2/7/2022

Chapter three Root Finding Problems

Solution of Nonlinear Equations Given a continuous function f(x), find the
A. Bisection Method value r such that f (r) = 0
B. Newton-Raphson Method
These problems are called root finding problems.
C. Secant Method

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2

Roots of Equations
Zeros of a Function
Let f(x) be a real-valued function of a real variable.
A number r that satisfies an equation is called a
Any number r for which f(r)=0 is called a zero of
root of the equation.
the function.
The equation :x 4  3x3  7x 2 15x  18
has four roots:  2, 3, 3, and 1. Examples:
2 and 3 are zeros of the function f(x) = (x-2)(x-3).
i.e., x 4  3x 3  7x 2 15x 18  (x  2)(x  3)2 (x 1)
The equation has two simple roots(-1 and
-2) and a repeated root (3) with
multiplicity = 2.
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Graphical Interpretation of Zeros Simple Zeros

• The real zeros of a f (x)  x1(x  2)

function f(x) are the f(x)
values of x at which the
graph of the function
crosses (or touches) the
x-axis.

Real zeros of f(x) f (x)  (x 1)x  2 x 2  x  2

has two simple zeros(one at x  2 and one at x  1)

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Multiple Zeros Multiple Zeros

f (x)  x3

f (x)  x 12

f (x)  x 12  x 2  2x 1 f (x)  x 3

has double zeros(zero with muliplicity  2) at x  1 has a zero with muliplicity  3 at x  0

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Roots of Equations & Zeros of a Function Solution Methods(nonlinear equations)

Given the equation: 1. Analytical Solutions
x 4  3x 3  7x 2 15x  18 Possible for special equations only
Move all terms to one side of the equation : 2. Graphical Solutions
x  3x 3  7x 2 15x 18  0
4 Useful for providing initial guesses for other
methods
Define f (x) as :
3. Numerical Solutions
f (x)  x 4  3x 3  7x 2 15x 18
• Open methods
• Bracketing methods
The zeros of f (x) are the same as the roots of the
equation f (x)  0 (Which are  2, 3, 3, and 1)

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1. Analytical Methods 2. Graphical Methods

Analytical Solutions are available for special equations only. • Graphical methods are useful to provide an initial
guess to be used by other methods.
Analytical solution of : a x 2  b x  c  0

Solve ex
 b  b  4ac
2
2 Root
roots  x
2a xe x
1
Can you solve the roots the following The root[0,1]
equations? root  0.6
x  e x  0 No analytical solution
1 2

𝑥 + 𝑥 + sin(𝑥) is available for :

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3. Numerical Methods Bracketing Methods

Many methods are available to solve nonlinear equations: • Starts with an interval that contains the root
1. Bisection Method • Procedure is used to obtain a smaller interval
2. Newton’s Method containing the root.
3. Secant Method
– False position Method • Examples of bracketing methods:
– Muller’s Method – Bisection method
– Bairstow’s Method – False position method
– Fixed point iterations
– ……….

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Open Methods Convergence Notation

• Starts with one or more initial guess points.
• In each iteration, a new guess of the root is A sequence x1 , x2 ,..., xn ,... is said to convergeto x if
obtained. to every   0 there exists N such that :
• More efficient than bracketing methods.
• They may not converge to a root. xn  x   n  N

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Convergence Notation Speed of Convergence

Let x1 , x2 ,...., converge to x. • We can compare different methods in terms

of their convergence rate.
xn1  x
Linear Convergence : C • Quadratic convergence is faster than linear
xn  x
convergence.
xn1  x • A method with convergence order q converges
Quadratic Convergence C
xn  x
2 faster than a method with convergence order p
: if q>p.
xn1  x • Methods of convergence order p>1 are said to
Convergence of order P C
have super linear convergence.
p
: xn  x

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18

A. Bisection Method Intermediate Value Theorem

• Simplest methods to find a zero of a nonlinear
function.
• Let f(x) be defined on the
• It is also called interval halving method. interval [a,b].
• One needs an initial interval that is known to contain a f(a)
zero of the function.
• The method systematically reduces the interval. • Intermediate value theorem:
• It does this by dividing the interval into two equal if a function is continuous and f(a)
parts. and f(b) have different signs then a b
• Based on the result of the test, half of the interval is the function has at least one zero
thrown away. in the interval [a,b]. f(b)
• The procedure is repeated until the desired interval
size is obtained.

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Examples Two More Examples

• If f(a) and f(b) have the  If f(a) and f(b) have
same sign, the function may different signs, the
have an even number of
real zeros or no real zeros function has at least one
in the interval [a, b].
a
b real zero. a b
The function has four real
zeros
• Bisection method can not  Bisection method can be The function has one real
be used in these cases. used to find one of the zero

zeros.
a b
a b
The function has three real
The function has no real zeros zeros

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A. Bisection Method Bisection Method

• If the function is continuous on [a,b] and f(a)
and f(b) have different signs, Bisection Assumptions:
method obtains a new interval that is half of Given an interval [a,b]
the current interval and the sign of the
function at the end points of the interval are f(x) is continuous on [a,b]
different. f(a)and f(b)have opposite signs.

These assumptions ensure the existence of at least

• This allows us to repeat the Bisection one zero in the interval [a,b] and the bisection
procedure to further reduce the size of the method can be used to obtain a smaller interval that
interval. contains the zero.

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Bisection Algorithm Example 1

Assumptions:
• f(x) is continuous on [a,b] + + -
• f(a) f(b) < 0
f(a)
Algorithm:
Loop c b + - -
1. Compute the mid point 𝑐 = a
2.Evaluate f(c)
f(b)
3. If f(a) f(c) < 0 then new interval + + -

[𝑎, 𝑐] 𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑐) > 0 then new

interval [c, b]
End loop
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Example 2 Example 3
Can you use Bisection method to find a
zero of :
Can you use Bisection method to find a zero of :

f (x)  x3  3x 1 in theinterval [0,2]? f (x)  x  3x 1 in theinterval [0,1]?

3

Answer:
Answer:
f (x) is continuous on [0,1] and f(0)*
f (x) is continuous on [0,2] and
f(1)  (1)(-1) 1  0
f(0)*f(2)  (1)(3) 3  0
 Assumptions are satisfied
 Assumptions are not satisfied
 Bisection method can be used
 Bisection method can not be used

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Best Estimate and Error Level Best Estimate and Error Level

Bisection method obtains an interval that is The best estimate of the zero of the function
guaranteed to contain a zero of the function. f(x) after the first iteration of the Bisection
method is the mid point of the initial interval:
Questions:
• What is the best estimate of the zero of f(x)? b a
• What is the error level in the obtained estimate? Estimate of the zero: r 
2
ba
Error 
2

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Stopping Criteria Stopping Criteria

Two common stopping criteria
cn : is the midpointof theinterval at the 𝑛
iteration
1. Stop after a fixed number of iterations
r: is the zero of the function.
2. Stop when the absolute error is less than a
specified value
After n iterations:
b a
How are these criteria related? error  r - cn  Ean 
2n

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Convergence Analysis Convergence Analysis – Alternative Form

Given f (x), a, b, and 𝜀

x-r   log(b  a)  log( )
How many iterations are needed such that n
: where r is the zeroof f(x) and x is the log(2)
bisection estimate

log(b  a)  log( ) n  log 2 

width of initial interval  ba
n   log 2  
log(2)  desirederror    

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Example 4 Example 5

a  6, b  7,   0.0005 • Use Bisection method to find a root of the

equation x = cos (x) with absolute error <0.02
How many iterations are needed such that : x - r   ? (assume the initial interval [0.5, 0.9])

log(b  a)  log( ) log(1)  log(0.0005)

n   10.9658 1. What is f (x) ?
log(2) log(2)
2. Are the assumptions satisfied ?
3. How many iterations are needed ?
 n  11 4. How to compute the new estimate ?

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Bisection Method
Initial Interval

f(a)=-0.3776 f(b) =0.2784

Error < 0.2
a =0.5 c= 0.7 b= 0.9

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Bisection Method Bisection Method

-0.3776 -0.0648 0.2784 -0.0648 0.0183 0.1033

Error < 0.1 Error < 0.025
0.5 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.75 0.8

-0.0648 0.1033 0.2784 -0.0648 -0.0235 0.0183

Error < 0.05 Error < .0125
0.7 0.8 0.9 0.70 0.725 0.75

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Summary Example 6
• Initial interval containing the root: [0.5,0.9] Find the root of:

f (x)  x3  3x 1 in the interval :[0,1]

• After 5 iterations:
– Interval containing the root: [0.725, 0.75] * f(x) is continuous
– Best estimate of the root is 0.7375 * f( 0 ) 1, f (1)  1 f (a) f (b)  0
– | Error | < 0.0125  Bisection method can be used to find the
root

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Example Bisection Method

Advantages
c= (a+b) (b-a) • Simple and easy to implement
Iteration a b f(c)
2 2 • One function evaluation per iteration
• The size of the interval containing the zero is reduced by
1 0 1 0.5 -0.375 0.5 50% after each iteration
• The number of iterations can be determined a priori
2 0 0.5 0.25 0.266 0.25 • No knowledge of the derivative is needed
• The function does not have to be differentiable
3 0.25 0.5 .375 -7.23E-3 0.125

4 0.25 0.375 0.3125 9.30E-2 0.0625 Disadvantage

5 0.3125 0.375 0.34375 9.37E-3 0.03125 • Slow to converge
• Good intermediate approximations may be discarded

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B. Newton-Raphson Method
Derivation
Given an initial guess of the root x0, Newton-
Raphson method uses information about the • Newton’s method is the classic algorithm for
function and its derivative at that point to find finding roots of functions.
a better guess of the root.
• Two good derivations of Newton’s method:
Assumptions: – Geometric derivation
– f(x) is continuous and the first derivative is – Analytic derivation
known
– An initial guess x0 such that f’(x0)≠0 is given

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Newton Raphson Method Newton’s Method :

- Graphical Depiction Geometric Derivation
• If the initial guess at • The fundamental idea in Newton’s method is to use the
the root is xi, then a tangent line approximation to the function f. at point
tangent to the • The point-slope formula for the equation of the straight
function of xi that is line gives us:
f’(xi) is extrapolated
down to the x-axis to
provide an estimate
of the root at approximate the solution to f(x)=0
xi+1.

• Continue the process with another straight line to get

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Proof using Taylor’s theorem.

Newton’s Method
This series can be rewritten with an error term as follows:
Given f (x), f '(x), x0
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥1) + 𝑓′(𝑥1)(𝑥 − 𝑥1) + 𝜖
Assumpution f '( x0 )  0
_________ ___________
for i  0:n
f (xi )
xi1  xi 
f '(xi )
end
For ϵϵ small enough the final term can be neglected:

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Example Example
Find a zero of the function f(x)  x3  2x 2  x  3, x0  4 n (Iteration) xn f(xn) f’(xn) xn+1 |xn+1 –xn|

0 4 33 33 3 1
f '(x)  3x 2  4x1
f (x 0 ) 33
Iteration1: x1  x0   4 3 1 3 9 16 2.4375 0.5625
f '(x 0 ) 33
f (x1) 9
Iteration 2 : x2  x1   3   2.4375 2 2.4375 2.0369 9.0742 2.2130 0.2245
f '(x 1 ) 16
f (x 2 ) 2.0369 3 2.2130 0.2564 6.8404 2.1756 0.0384
Iteration 3 : x3  x2   2.4375  2.2130
f '(x 2 ) 9.0742
Iterate the until the difference between consecutive 4 2.1756 0.0065 6.4969 2.1746 0.0010

values are minimum or below the set level (£)

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Finding a square-root Example 2: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐 − 𝒆𝒙

• Example 1: Choosing Xo=0, we have :

• 2 = 1.4142135623730950488016887242097
• Let x0 be one and apply Newton’smethod.
f(x)=x2-2 f (x) 2x
xi 2 2 1  2
xi1  xi    xi  
2xi 2 xi 
x0  1

x1  1   1.5000000000
1 2 3
2 1 2

x2     
1 3 4 17
 1.4166666667
2  2 3  12
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Convergence Analysis Newton’s Method

Remarks
• Advantage:
When the guess is close enough to a simple – Very fast
root of the function then Newton’s method is
• Disadvantage:
guaranteed to converge quadratically.
– Not a global method
• For example: (root x = 0.5)

Quadratic convergence means that the number of • Another example:

correct digits is nearly doubled at each iteration. (root x = 0.05)
• In these example, the initial point should be carefully chosen.
– Newton’s method will cycle indefinitely.
• Newton’s method will just hop back and forth between two values.
• For example: Consi der (root x = 0)

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Initial value

Wrong predictions,
because the root is
positive

Very close to the actual

root
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Problems with Newton’s Method Problems with Newton’s

Method
- Runaway -
• If the initial guess of the root is far from
the root the method may not converge.
• Newton’s method converges linearly near
multiple zeros { f(r) = f’(r) =0 }. In such a
x0
case, modified algorithms can be used to x1

regain the quadratic convergence.

The estimates of the root is going away from the

root.
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Problems with Newton’s Problems with Newton’s

Method Method
- Flat Spot - - Cycle -

x0 x1=x3=x5

x0=x2=x4

The value of f’(x) is zero, the algorithm fails.

The algorithm cycles between two values x0 and
If f ’(x) is very small then x1 will be very far x1
from x0.
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C. Secant Method Secant Method

if xi and xi1 are two initial points :

Assumptions :
Two initial points xi and xi1 such that
f (x i ) f (xi1 )
New estimate(SecantMethod):

xi1  xi 
f (xi )
 xi  f (xi )
(xi  xi1 ) (xi  xi1 )
f (xi )  f (xi1 ) f (xi )  f (xi1 ) xi1  xi  f (xi )
(xi  xi1 )
f (xi )  f (xi1 )

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Example Example

50
x(i) f(x(i)) x(i+1) |x(i+1)-x(i)|
40 -1.0000 1.0000 -1.1000 0.1000
Find theroots of
30

: f (x)  x5  x3  3 20
-1.1000 0.0585 -1.1062 0. 0062
Initial points 10
-1.1062 0.0102 -1.1052 0.0009
x0  1 and x1  1.1 0

-10 -1.1052 0.0001 -1.1052 0.0000

with error 0.001 -20

-30

-40
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

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Convergence Analysis Summary

Method Pros Cons
• The rate of convergence of the Secant method Bisection - Easy, Reliable, Convergent - Slow
-One function evaluation per -Needs an interval [a,b]
is super linear: iteration containing the root, i.e.,
- No knowledge of derivative is f(a)f(b)<0
xi1  r needed
 C,   1.62

xi  r Newton - Fast (if near the root) - May diverge
-Two function evaluations per -Needs derivative and an
r : root xi : estimate of the root at iteration initial guess x0 such that
f’(x0) is nonzero
the i th iteration.
• It is better than Bisection method but not as Secant - Fast (slower than Newton) - May diverge
- One function evaluation per - Needs two initial points
good as Newton’s method. iteration guess x0, x1 such that
- No knowledge of derivative is f(x0)- f(x1) is nonzero
needed

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Revision:Systems of Nonlinear Equations and

Their Solutions

x2 = 2y + 10 y = x2 + 3
Solutions Of Systems Of 3x – y = 9 x2 + y 2 = 9

Non-Linear Equations

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Example 1:Solving a Nonlinear System by Solution

the Substitution Method Step 2 Substitute the expression from step 1 into the other
equation. We substitute y + 3 for x in the second equation.

Solve by the substitution method: x=y +3 ( x – 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 4

x – y = 3 The graph is a line. This gives an equation in one variable, namely
(x – 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 4 The graph is a circle.
(y + 3 – 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 4.
Solution Graphically, we are finding the intersection of a line and a The variable x has been eliminated.
circle whose center is at (2, -3) and whose radius measures 2.
Step 3Solve the resulting equation containing one variable.
Step 1 Solve one of the equations for one variable in terms of the (y + 3 – 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 4
This is the equation containing one variable. Combine
other. We will solve for x in the linear equation - that is, the first (y + 1)2 + (y + 3 )2 = 4
numerical terms in the first parentheses. Square each
equation. (We could also solve for y.) y + 2y + 1 + y + 6y + 9 = 4
2 2
binomial.
x–y=3 2y2 + 8y + 10 = 4
This is the first equation in the given system. Add y Combine like terms on the left.
x=y+3 2y + 8y + 6 = 0
2
to both sides. Subtract 4 from both sides and set the quadratic
equation equal to 0.

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Solution Example 2: Solving a Nonlinear System by the

y2 + 4y + 3 = 0 Simplify by dividing both sides by 2. Factor. Addition Method
(y + 3)(y + 1) = 0 Set each factor equal to 0. Solve for y.
y + 3 = 0 or y + 1 = 0
y = -3 or y = -1 Solve the system:
Step 4 Back-substitute the obtained values 4x2 + y2 = 13 Equation 1.

into the equation from step 1. Now that we x2 + y2 = 10 Equation 2.

have the y-coordin- ates of the solutions, we 7

Solution We can use the same steps that we did when we solved linear systems
back-substitute -3 for y and -1 for y in the 6
by the addition method.
equation x = y + 3.
5
x – y =4 3
3 Step 1 Write both equations in the form Ax2 + By2 = C. Both equations
If y = -3: x = -3 + 3 = 0, so (0, -3) is a solution. 2
are already in this form, so we can skip this step.
1
If y = -1: x = -1 + 3 = 2, so (2, -1) is a solution. - 5 -4 - 3 - 2 - 1 (21, - 1)2 3 4 5 6 7
Step 2 If necessary, multiply either equation or both equations by
Step 5 Check the proposed solution in both
-1
-2
(0, - -3
appropriate numbers so that the sum of the x2-coefficients or the sum of
of the system's given equations. The solution 3)
-4
the y2-coefficients is 0. We can eliminate y by multiplying Equation 2 by -1.
set of the given system is {(0, -3), (2, -1)}. -5
-6
-7 No change.
4x2 + y2 = 13 4x2 + y2 = 13
Multiply by -1.
x2 + y2 = 10 -x2 – y2 = -10
(x – 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 4

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Solution
Steps 3 and 4 Add equations and solve for the remaining variable.
4x 2  y2  13 Solution
Add.
-x 2 - y 2  -10
3x 2  3 Step 6 Check. The solution set of the given system is
x2  1
{(1, 3), (1, -3), (-1, 3), (-1, -3)}.
x  1
Step 5 Back-substitute and find the values for the other variables. We
must back-substitute each value of x into either one of the original equations.
7
Let's use x2 + y2 = 10, Equation 2. If x =1, 6 4x2 + y2 = 13

12 + y2 = 10 Replace x with 1 in Equation 2. 5

4
( 1, 3) (1, 3)
y2 = 9 Subtract 1 from both sides. -
3
2
x2 + y2 = 10
y = ±3 Apply the square root method. 1

- 5 -4 -3 - 2 - 1
(1, 3) and (1, -3) are solutions. If x = -1, -1
-2
1 2 34 5 67

(-1)2 + y2 = 10 Replace x with -1 in Equation 2. (-1, - 3)

-3
(1, - 3)
-4
y2 = 9 The steps are the same as before. -5
-6
y = ±3 -7

(-1, 3) and (-1, -3) are solutions.

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Solution

We now solve this quadratic equation.

y + y2 = 12
Subtract 12 from both circles and get
Example 3:Solving a Nonlinear System by the y2 + y – 12 = 0
the quadratic equation equal to 0.
Addition Method (y + 4)(y – 3) = 0 Factor.
Solve the system: y + 4 = 0 or y – 3 = 0
Set each factor equal to 0.
y = x2 + 3 Equation 1 (The graph is a parabola.) y = -4 or y =3
x2 + y2 = 9 Solve for y.
Equation 2 (The graph is a circle.)

Solution We could use substitution because Equation 1 has y

To complete the solution, we must back-substitute each
expressed in terms of x, but this would result in a fourth-degree
equation. However, we can rewrite Equation 1 by subtracting x2 value of y into either one of the original equations. We
from both sides and adding the equations to eliminate the x2- will use y = x2 + 3, Equation 1. First, we substitute -4 for
terms. y.
-x2 + y = 3 Subtract x2 from both sides of Equation 1.

Add.
x2 + y2 = 9
y + y = 12
2
This is Equation 2.
Add the equations. -4 = x2 + 3 Subtract 3 from both sides.
-7 = x2

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Exercises
Solution
Because the square of a real number cannot be negative, the equation x 2 y 0 y  x2  5
x2 = -7 does not have real-number solutions. Thus, we move on to our Solve: 1.  3.  2
x 1   y 1  5
2 2
other value for y, 3, and substitute this value into Equation 1. x  y  25
2

y = x2 +3 This is Equation 1. 7
6
3 = x2 +3 Back-substitute 3 for y.
3x2 2 y2  35
5
4
y = x2 + 3
0 = x2 Subtract 3 from both sides. (0, 3)

0=x Solve for x.

3
2 2. 
1
4x2  3y 2  48
We showed that if y = 3, then x = 0. Thus, (0, 3) - 5 -4 - 3 - 2 - 1
-1
1 2 3 45 6 7

is the solution. Take a moment to show that (0,

-2
-3

3) satisfies Equation 1 and Equation 2. The

-4
-5 x2 + y2 = 9
solution set of the given system is {(0, 3)}. 4. Find the length and width of a rectangle whose
-6
-7

perimeter is 20 ft. an whose area is 21 sq.ft.

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Newton’s Method for Systems of Non

Linear Equations Example
• Solve the following system of equations:
Given: X 0 an initial guess of the root of F (x) = 0 y  x 2  0.5  x  0
Newton' s Iteration 𝑋 = 𝑋 − [𝐹 (𝑋 )] 𝐹(𝑋 ) x 2  5xy  y  0
Initial guess x  1, y  0
 f1 f1  f 1  y  x 2 0.5  x
 x x2 
 f1 (x1, x2 ,...)   1  f 2  x 2  5xy  y
f f 2
F ( X )   f 2 (x1 , x2 ,...), F '( X )   2 
 x1 x2   y  x 2  0.5 x  2x 1 1  1 
     F 2 , F'   , X0   
  x  5xy  y   2x  5y  5x 1  0 

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Solution Using Newton’s Method Assignment

Iteration1: A. Write functions in matlab which implement
 y  x  0.5 x  0.5
2
 2x 1 1  1 1  bisection, Newton-Raphson and Secant methods.
F 2    1  , F '  2x  5y 
 x  5xy  y      5x 1 2  6
1 B. Write a function which implements the Newton’s
1 1 1   0.5  1.25
X1        1  0.25 method for solving systems of non- linear equation for
0   2  6      two variables.
Iteration 2 :
0.0625 1.5 1 
F  , F ' 
- 0.25  1.25  7.25
   
1
1.25 1.5 1  0.0625  1.2332
X2       - 0.25  0.2126
0.25 1.25  7.25    

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