HYPOTHYROIDISM
IN CHILDREN
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OBJECTIVES
• Introduction
• Congenital hypothyroidism
– Etiology, clinical features, diagnosis, approach,
treatment and prognosis
• Acquired hypothyroidism
– Etiology, clinical features, diagnosis, approach,
treatment and prognosis
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INTRODUCTION
• Hypothyroidism occurs due to decreased production
of thyroid hormone either
– From the gland (primary hypothyroidism)
or
– Due to reduced thyroid‐stimulating hormone (TSH)
stimulation (central or secondary hypothyroidism)
• It may be manifested from birth (congenital) or
acquired.
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CONGENITAL
HYPOTHYROIDISM
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INTRODUCTION
• Congenital hypothyroidism is one of the most
common preventable causes of mental retardation
• May not have obvious manifestations at birth
– Due to transplacental passage of maternal thyroid
hormone (T4)
– Half‐life of T4 is 6 days
– Maternal T4 will be metabolized and excreted by
3 to 4 wks of age.
– Around 3 – 4 weeks of age clinical features of
congenital hypothyroidism are appreciated.
• INCIDENCE: 1:3000 to 1:4000
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MATERNAL & FETOPLACENTAL UNIT IN THYROID HORMONE TRANSPORT
MOTHER PLACENTA FETUS
TRH
TRH
TSH HCG
T4 T4
TYPE 3 MONO
DEIODINASE
rT3 rT3
T3 T3
T2
IODINE
RADIOIODINE
TSH receptor Ab
ANTI THYROID DRUGS
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THYROID FUNCTION IN THE PRETERM
• Hypothalamo pituitary thyroid axis is immature
– Reduced hypothalamic TRH production and
secretion
– Immature response of the thyroid gland to TSH
• Inefficient organification of iodine
• Reduced capacity to convert T4 into active T3
• Loss of the maternal T4 contribution
• Immaturity of peripheral tissue deiodination
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ETIOLOGY OF CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM
• PRIMARY / THYROIDAL:
– Thyroid dysgenesis: (80 – 90%)
• Athyrosis, Hypoplasia, Ectopic thyroid
– Dyshormonogenesis : (10–20%)
• Sodium‐iodide symporter (trapping) defect, Thyroid
peroxidase defect, Thyroglobulin defect, Deiododinase
defect
– Others:
• Transient – maternal TSH‐receptor blocking antibodies,
Maternal anti thyroid drugs, Maternal or neonatal
Iodine deficiency/ excess iodine exposure
• SECONDARY/ CENTRAL (hypothalamic & pituitary):
– Isolated TSH deficiency , hypopituititarism
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CLINICAL FEATURES OF CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM
(NEONATAL PERIOD)
• Most common symptoms:
– Prolonged jaundice
– Feeding difficulty
– Sluggishness / Lethargy
– Constipation
– Umbilical hernia
– Macroglossia
– Hypothermia
– Hoarse cry
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CLINICAL FEATURES OF CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM
( NEONATAL PERIOD)
• Birth weight & length – normal
• Head/CNS:
– Increased head circumference (due to myxedema of brain)
– Wide open anterior and posterior fontanel
– Lethargy/ sluggishness/ excessive sleepiness
– Poor cry, hypotonia
• GIT:
– Constipation
– Prolongation of physiological jaundice (delayed maturation
of glucuronide conjugation)
– Protruded abdomen, umbilical hernia, protruded tongue
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CLINICAL FEATURES OF CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM
(NEONATAL PERIOD)
• Goiter / Thyromegaly – most commonly seen in
dyshormonogenesis
• Skin:
– Hypothermia (<35oC), cold & mottled skin
• CVS:
– Bradycardia, slow pulse, cardiomegaly, pericardial effusion
• Respiratory difficulties (due to large tongue)
– Apnea, nasal obstruction, choking
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CLINICAL FEATURES OF CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM
(LATER AGE)
• If undetected/ untreated: (by 3‐6 months of age)
– Physical & mental retardation
• Stunted growth, short extremities
• Delayed milestones, Delayed dentition
– Facies:
• Narrow palpebral fissures with swollen eyelids (myxedema)
• Mouth kept open, and the thick, broad tongue protrudes
• Short and thick neck
• Dry skin with pale/ sallow complexion and coarse hair
– Muscles:
• Hypotonia
• Pseudo hypertrophy ‐ Kocher‐Debré‐Sémélaigne syndrome
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CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM
3 month old child with undetected congenital
hypothyroidism
(note: apathic facies, dry and
coarse skin, puffy eyelids and
depressed nasal bridge)
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INVESTIGATIONS
• Low serum T4 and elevated TSH level
• Best and most sensitive identification strategy is newborn TSH
screening program by heel prick
– The best window for testing is 48‐72 hours of age
• Other helpful investigations:
– Serum thyroglobulin, Technetium 99m Scintigraphy of
neck for thyroid morphology, ultrasonography of thyroid
– X‐ray: Absent distal femoral epiphysis and stippled
epiphysis, intra sutural wormian bones
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NEWBORN THYROID SCREENING
• Heel prick capillary TSH level > 40 mU/L
– Send venous sample for TSH & FT4 for confirmation
– Start on thyroxine
• Capillary TSH level < 40 mU/L
– Send venous sample for TSH & FT4 for confirmation
• Venous TSH > 20 mU/L : start on thyroxine
• Venous TSH 6 ‐20 mU/L and FT4 –low: (Probable
secondary hypothyroidism) – start on thyroxine, work
up for hypopituitarism
• Venous TSH between 6 ‐20 mU/L and FT4 – normal:
Diagnostic imaging and repeat testing
• Capillary TSH level < 6 mU/L
– Normal and reassure
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SKELETAL X‐RAY IN CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM
Absence of distal femoral epiphysis in Epiphyseal dysgenesis in the
untreated congenital hypothyroidism head of the humerus in
untreated hypothyroidism
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MANAGEMENT OF CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Treatment:
– Replacement with levothyroxine (LT4)
– Dosage: 10‐15 µg/kg
– Administration: fasting state, early morning and
avoid food for 30‐60 min or pre‐feed in neonates
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MONITORING TREATMENT
‐ Clinical : growth monitoring, hearing and
developmental assessment
‐ Laboratory – TSH & FT4 levels
•2 weeks after starting treatment
•Every 2 weekly till normalization of TSH (0.5 –
2 mU/L)
•Every 1‐3 months till 1 year of age
•Every 2‐4 months from 1‐3 years of age
•Every 3‐ 12 monthly till growth is completed
•4‐6 weeks after change in dose
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PROGNOSIS
• Delay in diagnosis, inadequate treatment & poor compliance
results in variable degrees of brain damage
• Early diagnosis and adequate treatment from the 1st weeks of
life
– Result in normal linear growth and development, normal
scoring in psychometric testing
• Most severely affected infants (having lowest T4 levels and
retarded skeletal maturation)
– Can have reduced IQs (by 5‐20 points) and other
neuropsychological sequelae
• 20% can have a neurosensory hearing deficit
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ACQUIRED HYPOTHYROIDISM
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INTRODUCTION
• Incidence – 0.3%
• Female : male – 2:1
• Acquired hypothyroidism can be
– Overt hypothyroidism (high serum TSH level and
low serum free T4 level)
– Subclinical hypothyroidism (high serum TSH level
and normal serum free T4 level)
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ETIOLOGY OF ACQUIRED HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Primary Hypothyroidism ‐ Most common
– Autoimmune Hypothyroidism
• Hashimoto thyroiditis – most common
• Autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (APS ‐1 &2)
• Down syndrome (30% prevalence)
• Turner syndrome (40% prevalence)
• Klinefelter syndrome (20% prevalence)
– Thyroid surgery / Irradiation/ Post thyroiditis/
infiltrative disorders
– Drugs ‐ lithium, iodine, amiodarone, methimazole,
propylthiouracil, anticonvulsants
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ETIOLOGY OF ACQUIRED HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Secondary / Central Hypothyroidism
– CNS tumors / CNS irradiation/
meningoencephalitis/ infiltrative disorders
– Hypopituitarism (multiple pituitary hormone
deficiency)
• Peripheral Hypothyroidism:
– Resistance to thyroid hormones
– Consumptive hypothyroidism (large hemangiomas)
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CLINICAL FEATURES OF ACQUIRED HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Goiter
• Growth retardation
• Delayed bone age
• Pubertal disorders
– Pubertal delay
– Pseudo precocity (breast development, vaginal
bleed in girls/ macrorchidism in boys)
– Menometorrhagia
– Galactorrhoea
• Lethargy, fatigue
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CLINICAL FEATURES OF ACQUIRED HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Weight gain (fluid retention due to impaired renal
free water clearance)
• Bradycardia, pericardial effusion, heart failure
• Constipation
• Cold intolerance, hypothermia, dry and
myxedematous skin
• CNS:
– Muscle hypotonia, Delayed deep tendon reflexes
– Muscle pseudo hypertrophy
– Scholastic performance – unaffected
• Headaches & vision problem (due to thyrotroph
hyperplasia)
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Smooth, uniform enlargement of
thyroid – Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
Asymmetric enlargement of
thyroid – benign adenoma Rt.
Lobe of thyroid
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Multinodular goiter –
papillary ca. thyroid
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DIAGNOSIS OF ACQUIRED HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Serum Free T4, Serum TSH (to use age specific
ranges)
• Serum thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin
antibodies
• X‐ray Bone age – for assessment of retarded skeletal
maturation (delayed bone age)
• Ultrasonography for thyroid morphology
• Technetium 99m scan of thyroid – rarely required (if
nodular goiter)
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APPROACH TO ACQUIRED HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Elevated TSH and low FT4
– Overt Primary hypothyroidism
• Do thyroid antibodies
– Positive ‐ Autoimmune thyroid disease
– Negative ‐ Autoimmune thyroid disease, Drug
induced, Dyshormonogenesis
• Start thyroxine
• Elevated TSH and normal FT4
– Subclinical hypothyroidism – start thyroxine if
thyroid antibodies are positive
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APPROACH TO ACQUIRED HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Low FT4 and normal TSH
– Secondary hypothyroidism – screen for
hypopituitarism
• Goiter with normal Thyroid function test and
negative for thyroid antibodies
– Reassure, Needs only follow up
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TREATMENT OF ACQUIRED HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Levothyroxine (L‐T4) is the treatment of choice
• Dosage:
– For children age 1‐3 yr: 4‐6 μg/kg/day
– For age 3‐10 yr: 3‐5 μg/kg/day
– For age 10‐16 yr: 2‐4 μg/kg/day
• Administration: fasting state, early morning and
avoid food for 30‐60 min
• Monitoring:
– Clinical – growth monitoring
– Laboratory – TSH and FT4 – 6 weeks after starting
treatment and dosage change ; otherwise 4‐6 monthly
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PROGNOSIS
• 1st year of therapy ‐ Transient deterioration of
schoolwork, poor sleeping habits, restlessness, short
attention span, and behavioral problems can occur.
– Needs only reassurance
• Catch up growth – adequate growth can be achieved
if diagnosed early and adequately treated.
• Poor catch up growth is observed in long standing or
untreated hypothyroidism
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THANK YOU
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