through butlong or a wrestling match between the representatives of each party. It can also be
resolved through uggub or long-throwing of reeds.

Stand management
The Ifugaos observe traditional stand management practices that help sustain healthy forest cover in muyong areas.
These practices were described as vital in ensuring healthy forest stands:

Hikwatan (Cleaning). An owner makes a habit to do some weeding to be able to help naturally regenerating trees to
grow.

Tanoman (Planting). Hardwood species are preferred by the owners since a big part of the Ifugao cultural identity is
wood carving and house construction. Two of the most common reforestation species being planted nowadays are fast-
growing species such as Swietenia macrophylla and Gmelina arborea. The local community also preferred planting
local species such as narra (Pterocarpus indicus) and rain tree (Samanea saman), which are perhaps the most popular
traditional construction and wood carving species. However, planting materials (e.g. Samanea saman, Pterocparpus
indicus, Lithocarpus spp. and dipterocarps) are difficult to find; hence, there is a proliferation of exotic and fast-
growing species (Swietenia macrophylla and Gmelina arborea) considering their short rotation period and widespread
availability. No negative ecological impacts have been identified thus far regarding the use of exotic species.

Selective cutting. Only the mature trees are cut for lumber and firewood based only on the need of the farmer. Crooked
and diseased trees are preferred for fuel wood use while straight-bole is used for posts and wood carving. Tree species
such as alimit and tuwol (both Ficus spp.) are spared since they were described as important water-conservers of
muyong. Likewise, balete trees (Ficus elastica and Ficus subcordata) are also protected, as the local people believe that
these trees shelter the spirits of the forest.

Hapi (Felling direction). The woodfeller observes a felling direction or hapi to avoid damage to residual trees and
nearby farms.

Bibiyo (Warning signal). When cutting a tree, one shouts out the name of the tree so that the bad spirits leave and the
people will not get hurt.

Upland cultivation
Swidden farming was described as the oldest form of agroforestry practice in Ifugao. Key informants described that
swidden farms or uma are confined to areas that are not being used for muyong and rice terraces. Swidden farming
practice involves clearing a patch of sloping grasslands and secondary forests. They plant sweet potato or corn for
about two to five years, followed by a fallow period (tahgwunon) for another five years. The fallow system contributes
to forest cover. Several indigenous swidden farming practices that help promote land stability and productivity were
described:

Apuyan (Burning). This practice is carried out in the late afternoon to avoid unwanted burning damages to adjacent
areas since relative humidity is high and winds are usually slight. Burning may start from the side or from the top to the
bottom of kaingin so that the fire movement will be slow.

Lotang (Fencing). Fences are established along the peripheries of swidden farms. Materials can be branches obtained
from vegetation clearing activities to avoid further cutting of trees.

Mungabut (Weeding). Removal of unwanted grasses and shrubs is usually performed by women. During weeding,
seedlings of indigenous trees such as udyo (Pterocarpus indicus), amug-awon (Vitex parviflora) and dipterocarps are
retained.

Biodiversity and ecosystem services

Camacho et al. (2012) noted that muyongs are storehouses of biodiversity. There are about 264 species, mainly
indigenous, belonging to 71 plant families that thrive in these conserved zones (Ngidlo 1998; Rondolo 2001). Among
these, the family of Euphorbiaceae is the most abundant, followed by Moraceae, Meliaceae, Leguminosae, Poaceae,
Anacardiaceae and Rubiaceae.

Furthermore, wood carving, primarily the crafting of religious relics such as bulul (rice god), was identified as one of
the primary benefits of practicing muyong. Ifugaos prefer Samanea saman for woodcrafts because it is fast growing,
durable and has good resistance to fungus and termites.

In order to regulate timber harvesting, a muyong resources permit3 is also being required by the government (through
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources or DENR) before a farmer can cut and transport timber and
timber products such as handicrafts. The guidelines governing the issuance of the muyong resources permit in the
Province of Ifugao are contained under the DENR Memorandum Circular No. 96–02 issued in 1996, which include
submission of the requirements (i.e. location and size of the muyong and the number of tree species planted, certificate
of residency in the area and raw material requirement). There is also restriction on the allowable volume/number of
species to be harvested as raw materials for livelihood projects. Likewise, maintenance of muyong is required
according to the accepted practices and rules of the DENR. Moreover, clear cutting of tree species within the area is
prohibited. This permit serves as a policy instrument to regulate timber exPerceived problems in the Ifugao forests

Major threats to the integrity of muyongs and payoh

One is the transition from the traditional organic to inorganic farming methods, which has generated negative impacts
on soil and water. The use of synthetic fertilizers was perceived to have degraded soil drainage and fertility.
Furthermore, the use of inorganic technology was believed to have incited infestation of earthworms and snails in
payoh. Second, the abandonment of muyongs and terraces was underscored as a pressing concern. Participants have
attributed this to declining interest in farming, as many prefer exploring other livelihood opportunities elsewhere for
better income. Furthermore, children were also perceived to have a low interest in continuing their farming traditions as
they desire to pursue other jobs after completing their studies.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems
Indigenous knowledge is embedded in the daily life experiences of young Filipinos as
they grow up. They live and grow in a society where the members of the community prominently
practice indigenous knowledge. Their parents and other older folks served as their first teachers
and their methods of teaching are very effective in transmitting cultural knowledge in their
minds. The lessons the learned are intimately interwoven with their culture and environment.
These lessons comprised of good values and life stories of people on their daily life struggles.
Their views about future and their reflections on their experiences in daily life are evident in
their stories, poems and songs.
Some examples of indigenous knowledge that are taught and practiced by the indigenous
people are:
 Predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing
animals’ behaviour and celestial bodies
 Using herbal medicines
 Preserving foods
 Classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural
properties
 Preserving and selecting viable seeds for planting
 Using indigenous technology
 Building local irrigation systems
 Classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties
 Producing wines and juices from tropical fruits; and
 Keeping the customs of growing plants and vegetables in the yard
Indigenous Science
Indigenous science is part of the indigenous knowledge system practiced by different
groups of people and early civilization. It includes complete array of knowledge, expertise,
practices, and representations that guide human societies in their enumerable interactions with
the natural milieu, agriculture, medicine, naming and exploring natural phenomena, and
strategies for coping with changing environment.
Philippines’ Indigenous Communities Practicing IKSP
The Igorots, which comprises
numerous tribes in the northern part of the
country, are mostly residing in the mountain
ranges of the Cordillera Region. They are
popularly known for being rice cultivators.
An assortment of the group called the
Ifugaos built the Banaue Rice Terraces –
frequently called the ‘eighth wonder of the
world’. The ancestors of this indigenous
tribe carved a system of irrigated rice terraces in the mountains of Ifugao more than 2,000 years
ago.

Lumad Tribes from the Southern Philippines

Meanwhile, in the southern part of the country, indigenous tribes are mostly found in
Mindanao and Western Visayas. In Mindanao, these existing non-Muslim indigenous groups are
collectively known as the Lumad – a Cebuano term which means ‘native’ or ‘indigenous’. There
Lumad tribes comprise about 13 ethnic groups which are the Blaan, Bukidnon, Higaonon,
Mamanwa, Mandaya, Manobo, Mansaka, Sangir, Subanen, Tagabawa, Tagakaulo, Tasaday, and
T’boli. Their tribe is generally known for tribal music produced by musical instruments they’ve
created.
Davao City © Bro. Jeffrey Pioquinto, SJ / Flickr Cagayan de Oro city pier © RaksyBH / Shutterstock

Among those mentioned above, the Manobo tribe includes further big ethnic groups such
as the Ata-Manobo, Agusan-Manobo, and Dulangan-Manobo to name a few. The total
population of the Manobo group is unknown as they occupy core areas in main provinces of the
Mindanao Region.
Badjaos
Originally from the islands of Sulu in Mindanao, they’re known as the sea tribes living on
houseboats. They try to make ends meet by depending on the sea as divers, fishermen, and
navigators. Because of conflicts in the region, the majority of them has migrated to neighboring
countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia, whereas those who stayed in the Philippines moved to
some areas in Luzon.
 Mangyan Tribe children © Dylan Walters / Flickr Aetas or Negritos © ARTYOORAN / Shutterstock

The Mangyans of Mindoro are well-known clans in the Philippines because they have the
biggest populace. Comprising eight different Mangyan groups, they have a peaceful reputation,
unlike the headhunting tribes of the North and warrior tribes from the South. While some has
already converted into Christianity, there’s still a large percentage of those who practice
animistic religious beliefs.
The Aetas (or Agta or Ayta) are one of the earliest known inhabitnats of the Philippines
who are now living in scattered mountainous areas of the country. They were called by the
Spanish colonizers as the ‘Negritos’ because of their dark to dark-brown skin. They are nomadic
but are very skilled in weaving and plaiting, and Aeta women are considered experts in herbal
medicine.

Synthesis
 Building a nation requires various facets of development and discoveries and people who
embody genuine talent and resourcefulness in maximizing the potential of their capacity to
enrich their lives through science and technology and their bounty environment.
The early Filipino settlers demosntrated creativity throught the building of the Banaue
rice terraces, hailed as one of the great wonders of the world. The also exhibited skills in
ethomedicine, farming, transportation and communication and commerce.
The colonizers of the country, the Spaniards and Americans enriched science and
technology through building and infrastructures, education and governance.
The exemplary leadership of the different presidents of the country has even led the
country to a more advanced display of science and technology in various facets of our lives.