A&P: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The Respiratory System Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity

Organs of the Respiratory System • Olfactory receptors are located in the
• Nose mucosa on the superior surface
• Pharynx • The rest of the cavity is lined with
• Larynx respiratory mucosa that
• Trachea o Moisten air
• Bronchi o Trap incoming foreign
• Lungs—alveoli particles
• Lateral walls have projections called
conchae
o Increase surface area
o Increase air turbulence within
the nasal cavity
• The nasal cavity is separated from the
oral cavity by the palate
o Anterior hard palate (bone)
o Posterior soft palate (muscle)

Paranasal Sinuses
• Cavities within bones surrounding the
nasal cavity are called sinuses
• Sinuses are located in the following
Functions of the Respiratory System bones
• Gas exchanges between the blood o Frontal bone
and external environment o Sphenoid bone
• Occurs in the alveoli of the lungs o Ethmoid bone
• Passageways to the lungs purify, o Maxillary bone
humidify, and warm the incoming air • Function of the sinuses
o Lighten the skull
The Nose o Act as resonance chambers
• Only externally visible part of the for speech
respiratory system o Produce mucus that drains
• Air enters the nose through the into the nasal cavity
external nostrils (nares)
• Pharynx (Throat)
• Interior of the nose consists of a nasal • Muscular passage from nasal cavity to
cavity divided by a nasal septum larynx
• Three regions of the pharynx
o Nasopharynx—superior
region behind nasal cavity
o Oropharynx—middle region
behind mouth
o Laryngopharynx—inferior
region attached to larynx
• The oropharynx and laryngopharynx
are common passageways for air and
food

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A&P: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Trachea (Windpipe)
• Four-inch-long tube that connects
larynx with bronchi
• Walls are reinforced with C-shaped
hyaline cartilage
• Lined with ciliated mucosa
o Beat continuously in the
opposite direction of
incoming air
o Expel mucus loaded with dust
and other debris away from
lungs
Structures of the Pharynx
• Pharyngotympanic tubes open into
the nasopharynx
• Tonsils of the pharynx
• Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) is
located in the nasopharynx
• Palatine tonsils are located in
the oropharynx
• Lingual tonsils are found at
the base of the tongue

Larynx (Voice Box)

• Routes air and food into proper
channels Main (Primary) Bronchi
• Plays a role in speech • Formed by division of the trachea
• Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages • Enters the lung at the hilum (medial
and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic depression)
cartilage (epiglottis) • Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and
straighter than left
Structures of the Larynx •
• Thyroid cartilage • Bronchi subdivide into smaller and
o Largest of the hyaline smaller branches
cartilages
o Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s
apple)
• Epiglottis
o Protects the superior opening
of the larynx
o Routes food to the esophagus
and air toward the trachea
o When swallowing, the
epiglottis rises and forms a lid
over the opening of the larynx
• Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
o Vibrate with expelled air to
create sound (speech)
• Glottis
o opening between vocal cords

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A&P: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Lungs
• Occupy most of the thoracic cavity Respiratory Zone
o Heart occupies central • Structures
portion called mediastinum o Respiratory
• Apex is near the clavicle (superior bronchioles
portion) o Alveolar ducts
• Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior o Alveolar sacs
portion) o Alveoli (air sacs)
• Each lung is divided into lobes by • Site of gas exchange = alveoli only
fissures
o Left lung—two lobes Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood Barrier)
o Right lung—three lobes • Thin squamous epithelial layer lines
• Coverings of the Lungs alveolar walls
o Serosa covers the outer • Alveolar pores connect neighboring
surface of the lungs air sacs
o Pulmonary (visceral) • Pulmonary capillaries cover external
pleura covers the lung surfaces of alveoli
surface • On one side of the membrane is air
o Parietal pleura lines and on the other side is blood flowing
the walls of the past
thoracic cavity
o Pleural fluid fills the area
between layers of pleura to
allow gliding
o These two pleural layers resist
being pulled apart

Bronchial (Respiratory) Tree Divisions

• All but the smallest of these
passageways have reinforcing
cartilage in their walls
o Primary bronchi
o Secondary bronchi
o Tertiary bronchi
o Bronchioles
o Terminal bronchioles

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Two phases
• Inspiration = inhalation
o Flow of air into lungs
• Expiration = exhalation
o Air leaving lungs

Inspiration
• Diaphragm and external intercostal
muscles contract
• The size of the thoracic cavity
increases
• External air is pulled into the lungs
Gas Exchange due to
• Gas crosses the respiratory o Increase in
membrane by diffusion intrapulmonary
o Oxygen enters the blood volume
o Carbon dioxide enters the o
alveoli o Decrease in gas
• Alveolar macrophages (“dust cells”) pressure
add protection by picking up bacteria,
carbon particles, and other debris
• Surfactant (a lipid molecule) coats
gas-exposed alveolar surfaces

Four Events of Respiration

• Pulmonary ventilation—moving air in
and out of the lungs (commonly called
breathing)
• External respiration—gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli
• Oxygen is loaded into the
blood
• Carbon dioxide is unloaded
from the blood
• Respiratory gas transport—transport
of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
• Internal respiration—gas exchange
between blood and tissue cells in
systemic capillaries

Mechanics of Breathing Expiration

(Pulmonary Ventilation) • Largely a passive process which
• Completely mechanical process that depends on natural lung elasticity
depends on volume changes in the • As muscles relax, air is pushed out of
thoracic cavity the lungs due to
• Volume changes lead to pressure o Decrease in intrapulmonary
changes, which lead to the flow of volume
gases to equalize pressure o Increase in gas pressure

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• Forced expiration can occur mostly by • Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

contracting internal intercostal o Amount of air that can be
muscles to depress the rib cage forcibly exhaled
o Approximately 1200 mL
• Residual volume
o Air remaining in lung after
expiration
o About 1200 mL
• Vital capacity
o The total amount of
exchangeable air
o Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
• Dead space volume
o Air that remains in conducting
zone and never reaches
alveoli
Pressure Differences in the Thoracic Cavity o About 150 mL
• Normal pressure within the pleural • Functional volume
space is always negative (intrapleural o Air that actually reaches the
pressure) respiratory zone
• Differences in lung and pleural space o Usually about 350 mL
pressures keep lungs from collapsing • Respiratory capacities are measured
with a spirometer
Nonrespiratory Air (Gas) Movements
• Can be caused by reflexes or
voluntary actions
Examples:
o Cough and sneeze—clears
lungs of debris
o Crying—emotionally induced
mechanism
o Laughing—similar to crying
o Hiccup—sudden inspirations
o Yawn—very deep inspiration
Respiratory Sounds
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities • Sounds are monitored with a
• Normal breathing moves about 500 stethoscope
mL of air with each breath • Two recognizable sounds can be
o This respiratory volume is heard with a stethoscope
tidal volume (TV) o Bronchial sounds—produced
• Many factors that affect respiratory by air rushing through large
capacity passageways such as the
o A person’s size trachea and bronchi
o Sex o Vesicular breathing sounds—
o Age soft sounds of air filling alveoli
o Physical condition
• Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
o Amount of air that can be
taken in forcibly over the tidal
volume
o Usually around 3100 mL

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External Respiration • For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of

• Oxygen loaded into the blood blood into the alveoli, it must be
o The alveoli always have more released from its bicarbonate form:
oxygen than the blood o Bicarbonate ions enter RBC
o Oxygen moves by diffusion o Combine with hydrogen ions
towards the area of lower o Form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
concentration o Carbonic acid splits to form
o Pulmonary capillary blood water + CO2
gains oxygen o Carbon dioxide diffuses from
• Carbon dioxide unloaded out of the blood into alveoli
blood
o Blood returning from tissues Internal Respiration
has higher concentrations of • Exchange of gases between blood and
carbon dioxide than air in the body cells
alveoli • An opposite reaction to what occurs
o Pulmonary capillary blood in the lungs
gives up carbon dioxide to be o Carbon dioxide diffuses out of
exhaled tissue to blood (called
• Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich loading)
and carbon dioxide-poor o Oxygen diffuses from blood
into tissue (called unloading)

Gas Transport in the Blood

• Oxygen transport in the blood Neural Regulation of Respiration
o Most oxygen travels attached • Activity of respiratory muscles is
to hemoglobin and forms transmitted to and from the brain by
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) phrenic and intercostal nerves
o A small dissolved amount is • Neural centers that control rate and
carried in the plasma depth are located in the medulla and
• Carbon dioxide transport in the blood pons
o Most is transported in the o Medulla—sets basic rhythm
plasma as bicarbonate ion of breathing and contains a
(HCO3–) pacemaker called the self-
o A small amount is carried exciting inspiratory center
inside red blood cells on o Pons—appears to smooth out
hemoglobin, but at different respiratory rate
binding sites than those of
oxygen

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• Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) o Information is sent to the

o 12 to 15 respirations per medulla
minute
• Hyperpnea Hyperventilation and Hypoventilation
o Increased respiratory rate • Hyperventilation
often due to extra oxygen o Results from increased CO2 in
needs the blood (acidosis)
o Breathing becomes deeper
and more rapid
o Blows off more CO2 to restore
normal blood pH
• Hypoventilation
o Results when blood becomes
alkaline (alkalosis)
o Extremely slow or shallow
breathing
o Allows CO2 to accumulate in
the blood

Respiratory Disorders
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(COPD)
• Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
Non-Neural Factors Influencing Respiratory emphysema
Rate and Depth • Major causes of death and disability in
• Physical factors the United States
o Increased body temperature • Features of these diseases
o Exercise o Patients almost always have a
o Talking history of smoking
o Coughing o Labored breathing (dyspnea)
• Volition (conscious control) becomes progressively more
• Emotional factors severe
• Chemical factors: CO2 levels o Coughing and frequent
o The body’s need to rid itself pulmonary infections are
of CO2 is the most important common
stimulus o Most victims are hypoxic,
o Increased levels of carbon retain carbon dioxide, and
dioxide (and thus, a have respiratory acidosis
decreased or acidic pH) in the o Those infected will ultimately
blood increase the rate and develop respiratory failure
depth of breathing Chronic Bronchitis
o Changes in carbon dioxide act • Mucosa of the lower respiratory
directly on the medulla passages becomes severely inflamed
oblongata • Mucus production increases
• Chemical factors: oxygen levels • Pooled mucus impairs ventilation and
o Changes in oxygen gas exchange
concentration in the blood • Risk of lung infection increases
are detected by • Pneumonia is common
chemoreceptors in the aorta • Called “blue bloaters” due to hypoxia
and common carotid artery and cyanosis

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A&P: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Emphysema o Appears around 28 to 30

• Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers weeks of pregnancy
break through • Homeostatic imbalance
• Chronic inflammation promotes lung o Infant respiratory distress
fibrosis syndrome (IRDS)—surfactant
• Airways collapse during expiration production is inadequate
• Patients use a large amount of energy o Cystic fibrosis—over secretion
to exhale of thick mucus clogs the
• Overinflation of the lungs leads to a respiratory system
permanently expanded barrel chest • Respiratory rate changes throughout
• Cyanosis appears late in the disease; life
sufferers are often called “pink o Newborns: 40 to 80
puffers” respirations per minute
o Infants: 30 respirations per
minute
o Age 5: 25 respirations per
minute
o Adults: 12 to 18 respirations
per minute
o Rate often increases
somewhat with old age
• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
o Apparently healthy infant
stops breathing and dies
during sleep
o Some cases are thought to be
a problem of the neural
Lung Cancer respiratory control center
• Accounts for one-third of all cancer o One third of cases appears to
deaths in the United States be due to heart rhythm
• Increased incidence is associated with abnormalities
smoking o Recent research shows a
• Three common types genetic component
o Squamous cell carcinoma • Asthma
o Adenocarcinoma o Chronic inflamed
o Small cell carcinoma hypersensitive bronchiole
passages
Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory o Response to irritants with
System dyspnea, coughing, and
• Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus wheezing
• Lungs are not fully inflated with air • Aging effects
until two weeks after birth o Elasticity of lungs decreases
• Surfactant is a fatty molecule made by o Vital capacity decreases
alveolar cells o Blood oxygen levels decrease
o Lowers alveolar surface o Stimulating effects of carbon
tension so that lungs do not dioxide decrease
collapse between breaths o Elderly are often hypoxic and
o Not present until late in fetal exhibit sleep apnea
development and may not be o More risks of respiratory tract
present in premature babies infection

Eva Marie Gaa, R.N. 8