300118 (24) BE (1st Semester)

Examination, Nov-Dec 2012

Branch: AEI, Bio Tech, Chem., Civil, CSE, Elect., EEE,EI, ET & T, IT,
Mech., Mining & Lateral Diploma, Metallurgy, Mechatronics

ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (NEW)

Time allowed: Three Hours
Maximum Marks: 80 Minimum Marks: 28
Note: All questions are compulsory & carry equal marks. (a) part is compulsory, out (b), (c),
(d) solve any two.

Q.1 (a) What is lumped and distribution element? 2

Ans: Lumped Network: A network in which all the network elements arc physically separable is
known as lumped network. Most of the electric networks are lumped in nature, which consists
elements like R, L, C, voltage source etc.
Distributed Network: A network in which the circuit elements like resistance, inductance etc.
cannot be physically separable for analysis purposes, is called distributed network. The best
example of such a network is a transmission line where resistance, inductance and capacitance
of a transmission line arc distributed all along its length and cannot be shown as separate
elements, anywhere in the circuit

(b) State Kirchhoff’s Laws. Determine current supplied by battery as shown in fig. 7

Solution: Redraw the circuit

At loop 1
−100+100 I 1+100 ( I 1−I 3 ) +500 ( I 1−I 2 )=0
700 I 1 −500 I 2−100 I 3=0 … … … … .(1)
At loop 2
100 I 2 +500 ( I 2−I 1) + 300 ( I 2−I 3 )=0
−500 I 1 +900 I 2−300 I 3 =0 … … … … .(2)
At loop 3
500 I 3 +100 ( I 3−I 1 )+ 300 ( I 3−I 2 ) =0
−100 I 1 −300 I 2 +900 I 3 =0 … … … … .(3)
Solving equation (1), (2) and (3)
I 1=0.3 A , I 2=0.2 A , I 3 =0.1 A
Since current supplied by 100 V battery is 0.3 A.
(c) Determine current flowing from 3Ω resistance by using Thevenin’s theorem. 7
Solution : Step 1 : Remove R L
Step 2 : Find open circuit voltage

V b =20V
At node A
V a−V c V a−20
+ −15=0
2 6
3 V a−3 V c +V a =110
4 V a−3 V c =110 … … … . [1]
At node C
V c −V a V c −20
+ +15+ 15=0
2 1
V c −V a+ 2V c −40+60=0
−V a +3 V c =−20 … … … .[2]
Solving above two equation
V a =30V , V c =3.33 V

V a =V th =30 V
Step 3 : Calculate RTH

Rth =( 1+2 )∨¿6=2 Ω

Step 4 : Thevenin's equivalent is shown in the Fig.

Step 5 : Hence current flowing from 3Ω resister is

 V TH 30
I= = =6 A
R TH + R L 2+ 3

(d) Find the maximum power in ‘RL’ 7

Solution : Step 1 : Remove R L

Step 2 : Find open circuit voltage

At node A
V A−100 V A
+ =0
40 60
60 V A −6000+40 V A =0
100 V A =6000
V A =60 V
At node C
V C −100 V C
+ =0
50 50
V C −100+ V C =0
2 V C =100
V C =50 V
VB=VC +2=50+2=52V
Thus
VTH =VAB=8 volts ,
Step 3 : Calculate RTH

Rth ( 40∨¿ 10 )+(50∨¿50)

Rth =49Ω
Thus R L=R th =49 Ω for maximum power to be absorbed by it.
So maximum power transfer
2 2
V TH 8
P RL∨max= = =0.3265 W
4 R L 4 × 49

Q.2 (a) What is alternation? 2

Ans: In alternating current (AC), the flow of electric charge periodically reverses direction. In direct
current (DC, also dc), the flow of electric charge is only in one direction. The
abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when they
modify current or voltage.
Or
As useful and as easy to understand as DC is, it is not the only “kind” of electricity in use.
Certain sources of electricity (most notably, rotary electro-mechanical generators) naturally
produce voltages alternating in polarity, reversing positive and negative over time. Either as a
voltage switching polarity or as a current switching direction back and forth, this “kind” of
electricity is known as Alternating Current (AC)

(b) For the circuit shown, calculate: 7

1) Current
2) Voltage drops V 1 ,V 2∧V 3
3) Power absorbed by each circuits
4) Total power absorbed by the circuits.

Solution: Total Impedance

Z=8+ j6+ 12− j 16+8=28− j10=29.73 ∠−19.65Ω
(1) Current
V 100 ∠ 0
I= = =3.363 ∠19.65 A
Z 29.73 ∠−19.65
(2) Voltages
V 1=I Z 1=3.363 ∠ 19.65× ( 8+ j6 )=33.63 ∠56.51V
V 2=I Z 2=3.363 ∠19.65 × ( 12− j16 )=67.26 ∠−33.48V
V 3=I Z 3=3.363 ∠19.65 × ( 8 )=26.904 ∠19.65V
(1) Power absorbed
2 2
P1=I R1 =3.363 × 8=90.47W
P2=I 2 R 2=3.3632 × 12=135.71W
2 2
P3=I R 3=3.363 × 8=90.47 W
(2) Total power absorbed by the circuits
2 2
P=I R=3.363 ×28=316.67W

(c) What is RMS value? Prove that RMS value of current is

( √12 ) time of its maximum value.7

Ans: Root-Mean – Square (R.M.S) Value

The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that steady (d.c.) current which when flowing
through a given circuit for a given time produce the same heat as produced by the alternating
current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time. It is also known as the effective
or virtual value for alternating current

Determination of R.M.S. value

The standard form of the sinusoidal alternating current is i=I m sin ωt=I m sin ⁡θ

Mean value of the squares of the instantaneous value of current over one complete cycle.

2π
1
¿ ∫ i2 dθ
2π 0

2π
1
¿ ∫ ( I ¿¿ m sin ⁡θ)2 dθ ¿
2π 0

2 2π
Im
¿
2π 0
∫ sin 2 θ dθ
2 1−cos 2 θ
But sin θ=
2
So Mean value of the squares of the instantaneous value of current over one complete cycle is

2 2π 2
I 1−cos 2 θ
¿ m ∫( ) dθ
2π 0 2

[ ]
2 2π
I m θ sin 2 θ
¿ −
2π 2 4 0
2
Im I m2
¿ ×π=
2π 2

Hence the square root of this value is=

Im
Im 2
2 √
So rms value of current is=
√2
I rms =0 .707 I m

Thus rms of current for a sine wave = 0 . 707 × maximum value of current

(d) If the voltmeter reads 60V, find the reading of ammeter. 7

Solution:
V 60
I 2= = =15 A .
R 4
Z2 =4− j 4
Obviously, the applied voltage is
V total=15 ∠0 ×(4− j 4)=84.8∠−45
V 84.8 ∠−45
I 1= total = =12.6 ∠−71.6 º
Z1 6+ j3
 I =I 1+ I 2=15+12.6 ∠−71.6º
¿ 22.47 ∠−32.3º
Hence, ammeter reads 22.47

Q.3 (a) What is phase sequence? 4

Ans: The phase-sequence is given by the sequence in which the conductors pass the point
initially taken by the red conductor. The national standard phase sequence is R,Y, B.
A three-phase a.c. supply is carried by three conductors, called ‘lines’ which are colored red,
yellow and blue. The currents in these conductors are known as line currents (IL) and the p.d.’s
between them are known as line voltages (VL). A fourth conductor, called the neutral (colored
black, and connected through protective devices to earth) is often used with a three-phase
supply.

(b) Three identical star connected coil take 8kW at a power factor 0.8 when connected across
a 460 V, 3ϕ wire, supply. Find the circuit constants of the load per phase.
Solution:
Given cos φ=0.8 , P=8 kW , V L =460W
P= √3 V L I L cos φ
8000=√3 × 460 × I L × 0.8
∴ I L=12.55 A=Iph
VL 460
V ph = = =265 V
√3 √3
V ph 265
Z ph = = =21.1 Ω
I ph 12.55
R ph 265
cos φ= = =21.1 Ω
Z ph 12.55
R ph=Z ph cos φ=21.1 ×0.8=16.9 Ω

X ph= √ Z ph2 −R ph 2=√ 21.12−16.92=12.66 Ω

(c) Prove the relation of conversion from delta to star and star to delta for balanced three
phase system. 7
Ans: Delta Star Transformation
To convert a delta network to an equivalent star network we need to derive a transformation formula
for equating the various resistors to each other between the various terminals. Consider the circuit
below.
Delta to Star Network.

 
Compare the resistances between terminals 1 and 2.

Resistance between the terminals 2 and 3.

Resistance between the terminals 1 and 3.

This now gives us three equations and taking equation 3 from equation 2 gives:

Then, re-writing Equation 1 will give us:

Adding together equation 1 and the result above of equation 3 minus equation 2 gives:

From which gives us the final equation for resistor P as:

 Then to summarize a little about the above maths, we can now say that resistor P in a Star network
can be found as Equation 1 plus (Equation 3 minus Equation 2) or   Eq1 + (Eq3 – Eq2).
Similarly, to find resistor Q in a star network, is equation 2 plus the result of equation 1 minus
equation 3 or  Eq2 + (Eq1 – Eq3) and this gives us the transformation of Q as:

and again, to find resistor R in a Star network, is equation 3 plus the result of equation 2 minus
equation 1 or  Eq3 + (Eq2 – Eq1) and this gives us the transformation of R as:

When converting a delta network into a star network the denominators of all of the transformation
formulas are the same: A + B + C, and which is the sum of ALL the delta resistances. Then to
convert any delta connected network to an equivalent star network we can summarized the above
transformation equations as:
Delta to Star Transformations Equations
If the three resistors in the delta network are all equal in value then the resultant resistors in the
equivalent star network will be equal to one third the value of the delta resistors, giving each branch
in the star network as: RSTAR = 1/3RDELTA

Star Delta Transformation

Star Delta transformation is simply the reverse of above. We have seen that when converting from a
delta network to an equivalent star network that the resistor connected to one terminal is the
product of the two delta resistances connected to the same terminal, for example resistor P is the
product of resistors A and B connected to terminal 1.
By rewriting the previous formulas a little we can also find the transformation formulas for
converting a resistive star network to an equivalent delta network giving us a way of producing a
star delta transformation as shown below.
Star to Delta Transformation

The value of the resistor on any one side of the delta, Δ network is the sum of all the two-product
combinations of resistors in the star network divide by the star resistor located “directly opposite”
the delta resistor being found. For example, resistor A is given as:

with respect to terminal 3 and resistor B is given as:

with respect to terminal 2 with resistor C given as:

with respect to terminal 1.

By dividing out each equation by the value of the denominator we end up with three separate
transformation formulas that can be used to convert any Delta resistive network into an equivalent
star network as given below.
Star Delta Transformation Equations

(d) An iron ring of cross sectional area of 6cm 2 is wound with a wire of 100 turns and has a
saw cut of 2 mm. Calculate the magnetising current required to produce a flux of 0.1 mWb
if mean length of magnetic path is 30 cm and relative permeability of iron is 470. 7
Solution:
Given A=6 cm 2=6 ×10−4 m 2
Turn N=100
−3
Length of gap l g =2 mm=2 ×10 m
−3
Flux ∅=0.1× 10 wb
−2
Length of magnetic path l l=30 cm=30× 10 m
Relative permeability of iron μr = 470
Total MMF Required = MMF required by iron path+ MMF required by air gap
N × I =H l l l+ H g l g
B B
N × I= ×l l + × l g
μ0 μr μ0
 ¿ ( )
B ll
+l
μ 0 μr g

¿
∅
( )
ll
+l
A × μ0 μ r g

( )
−3 −2
0.1× 10 30 ×10 −3
100 × I= +2 ×10
−4
6 ×10 ×4 π ×10
−7
470
I =3.5 A

Q.4 (a) Why rating of transformer in KVA? 2

Ans: Copper losses (I²R) depends on Current which passing throughtransformer winding while Iron Losses or Core
Losses or Insulation Losses depends on Voltage. So the Cu Losses depend on the ratingcurrent of the load so
the load type will determine the powerfactor P.F ,Thats why the rating of Transformer in kVA,Not in kW.

(b) A 400 KVA transformer has an iron loss of 2 kW and the maximum efficiency at 0.8 pf
occurs when the load is 240 kW. Calculate:
i) The maximum efficiency at unity p.f.
ii) The efficiency on full-load at 0.71 p.f. lagging 7
Solution:
Pi=2 kW
Output (load) kW =240 kW
240
Output ( load ) kVA = =300 kVA
0.8

Output ( load) kVA=kVA at full load ×

√ Pi
Pcu

√
3
2×10
300=400 ×
Pcu
Pcu =3555.55W

(i) Maximum Efficiency of transformer

x=
√ √
Pi
P cu
=
2
3.5
=0.75
x V 2 I 2 cosφ2
η=
x V 2 I 2 cosφ2 +2 Pi
0.75 × 400 ×103 ×1
¿ =98.68 %
0.75× 400 ×10 3 ×1+2 ×2000

(ii) Efficiency of transformer at full load with 0.71power factor

V 2 I 2 cosφ 2
η=
V 2 I 2 cosφ 2+ Pi + P c
3
400 ×10 ×0.71
η= 3
400 ×10 ×0.71+2000+3555.55
η=0.9808=98.08 %
(c) A single phase transformer has turns ratio of 144/432 and operates at 50 Hz. When on no
load the transformer takes 0.24 A at a p.f. of 0.26 lagging from the supply. If the
transformer supplies a load of 1.2 A at a p.f. of 0.8 lagging, Find:
i) The magnetising current
ii) Primary current
iii) Primary p.f. 7
Solution:
N 1 144
=
N 2 432
−1 −1
cos ∅ 0=0.26 cos 0.26=74.92 °
Magnetizing current I m=I 0sin θ ∅ 0

I m=0.24 sin74.92=0.231 A
Secondary load of 1.2 A ,0.8 lag
Refer in primary side
N1 144
1.2 × =1.2 × =0.4 A
N2 432
No load current
−1
I 0=0.24 ∠−φ 0 , where φ 0=cos 0.26=74.92 ° lagging
¿ 0.062− j 0.231 Amp
Secondary current reflected as 0.4 A, 0.8 lag in terms of the primary equivalent current.

I 2’ =0.4 ∠−φL where φ L =cos−1 0.8=36.86 ° ,lagging

I 2’ =0.32− j 0.24
Hence primary current I 1
I 1=I 0+ I 2 ’
I 1=0.062− j0.231+0.32 – j 0.24
I 1=0.382− j0.471=0.6064 ∠−50.95
¿ I 1∨¿ 0.6064 amp , φ1=50.95 Lag .

(d) Draw & explain the starter useful for D.C. series motor. 7
Ans: Necessity of D.C. Motor Starter
At starting, when the motor is stationary, there is no back e.m.f. in the armature.
Consequently, if the motor is directly switched on to the mains, the armature will draw a heavy
current (Ia = V/Ra) because of small armature resistance. As an example, 5 H.P., 220 V shunt
motor has a full-load current of 20 A and an
armature resistance of about 0.5 W. If this motor is directly switched on to supply, it would take an
armature current of 220/0.5 = 440 A which is 22 times the full-load current.
This high starting current may result in:
(i) burning of armature due to excessive heating effect,
(ii) damaging the commutator and brushes due to heavy sparking,
(iii) excessive voltage drop in the line to which the motor is connected.
In order to avoid excessive current at starting, a variable resistance (known as starting
resistance) is inserted in series with the armature circuit. This resistance is gradually reduced as
the motor gains speed (and hence Eb increases) and eventually it is cut out completely when the
motor has attained full speed. The
value of starting resistance is generally such that starting current is limited to 1.25 to 2 times the
full-load current

Three-Point Starter
This type of starter is widely used for starting shunt and compound motors. Fig. shows the
schematic diagram of a three-point starter for a shunt motor with protective devices.
Operation
(i) To start with, the d.c. supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position.
(ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in contact with the first
stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the supply, while the whole starting
resistance is inserted in series with the armature circuit.
(iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance is cut out of the
armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by the no-volt release coil which is
energized by shunt field current.
(iv) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is accidentally cut, the no-
volt release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back to the OFF position under the pull of
the spring. If no-volt release coil were not used, then in case of failure of supply, the handle
would remain on the final stud. If then supply is restored, the motor will be directly connected
across the supply, resulting in an excessive armature current.
(v) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current from the supply. This
current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load release coil and pull the armature C, thus
short-circuiting the no volt release coil. The no-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled
to the OFF position by the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically disconnected from the
supply.
Drawback
In a three-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected in series with the shunt field
circuit so that it carries the shunt field current. While exercising speed control through field
regulator, the field current may be weakened to such an extent that the no-volt release coil may not
be able to keep the starter arm in the ON position. This may disconnect the motor from the supply
when it is not desired. This drawback is overcome in the four point starter.

Q.5 (a) How instruments are classified? 2

Ans: Electrical measuring instruments are mainly classified as:
a) Indicating instruments
b) Recording instruments
c) Integrating instruments

a) Indicating instruments : These instruments make use of a dial and pointer for showing or
indicating magnitude of unknown quantity. The examples are ammeters, voltmeter etc.
b) Recording instruments: These instruments give a continuous record of the given electrical
quantity which is being measured over a specific period.
The examples are various types of recorders. In such recording instruments, the readings
are recorded by drawing the graph. The pointer of such instruments is provided with a marker
i.e. pen or pencil, which moves on graph paper as per the reading. The X-Y plotter is the best
example of such an instrument.
c) Integrating instruments : These instruments measure the total quantity of electricity delivered
over period of time. For example a household energy meter registers number of revolutions made
by the disc to give the total energy delivered, with the help of counting mechanism consisting of
dials and pointers.
(b) Draw and explain moving iron instrument. 7
Ans: Moving iron instrument can be classified in two types
1. Attraction type moving iron instrument
2. Repulsion type moving iron instrument
Attraction type moving iron instrument
In this type of instrument operating current flowing through the coil sets up a magnetic field. It
attracts the soft-iron piece towards it. The result is that the pointer attached to the moving system
moves from zero position. The pointer will come to rest at a position where deflecting torque is equal
to the controlling torque. If current in the coil is reversed, the direction of magnetic field also
reverses and so does the magnetism produced in the soft-iron piece. Hence, the direction of the
deflecting torque remains unchanged. For this reason, such instruments can be used for both d.c.
and a.c. measurements.

The controlling torque is provided by the springs but gravity control may also be used for vertically
mounted panel type instruments.
The damping torque is provided by the air friction. A light aluminium piston is attached to the
moving system. It moves in a fixed chamber. The chamber is closed at one end. It can also be
provided with the help of vane attached to the moving system.
The operating magnetic field in moving iron instruments is very weak. Hence eddy current
damping is not used since it requires a permanent magnet which would affect or distort the
operating field.
Repulsion type moving iron instrument
These instruments have two vanes inside the coil, the one is fixed and other is movable. When
the current flows in the coil, both the vanes are magnetized with like polarities induced on the same
side. Hence due to the repulsion of like polarities, there is a force of repulsion between the two
vanes causing the movement of the moving vane. The repulsion type instruments are the most
commonly used instruments.
The Fig. shows the repulsion type instrument. Out of the other moving iron mechanisms, this is
the most sensitive and has most linear scale.
The two vanes are radial strips of iron. The fixed vane is attached to the coil. The movable vane
is attached to the spindle and suspended in the induction field of the coil. The needle of the
instrument is attached to this vane.
 Even though the current through the coil is alternating, there is always repulsion between the
like poles of the fixed and the movable vane. Hence the deflection of the pointer is always in the
same direction. The deflection is effectively proportional to the actual current and hence the scale is
calibrated directly to read amperes or volts. The calibration is accurate only for the frequency for
which it is designed because the impedance is different for different frequencies.

Deflecting torque equation.

The force (F) pulling the iron disc towards the magnetic field of the coil depends upon : (i) the
strength of the magnetic field (H) produced by the coil, and (ii) the pole strength (m) developed by
the disc, which is also proportional to H.
F ∝ mH
or deflecting torque
(T d) ∝ F ∝ H2
If relative permeability of material of disc is assumed to be constant, then
2
H ∝ I ( current )∨T d ∝ I … … … .[1]
Now for spring control, the controlling torque of spring
Tc ∝ θ (angle of defection of disc) ….[2]

In the steady-state of defection of the disc, we have :

Deflecting torque (Td) = Controlling torque (Tc) …..[3
From Eqs. (i), (ii), and (iii), we get:
2
θ∝I
The deflection it iron disc is proportional to the square of the rms value of operating current.
Advantages
The various advantages of moving iron instruments are,
1) The instruments can be used for both a.c. and d.c. measurements.
2) As the torque to weight ratio is high, errors due to the friction are very less.
3) A single type of moving element can cover the wide range hence these instruments are cheaper
than other types of instruments.
4) There are no current carrying parts in the moving system hence these meters are extremely
rugged and reliable.
5) These arc capable of giving good accuracy. Modem moving iron instruments have a d.c. error of
2% or less.
6) These can withstand large loads and are not damaged even under severe overload conditions.
7) The range of instruments can be extended.

Disadvantages
The various disadvantages of moving iron instruments are,
1) The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform and is cramped at the lower end. Hence
accurate readings are not possible at this end.
2) There are serious errors due to hysteresis, frequency changes and stray magnetic fields.
3) Hie increase in temperature increases the resistance of coil, decreases stiffness of the springs,
decreases the permeability and hence affect the reading severely.
4) Due to the non linearity of B-H curve, the deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the
square of the current.
There is a difference between ax. and d.c. calibrations on account of the effect of inductance of the
meter. Hence these meters must always be calibrated at the frequency at which they are to be used.
The usual commercial
Applications
(i) Moving iron instruments are used as voltmeters and ammeters for the measurement of voltages
and currents both.
(ii) These instruments are unpolarised instruments because they are independent of the direction
of current passing through them. Irrespective of the direction of current, the magnetization of
moving iron is such that attraction tajes place in “Attraction type” and repulsion in “repulsion
type”. Therefore they can be used for measurement of both the D.C. as well as A.C quantities.

(c) Draw and explain PMMC instruments. 7

Ans: Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments (PMMC) The permanent magnet moving coil
instruments arc most accurate type for d.c. measurements. The action of these instruments is
based on the motoring principle. When a current carrying coil is placed in the magnetic field
produced by permanent magnet, the coil experiences a force and moves. As the coil is moving and
the magnet is permanent, the instrument is called permanent magnet moving coil instrument. The
amount of force experienced by the coil is proportional to the current passing through the coil. The
PMMC instrument is shown in the Fig

The moving coil is either rectangular or circular in shape. Construction of The coil is suspended
so that it is free to turn about Its vertical axis. The coil is placed in uniform, horizontal and radial
magnetic field of a permanent magnet in the shape of a horse-shoe. The iron core is spherical If coll
is circular and is cylindrical if the coil is rectangular. Due to iron core, the deflecting torque
increases, increasing the sensitivity of the instrument.
The controlling torque is provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs, The damping torque
is provided by eddy current damping. It is obtained by movement of the aluminium former, moving
in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet.
The weight of the instrument is normally counter balanced by the weights situated
diametrically opposite and rigidly connected to it. The scale markings of the basic d.c. PMMC
instruments are usually linearly spaced as the deflecting torque and hence the pointer deflection are
directly proportional to the current passing through the coil.
The top view of PMMC instrument is shown in the Fig.

Torque Equation
The equation for the developed torque can be obtained from the basic law of the electromagnetic
torque. The deflecting toque is given by,
T d=NBAI
T d= Deflecting torque∈N −m
B=Flux density ∈air gap , Wb/m J
N=Number of turns of the coil
A=Effective coll area m J
I =Current ∈the moving coll , amperes
The controlling torque is provided by the springs and is proportional to the angular deflection of the
pointer.
T c=K θ
Where Tc = Controlling torque
K = Spring constant, Nm/rad or Nm/deg
θ = Angular deflection
For the final steady slate position,
T d=T c
NBAI=K θ
Thus the deflection is directly proportional to the current passing through the coil. The pointer
deflection can therefore be used to measure current.
As the direction of the current through to the coil changes, the direction of the deflection of the
pointer also changes. Hence such instruments are well suited for the d.c. measurements.
Advantages
The various advantages of PMMC instruments are,
1) It has uniform scale.
2) With a powerful magnet, its torque to weight ratio is very high. So operating current is small.
3) The sensitivity is high.
4) The eddy currents induced in the metallic former over which coil is wound, provide effective
damping.
5) It consumes low power, of the order of 25 W to 200 µW.
6) It has high accuracy.
7) Instrument is free from hysteresis error.
8) Extension of instrument range is possible.
9) Not affected by external magnetic fields called stray magnetic fields.
Disadvantages
The various disadvantages of PMMC instruments are,
1) Suitable for d.c. measurements only.
2) Ageing of permanent magnet and the control springs introduces the errors.
3) The cost is high due to delicate construction and accurate machining. The friction due to jewel-
pivot suspension.

Applications :
1. Permanent-magnet moving coil instruments are best type for all D.C. measurements.
2. They are very sensitive and maintain a high degree accuracy.
3. In D.C. galvanometers to detect small currents.

(d) A millimeter of 2.5Ω resistance reads upto 100 mill amperes. What resistance is necessary
to enable to be useful as: 7
i) A voltmeter reading upto 10 V.
ii) A ammeter reading upto 10 A
Solution:
Meter resistance, Ra = 2.5 Ω
Full-scale meter current, I a = 100mA
As Voltmeter :
Desired full-scale reading, V =10 volts
Meter Resistance R v = 2.5 Ω
Let, Rm be the required series resistance [See Fig.]

Now, V =V a +V m
¿ I (Rv + Rm )
−3
10=100× 10 ×( 2.5+ Rm )
9.75
He nce , Rm = −3
=97.5 Ω
100 ×10

As Ammeter :
Full-scale circuit current I =10 A
Let, R s ohms be the required value of the shunt [See Fig.]
Now I a R a=(I−I a )× Rs
−3 −3
100 ×10 ×2.5=( 10−100 ×10 )× R s
R s=0.02525 Ω