Opera Box

Teacher’s Guide
table of contents

Welcome Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Lesson Plan Unit Overview and Academic Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Opera Box Content Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Reference/Tracking Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Lesson Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Synopsis and Musical Excerpts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Flow Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Gioachino Rossini – a biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Catalogue of Rossini’s Operas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Background Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

2008– 2009 SEASON

The Two Rosinas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Beaumarchais and Figaro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Opera in Rossini’s Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
World Events in 1816 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
History of Opera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 SEPTEMBER 20 – 28, 2008

History of Minnesota Opera, Repertoire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

The Standard Repertory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Elements of Opera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82

N OV E M B E R 1 – 9 , 2 0 0 8
Glossary of Opera Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Glossary of Musical Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
Bibliography, Discography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Word Search, Crossword Puzzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

JA N UA RY 2 4 – F E B R UA RY 1, 2 0 0 9
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102

F E B R UA RY 2 8 – M A R C H 8 , 2 0 0 9

[Link]

A P R I L 11 – 19 , 2 0 0 9

FOR SEASON TICKETS, CALL 612.333.6669

 620 North First Street, Minneapolis, MN 55401

Kevin Ramach, PRESIDENT AND GENERAL DIRECTOR

Dale Johnson, ARTISTIC DIRECTOR
Dear Educator,

Thank you for using a Minnesota Opera Opera Box. This collection of material has been designed to help any educator
to teach students about the beauty of opera. This collection of material includes audio and video recordings, scores,
reference books and a Teacher’s Guide.

The Teacher’s Guide includes Lesson Plans that have been designed around the materials found in the box and other
easily obtained items. In addition, Lesson Plans have been aligned with State and National Standards. See the Unit
Overview for a detailed explanation.

Before returning the box, please fill out the Evaluation Form at the end of the Teacher’s Guide. As this project is new,
your feedback is imperative. Comments and ideas from you – the educators who actually use it – will help shape the
content for future boxes. In addition, you are encouraged to include any original lesson plans. The Teacher’s Guide is
intended to be a living reference book that will provide inspiration for other teachers. If you feel comfortable, include
a name and number for future contact from teachers who might have questions regarding your lessons and to give credit
for your original ideas. You may leave lesson plans in the Opera Box or mail them in separately.

Before returning, please double check that everything has been assembled. The deposit money will be held until I
personally check that everything has been returned (i.e. CDs having been put back in the cases). Payment may be made
to the Minnesota Opera Education Department. All forms of payment are accepted.

Since opera is first and foremost a theatrical experience, it is strongly encouraged that attendance at a performance of
an opera be included. The Minnesota Opera offers Student Matinees and discounted group rate tickets to regular
performances. It is hoped that the Opera Box will be the first step into exploring opera, and attending will be the next.

I hope you enjoy these materials and find them helpful. If I can be of any assistance, please feel free to call or e-mail me
any time.

Sincerely,

Jamie Andrews
Community Education Director
Andrews@[Link]
612.342.9573 (phone)
[Link]
[Link]

introduction letter 1
T he Barber of Seville Opera Box
Lesson Plan Unit Overview with Related Academic Standards

lesson title minnesota academic national standards

standards: arts k–12 for music education

1 – Rossini – “I was born for opera buffa.” Music [Link].1 8, 9

Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].2
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

2 – Opera in Europe Music [Link].1 8, 9

Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

3 – Looking at The Barber of Seville through Music [Link].1 8, 9

different “lenses” Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

4 – Creating your own sets and costumes for Music [Link].1 8, 9

The Barber of Seville. Music [Link].2
Visual Arts [Link].1
Visual Arts [Link].2
Visual Arts [Link].1
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2
Visual Arts [Link].1
Visual Arts [Link].2
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2
Music [Link].1 7, 8, 9
5 – Who is Figaro? Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

6 – That was a great performance Music [Link].1 7, 8, 9

and I know why!” Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

lesson plans with related standards 2

O pera Box Lesson Plans with Relat e d S ta n da r d s

The lessons in this Teacher Guide are aligned with the current Minnesota Academic Standards, Arts k–12, and the
National Standards for Music Education. It is not the intention of these lessons to completely satisfy the standards. This
list only suggests how the standards and lesson objectives relate to each other.

minnesota academic standards, arts k–12

The Minnesota Academic Standards in the Arts set the expectations for achievement in the arts for k–12 students in
Minnesota. The standards are organized by grade band (k–3, 4–5, 6–8, 9–12) into four strands that foster the
development of students’ artistic literacy.
The strands are as follows:
i. Artistic Foundations
2. Artistic Process: Create or Make
3. Artistic Process: Perform or Present, and
4. Artistic Process: Respond or Critique.
Each strand has one or more standards that can be implemented in the arts areas of dance, media arts, music, theater
and/or visual arts. The benchmarks for the standards in each arts area are designated by a five-digit code. In reading
the coding, please note that for code [Link].2, the 0 refers to refers to the 0–3 (k–3) grade band, the 3 refers to the
Artistic Process: Perform or Present strand, the 1 refers to the first (and only) standard for that strand, the 5 refers to
the fifth arts area (visual arts), and the 2 refers to the second benchmark for that standard.
See the Minnesota Department of Education website for more information: [Link]/mde
Grades 9–12
strand: Artistic Foundations
standard 1: Demonstrate knowledge of the foundations of the arts area.
arts area: Music
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze how the elements of music including melody, rhythm,
harmony, dynamics, tone color, texture, form and their related
concepts are combined to communicate meaning in the creation of,
performance of, or response to music.
[Link].2
benchmark: Evaluate how the elements of music and related concepts such as
repetition, pattern, balance and emphasis are used in the creation of,
performance of, or response to music.
[Link].3
benchmark: Analyze how the characteristics of a variety of genres and styles
contribute to the creation of, performance of, or response to music.
arts area: Theater
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze how the elements of theater, including plot, theme,
character, language, sound and spectacle are combined to
communicate meaning in the creation of, performance of, or response
to theater.

lesson plans with related standards 3

 [Link].2
benchmark: Evaluate how forms such as musical theater, opera or melodrama, and
structures such as chronological or nonlinear are used in the creation
of, performance of, or response to theater.
[Link].3
benchmark: Evaluate how the characteristics of Western and non-Western styles,
such as Kabuki, Noh, Theater of the Absurd or classical contribute
to the creation of, performance of, or response to theater.
arts area: Visual Arts
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze how the elements of visual arts such as repetition, pattern,
emphasis, contrast and balance are used in the creation of,
presentation of, or response to visual artworks.
[Link].2
benchmark: Evaluate how the principles of visual art such as repetition, pattern,
emphasis, contrast and balance are used in the creation of,
presentation of, or response to visual artworks.

standard 2: Demonstrate knowledge of and use of the technical skills of the art form, integrating
technology when applicable.
arts area: Music
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Read and notate music using standard notation system such as
complex meters, extended ranges and expressive symbols, with and
without the use of notation software in a variety of styles and
contexts.
[Link].2
benchmark: Sing alone and in small and large groups (multi-part), or play an
instrument alone in and in small or large groups, a variety of music
using characteristic tone, technique and expression.
[Link].3
benchmark: Use electronic musical tools to record, mix, play back, accompany,
arrange or compose music.
arts area: Theater
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Act by developing, communicating and sustaining character; or
design by conceptualizing and realizing artistic interpretations; or
direct by interpretations dramatic text and organizing and
rehearsing for informal or formal productions.
[Link].1
benchmark: Use technology for purposes of research, feedback, documentation or
production.
arts area: Visual Arts
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Integrate the characteristics of the tools, materials and techniques of
a selected media in original artworks to support artistic purposes

lesson plans with related standards 4

 standard 3: Demonstrate understanding of the personal, social, cultural and historical contexts that
influence the arts areas.
arts area: Music
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze how the personal, social, cultural and historical contexts
influence the creation, interpretation or performance of music
including the contributions of Minnesota American Indian tribes
and communities.
[Link].2
benchmark: Synthesize and express an individual view of the meanings and
functions of music.
arts area: Theater
code: [Link].2
benchmark: Analyze how the personal, social, cultural and historical contexts
influence the creation, interpretation or performance of music
including the contributions of Minnesota American Indian tribes
and communities.
[Link].2
benchmark: Synthesize and express an individual view of the meanings and
functions of theater.
arts area: Visual Arts
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze how the personal, social, cultural and historical contexts
influence the creation, interpretation or performance of music
including the contributions of Minnesota American Indian tribes
and communities.
[Link].2
benchmark: Synthesize and express an individual view of the meanings and
functions of visual arts.
strand 2: Artistic Process: Create or Make
standard 1: Create or make in a variety of contexts in the arts areas using the artistic foundations.
arts area: Music
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Improvise, compose or arrange new musical compositions in a
variety of styles and contexts using available technology to preserve
the creations.
[Link].2
benchmark: Revise a musical composition or arrangement based on artistic intent
and using multiple sources of critique and feedback.
[Link].3
benchmark: Justify an artistic statement, including how audience and occasion
influence creative choices.
arts area: Theater
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Create a single, complex work or multiple works in theater such as a
script, character or design.

lesson plans with related standards 5

 [Link].2
benchmark: Revise a creation based on artistic intent and using multiple sources
of critique and feedback.
[Link].3
benchmark: Justify an artistic statement, including how audience and occasion
influence creative choices.

strand 4: Artistic Process: Respond or Critique

standard 1: Respond to or critique a variety of creations and performances using the artistic
foundations.
arts area: Music
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze, interpret and evaluate a variety of musical works of
performances by applying self-selected criteria within the traditions
of the art form.
[Link].2
benchmark: Justify choices of self-selected criteria based on knowledge of how
criteria affect criticism.
arts area: Theater
arts area: Theater
[Link].1
benchmark: Analyze, interpret and evaluate a variety of works in theater by
applying self-selected criteria within the traditions of the art form.
[Link].2
benchmark: Justify choices of self-selected criteria based on knowledge of how
criteria affect criticism.

lesson plans with related standards 6

national standards for music education

1 Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.

2 Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.
3 Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments.
4 Composing and arranging music within specified guidelines.
5 Reading and notating music.
6 Listening to, analyzing, and describing music.
a analyze aural examples of a varied repertoire of music, representing diverse genres and cultures, by describing
the uses of elements of music and expressive devices
b demonstrate extensive knowledge of the technical vocabulary of music
c identify and explain compositional devices and techniques used to provide unity, variety, tension and release in
a musical work and give examples of other works that make similar uses of these devices and techniques
d demonstrate the ability to perceive and remember music events by describing in detail significant events
occurring in a given aural example
e compare ways in which musical materials are used in a given example relative to ways in which they are
used in other works of the same genre or style
f analyze and describe uses of the elements of music in a given work that make it unique, interesting, and
expressive
7 Evaluating music and music performances.
a evolve specific criteria for making informed, critical evaluations of the quality and the effectiveness of
performances, compositions, arrangements, and improvisations and apply the criteria in their personal
participation in music
b evaluate a performance, composition, arrangement, or improvisation by comparing it to similar or exemplary
models
c evaluate a given musical work in terms of its aesthetic qualities and explain it to similar or exemplary models

8 Understanding relationships between music, the others arts, and disciplines outside the arts.
a explain how elements, artistic processes, and organizational principles are used in similar and distinctive ways
in the various arts and cite examples
b compare characteristics of two or more arts within a particular historical period or style and cite examples from
various cultures
c explain ways in which the principles and subject matter of various disciplines outside the arts are interrelated
with those of music
d compare the uses of characteristic elements, artistic processes, and organizational principles among the arts in
different historical periods and different cultures
e explain how the roles of creators, performers, and others involved in the production and presentation of the
arts are similar to and different from one another in the various arts
9 Understanding music in relation to history and culture.

lesson plans with related standards 7

O pera Box Content List
The Barber of Seville

There is one (1) of each of the following items:

_____ FULL SCORE The Barber of Seville (Dover)

_____ VOCAL SCORE The Barber of Seville (G. Schirmer)

_____ LIBRETTO The Barber of Seville (G. Schirmer)

_____ CD The Barber of Seville [CHANDOS; Ford, Jones, Bellini (conductor)]

_____ CD The Barber of Seville [DEUTSCHE GRAMMOPHON; Alva, Berganza, Abbado (conductor)]

_____ dvd The Barber of Seville [ART HOUSE; Kuebler, Bartoli, Ferro (conductor)]

_____ dvd The Barber of Seville [DECCA; Flórez, Bayo, Gelmetti (conductor)]

_____ BOOK The Cambridge Guide to Rossini edited by Emanuele Senici

_____ BOOK The Barber of Seville Opera Journey’s Mini Guide Series by Burton Fisher

_____ BOOK Opera Composers: Works, Performers by András Batta

_____ Teacher’s Guide

The entire deposit will be withheld until all items are returned. Any damaged items will be charged to the renter for the
amount of the replacement. Thank you for using the Minnesota Opera’s Opera Box and teaching opera in your classroom.

content list 8
R eference and Tracking Guide

The Barber of Seville

This is a chart that coordinates each track or chapter number each CD or DVD in the Opera Box. The chart shows where
each excerpt is in relation to the other recordings and where to find each section in the scores.

cd
full score vocal score cd dvd dvd
(deutsche
(dover) (schirmer) (chandos) (decca) (arthaus)
grammophon)

overture overture overture overture overture prologue

page 1 page 1 track 1/1 track 1/1 track 2 track 2

act one act one act one act one act one act one

page 23 page 9 track 1/2 track 1/2 track 3 track 3

page 30 page 13 track 1/3 track 1/3 track 4 track 4

page 39 page 18 track 1/4 track 5

page 42 page 20 track 1/5

page 52 page 29 track 1/6 track 6

page 54 page 31 track 1/4 track 1/7 track 7 track 5

page 74 page 41 track 1/8 track 8

page 77 page 45 track 1/9

page 79 page 47 track 1/10 track 9

page 81 page 51 track 1/5 track 1/11 track 10 track 6

page 83 page 54 track 1/6 track 1/12 track 11

page 84 page 55 track 1/13 track 12 track 7

page 112 page 75 track 1/7 track 1/14 track 13 track 8

page 116 page 77 track 1/15

page 123 page 82 track 1/16 track 14

page 123 page 82 track 1/17 track 15

reference/tracking guide 9
full score vocal score dg cd chandos cd decca dvd arthaus dvd

page 124 page 84 track 1/18 track 16

page 126 page 86 track 1/19 track 17

page 128 page 88 track 1/8 track 1/20 track 18 track 9

page 139 page 95 track 1/21 track 19

page 139 page 95 track 1/22 track 20

page 142 page 99 track 1/9 track 1/23 track 21 track 10

page 153 page 107 track 1/24 track 22

page 155 page 110 track 1/10 track 1/25 track 23 track 11

page 175 page 124 track 24

page 176 page 125 track 2/1 track 2/1 track 25 track 12

page 183 page 129 track 2/2

page 192 page 136 track 13

page 207 page 146 track 2/2 track 2/3 track 14

page 213 page 150 track 2/4

page 217 page 154 track 2/5

page 222 page 160 track 2/6

page 227 page 166 track 2/3 track 2/7 track 15

act two act two ac t two act two act two act two

page 281 page 202 track 2/4 track 2/8 track 26 track 16

page 282 page 203 track 2/9

page 290 page 211 track 2/10

page 282 page 203 track 27

page 290 page 211 track 28

page 292 page 215 track 2/11 track 29

page 294 page 216 track 2/5 track 2/12 track 30 track 17

page 308 page 225 track 2/13 track 31

reference/tracking guide 10
full score vocal score dg cd chandos cd decca dvd arthaus dvd

page 309 page 225 track 2/6 track 2/14 track 32 track 18

page 310 page 227 track 2/15 track 33

page 314 page 232 track 2/7 track 2/16 track 34 track 19

page 335 page 247 track 2/17

page 359 page 258 track 2/18

page 359 page 259 track 2/19 track 35

page 360 page 259 track 2/8 track 2/20 track 36 track 20

page 368 page 264 track 2/21 track 37

page 369 page 266 track 2/22 track 38

track 39
(not in score)

page 372 page 270 track 2/9 track 2/23 track 40 track 21

page 380 page 273 track 2/24 track 41

page 382 page 276 track 2/10 track 2/25 track 42 track 23

page 398 page 290 track 2/26 track 43

page 398 page 290 track 2/27

page 400 page 293 track 2/28

page 401 page 294 – cut – track 44 track 24

page 403 page 295 – cut – track 45

page 420 page 309 – cut – track 46

page 422 page 311 track 2/11 track 2/29 track 47 track 25

reference/tracking guide 11
 The Ba rb e r o f S e v i l l e O p e r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 1: Rossini – “I was born for opera buffa.”

objective(s)
Students will learn about the life and times of Rossini.

material(s)
• reference books about Rossini (The Cambridge Companion to Rossini)
• ROSSINI – “I WAS BORN FOR OPERA BUFFA” TIMELINE RESEARCH CHECKLIST (see following page)
• general reference books about 19th-century Europe (not in Opera Box)
• internet access (not in Opera Box)
• poster board (not in Opera Box)

procedure(s)

(1) Divide class into groups. Assign research topics related to Rossini to each group. Direct the class to research their
specific topics and prepare a presentation for the rest of the class based on their findings. The nature and scope of
the presentations is at the discretion of the teacher.
Suggested topics:
– political and social culture of Italy during Rossini’s lifetime (1792–1868)
– scientific and technological achievements during Rossini’s lifetime.
– social life and class divisions in Italy and Europe during Rossini’s lifetime.
– artistic and musical life in Italy and all of Europe from 1792 to 1868.
~ the popularity of opera buffa and opera seria
~ literary and artistic trends
(2) Offer some guided (in-class) research time with students. Depending on students’ ability to conduct research,
additional guidance might be needed.
(3) Each group is to create a piece of the timeline poster that will be posted on the wall. It is suggested that the
teacher predetermine what form the timeline will look like. For example, cut pieces of poster board, mark the
time span and topic of each section and mount final piece on the classroom wall. Each piece of the timeline
should contain 20 facts.
(4) Student groups will give oral presentations based on their topic. Each group should create five questions about their
topic that they feel are the most important. Questions are to be submitted to the teacher prior to giving the
presentation. The rest of the class is to take notes during each presentation to prepare for a class-constructed test.
(5) Put all questions together from each group and give test.

assessment(s)
Assign value for class participation and group cooperation. In addition, assign value to each of the following
activities:
– demonstration of checklist completed
– all group members participating in presentation
– correct number of facts, clearly written, for piece of timeline
– evidence of note-taking during all presentations

opera box lesson plans 12

ROSSINI – “I W AS BOR N F OR OPERA BUFFA” RE SEARC H CH EC KLIS T

group members

topic

Each item must be completed to earn full point value. _____ points possible
for each item
research checklist

_____ List 20 facts related to the topic and how they relate to Rossini. _____ points earned

_____ Organize all facts into chronological order. _____ points earned

_____ Write 3 sentence descriptions of each fact to be put on timeline. _____ points earned

_____ Proofread all sentences prior to putting them on the timeline. _____ points earned

_____ Put each fact on the timeline for public display. _____ points earned

class presentation checklist

_____ Prepare an outline of class presentation. _____ points earned

_____ Based on this outline, create 5 questions that your group feels address
the most important points of the presentation. _____ points earned

_____ Submit 5 questions to teacher prior to presentation. _____ points earned

_____ Assign speaking parts for each group member. _____ points earned

_____ Practice speech. _____ points earned

_____ Give presentation. _____ points earned

_____ Put piece of timeline on wall. _____ points earned

_____
total

opera box lesson plans 13

 The Ba rb e r o f S e v i l l e O p e r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 2: Opera in Europe

objective(s)
Students will understand the basic operatic trends in Italy, France and other parts of Europe during the lifetime of
Rossini (1792–1868).

material(s)
• The Cambridge Guide to Rossini
• OPERA IN EUROPE WORKSHEET (one copy per student) (see following page)
• Internet access
• general library access

procedure(s)
Rossini’s creative output, like every other artist, reflects the time period and culture they live in. This lesson is for
students to gain a basic knowledge of the culture, operatic tendencies and other elements of European society during
1792–1868.
(1) In small groups or individually, students are to research the terms given on the OPERA IN EUROPE WORKSHEET.
(2) Collect worksheets. Answers are to be in short paragraph form. See OPERA IN EUROPE KEY for correct answers.

assessment(s)
Value is to be given for each correct answer. See OPERA IN EUROPE KEY for details.

opera box lesson plans 14

OPERA IN EUROPE 1792– 1868

directions
Research each term using The Cambridge Guide to Rossini, other reference books and the Internet. Write answer in the
form of a short paragraph.

french grand opera

giacomo meyerbeer

bel canto

gaetano donizetti

vincenzo bellini

rossini crescendo

opera buffa
OPERA IN EUROPE 1792– 1868 (KEY)

directions
Research each term using The Cambridge Guide to Rossini, other reference books and the Internet. Write answer in the
form of a short paragraph.

french grand opera

• “In France, interest in grand opéra in the early 19th century was shared with the opéra comique, a form and style
inherited from the preceding period and that gradually developed into the lyric opera of Gounod (Faust, 1859)
and A. Thomas (Mignon, 1866), both showing Italian influence.” (Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music, P. 352)
• “Far from being the result of a free creative flowering, nineteenth-century French opera, perhaps more than any
other art form, was governed by a complex set of codes and practices, and by a system of production that intruded
on every level of composition, preparation and performance.” (Lacombe, p. 1)

giacomo meyerbeer
• 1791–1864, noted pieces: Robert le diable, Les Huguenots, Le prophète, L’Africaine.
• “This aesthetic [French Grand Opera] was concerned solely with stirring the feelings of the audience, which
constituted an end in itself. In that sense, it reached its apex in the works of Meyerbeer.” (Lacombe, P. 255)

bel canto
• Translates as “beautiful singing”
• “Italian vocal technique of the 19th century, with its emphasis on beauty of sound and brilliance of performance
rather than dramatic expression or romantic emotion.” (Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music, P. 47)

gaetano donizetti
• 1797–1848, noted pieces: Lucrezia Borgia, Lucia di Lammermoor, L’elisir d’amore, Don Pasquale.
• Noted composer in the bel canto style.

vincenzo bellini
• 1801–1835, noted pieces: Norma, La sonnambula, I puritani
• He was an Italian opera composer, known for his melodic lines and considered the father of the specific bel canto
operatic style.

rossini crescendo
• An instrumental effect that gradually builds by adding numbers of instruments, dynamics levels and shortening
note duration. During a [Rossini crescendo] text ceases to be important.

opera buffa
• Comic opera
• An opera or other dramatic work with a large admixture of music, on a light or sentimental subject, with a happy
ending, and in which comic elements are present.

opera box lesson plans 16

 The Ba r b e r o f S e v i l l e O p e r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 3: Look at The Barber of Seville through different “lenses.”

objective(s)
Students will comprehend the drama of The Barber of Seville through various literary theories. (It is suggested that
this lesson follow some other preliminary work on the story of The Barber of Seville.)

material(s)
• THE BARBER OF SEVILLE THROUGH THE LENSES WORKSHEET AND RUBRICS (one copy per student) (see following pages)
• various costumes and props for student presentations (not in Opera Box)

procedure(s)
(1) Break class into smaller groups and assign each group a “lens” in which to analyze The Barber of Seville.

(2) As a class, read through the THE BARBER OF SEVILLE THROUGH THE LENSES WORKSHEET. Give additional
explanation (as needed) to the class describing the various perspectives.

(3) Assign worksheet and possible class time for work.

(4) Create a space for the student groups to present their work. Students not presenting will serve as an audience
taking notes on each presentation. These notes will be used in the assessment.

assessment(s)
Each student will be assessed individually and as a member of their assigned group. Value given to group
participation and class presentation will follow the THE BARBER OF SEVILLE THROUGH THE LENSES WORKSHEET AND
RUBRICS.
Upon the completion of all presentations, each student is to compose a persuasive essay supporting one of the lenses
as superior to the others. All lenses are to be used and cited as supporting material of the argument.

opera box lesson plans 17

THE BARBER OF SEVILLE THROUGH LENSES WORKSHEET AND RUBR ICS

Lesson 3 name

directions
Read through each description of the various literary theories or “lenses” used to understand literature. In your small
group, read through your assigned lense and find examples of this perspective in the libretto of The Barber of Seville.
After your group has collected enough examples in the libretto, create a 10-minute presentation explaining your
position. Use a short example of the libretto to act out (with appropriate costumes and props) to demonstrate your
position. During the other class presentations, take notes on how each lens is represented in The Barber of Seville. These
notes are to be used in a final persuasive essay supporting one theory. Follow the checklist and rubric to help you
complete all the tasks.

Marxist Literary Theory

assumptions
1. The German philosopher Karl Marx argued that the way people think and behave in any society is determined
by basic economic factors.
2. In his view, those groups of people who owned and controlled major industries could exploit the rest of the
population through conditions of employment and by forcing their own values and beliefs onto other social
groups.
3. Marxist criticism applies these arguments to the study of literary texts.
strategies
1. Explore the way different groups of people are represented in texts. Evaluate the level of social realism in the text
– how is society portrayed.
2. Determine the ideological stance of the text-what world view does the text represent.
3. Consider how the text itself is a commodity that reproduces certain social beliefs and practices. Analyze the social
effect of the literary work.
Reader-Response Criticism
assumptions
1. An author’s intentions are not reliably available to readers; all they have is the text.
2. Out of the text, readers actively and personally make meaning.
3. Responding to a text is a process, and descriptions of that process are valuable.
strategies
1. Move through the text in super-slow motion, describing the response of an informed reader at various points.
2. Or describe your own response moving through the text.
3. React to the text as a whole, embracing and expressing the subjective and personal response it engenders.
Postcolonial Literary Theory
assumptions
1. Colonialism is a powerful, destructive historical force that shapes not only the political futures of the countries
involved, but also the identities of colonized and colonizing people.
2. Successful colonialism depends on a process of “othering” the people colonized. That is, the colonized people are
seen as dramatically different from and lesser than the colonizers.

opera box lesson plans 18

 3. Because of this, literature written in colonizing cultures often distorts the experiences and realities of colonized
people. Literature written by colonized people often includes attempts to articulate more empowered identities
and reclaim cultures in the face of colonization.
strategies
1. Search the text for references to colonization or current and formerly colonized people. In these references, how
are the colonized people portrayed? How is the process of colonization portrayed?
2. Consider what images of “others” or processes of “othering” are present in the text. How are these “others”
portrayed?
3. Analyze how the text deals with cultural conflicts between the colonizing culture and the colonized or traditional
culture?
Feminist Criticism
assumptions

1. The work doesn’t have an objective status, an autonomy; instead, any reading of it is influenced by the reader’s
own status, which includes gender or attitudes toward gender.
2. Historically the production and reception of literature has been controlled largely by men; it’s important now to insert
a feminist viewpoint in order to bring to our attention neglected works as well as new approaches to old works.
3. Men and women are different: they write differently, read differently and write about their reading differently.
These differences should be valued.
strategies
1. Consider the gender of the author, the characters: what role does gender or sexuality play in this work?
2. Specifically, observe how sexual stereotypes might be reinforced or undermined. Try to see how the work reflects,
or distorts or recuperates the place of women (and men) in society.
3. Imagine yourself as a woman reading the work.

Psychological Criticism
assumptions
1. Creative writing (like dreaming) represents the (disguised) fulfillment of a (repressed) wish or fear.
2. Everyone’s formative history is different in particulars, but there are basic recurrent patterns of development for
most people. These patterns and particulars have lasting effects.
3. In reading literature, we can make educated guesses about what has been repressed and transformed.
strategies
1. Attempt to apply a developmental concept to the work (or the author or the characters). For example: the Oedipal
complex, anal retentiveness, castration anxiety, gender confusion.
2. Relate the work to psychologically significant events in the author’s life.
3. Consider how repressed material maybe expressed in the work’s pattern of imagery or symbols.

opera box lesson plans 19

Biographical, Historical, New Historical Criticism
assumptions

1. Meaning is contextual.
2. The context for a literary work includes information about the author, his or her historical moment and the systems
of meaning available at the time of writing.
3. Interpretation of the work should be based on an understanding of its context.
strategies
1. Research the author’s life, and relate that information to the work.
2. Research the author’s time (the political history, intellectual history, economic history, etc.) and relate that
information to the work.
3. Research the systems of meaning available to the author and relate those systems to the work.

checklist

 Individually read the The Barber of Seville libretto. Make citations in the text when you find examples of your
theory.

 In your small group, discuss your findings.

 Prepare a 10-minute presentation* that includes the following:

• An explanation of the purpose of your lens in general
• A thorough analysis of how The Barber of Seville can be seen through your lens including at least 5 quotations
found in the libretto supporting your theory.
• An explanation of how the imagery is used to explicate/illuminate your lens’s interpretation.
• Identify a small portion of one or two scenes from The Barber of Seville which demonstrate how the lens can be
used to interpret the action/characters. Assign the roles to the groups members to be acted out during the
presentation. Use appropriate costumes/props for the presentation.
• An explanation of which themes are highlighted through the use of your lens
*
Follow the PRESENTATION RUBRIC for parameters of the presentation.

 Take notes on the other presentations. Highlight how each lens can be identified in the libretto.
 Write a persuasive essay supporting one theory as the best way to describe the opera The Barber of Seville. Use your
notes from the presentations to cite examples either for or against your position. Follow the ESSAY RUBRIC for
parameters for your writing.

opera box lesson plans 20

PRE SENTATION RUBRIC

4 – above standards 3 – meets standards 2 – approaching 1 – below standards

c at e g o r y
standards

Almost always listens Often listens to, shares

Rarely listens to, shares
to, shares with and Usually listens to, with and supports the
with and supports the
c o l l a b o r at i o n supports the efforts of shares with and efforts of others in the
efforts of others in the
with peers others in the group. supports the efforts of group but sometimes is
group. Often is not a
Tries to keep people others in the group. not a good team
good team member.
working well together. member.

Student seems pretty The student is

Student is completely Student does not seem
prepared but might somewhat prepared,
p r e pa r e d n e s s prepared and has at all prepared to
have needed a couple but it is clear that
obviously rehearsed. present.
more rehearsals. rehearsal was lacking.

Speaks clearly and Speaks clearly and Speaks clearly and

Often mumbles or can
distinctly all (100- distinctly all (100- distinctly most (94-
not be understood OR
s p e a k s c l e a r ly 95%) the time, and 95%) the time, but 85%) of the time.
mispronounces more
mispronounces no mispronounces one Mispronounces no more
than one word.
words. word. than one word.

Student uses several

props (could include Student uses 1 prop
The student uses no
costumes) that show that shows considerable Student uses 1 prop
props or the props
props considerable work/creativity and that makes the
chosen detract from the
work/creativity and that make the presentation better.
presentation.
that make the presentation better.
presentation better.

Stays on topic all Stays on topic most Stays on topic some (89 – It was hard to tell what
s tay s o n t o p i c
(100%) of the time. (99 – 90%) of the time. 75%) of the time. the topic was.

Sometimes does not

Listens intently. Does Listens intently but has Sometimes does not
listens to other appear to be listening
not make distracting one distracting noise or appear to be listening
p r e s e n tat i o n s and has distracting
noises or movements. movement. but is not distracting.
noises or movements.

score

opera box lesson plans 21

ESSAY RUBRIC

4 – above standards 3 – meets standards 2 – approaching 1 – below standards

c at e g o r y
standards

The position statement The position statement

A position statement is
provides a clear, strong provides a clear
position present, but does not There is no position
statement of the statement of the
s tat e m e n t make the author’s statement.
author’s position on the author’s position on the
position clear.
topic. topic.

All of the evidence and Most of the evidence and At least one of the pieces
examples are specific, examples are specific, of evidence and examples
Evidence and examples
relevant and explanations relevant and explanations is relevant and has an
evidence and are NOT relevant
are given that show how are given that show how explanation that shows
examples AND/OR are not
each piece of evidence each piece of evidence how that piece of
explained.
supports the author's supports the author's evidence supports the
position. position. author's position.

All supportive facts and Almost all supportive Most supportive facts Most supportive facts
accuracy statistics are reported facts and statistics are and statistics are and statistics were
accurately. reported accurately. reported accurately. inaccurately reported.

Author makes 1 – 2 Author makes 3 – 4 Author makes more

Author makes no errors
errors in grammar or errors in grammar or than 4 errors in
grammar and in grammar or spelling
spelling that distract spelling that distract grammar or spelling
spelling that distract the reader
the reader from the the reader from the that distract the reader
from the content.
content. content. from the content.

Author makes a few Author makes several

Author makes no errors Author makes 1 – 2
errors in capitalization errors in capitalization
in capitalization or errors in capitalization
c a p i ta l i z at i on and/or punctuation that and/or punctuation that
punctuation, so the or punctuation, but the
a n d p u n c t uati o n catch the reader's catch the reader's
essay is exceptionally essay is still easy to
attention and interrupt attention and interrupt
easy to read. read.
the flow. the flow.

score

opera box lesson plans 22

 The Ba rb e r o f S e v i l l e O p e r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 4: Creating your own sets and costumes for The Barber of Seville

objective(s)
Students will design costumes and sets for their own (imaginary) production of The Barber of Seville.

material(s)
• libretto The Barber of Seville (one copy per student)
• cd The Barber of Seville (either recording in the Opera Box will work for this lesson)
• CREATING YOUR OWN SETS AND COSTUMES FOR THE BARBER OF SEVILLE CHECKLIST AND RUBRIC (one copy per student)
• various art supplies (not in Opera Box)
• graphic design software (not in Opera Box)

procedure(s)
(1) Read the entire libretto of The Barber of Seville. Students may follow along to a CD recording of the opera. As a
class discuss the following questions:
– What time period does the opera take place?
– What location are the various acts in?
– Describe the characters. What clothing would they be wearing in each situation?
– What would the lighting be in each scene? (i.e. Would the lighting in Bartolo’s house be different than
outside on the square in front of the house at the beginning of the story)
– How does the music describe the setting of the drama?
(2) In small groups or individually, students are to create designs – sets and/or costumes – for their own production
of The Barber of Seville. Students are to choose one of the options below:
– Design sets for Acts I or II
– Design costumes for all the principal characters
– Design set and costumes for either Act I or II
– Build an actual costume or set piece for one of the principal characters.
*
Set design should include lighting considerations and entrances and exits for the characters.
*
Costume designs should include swaths of cloth to accompany the drawings.
(3) Upon completion of the design, students are to prepare a short presentation describing their work. Students are
to follow the CREATING YOUR OWN SETS AND COSTUMES FOR THE BARBER OF SEVILLE CHECKLIST AND RUBRIC
to help them prepare their presentations.

assessment(s)
All design items are to be turned in at the time of student presentation. In each presentation, students are to answer
all the listed on the CHECKLIST AND RUBRIC.

additional c omment(s)
The potential to expand this lesson is great. For example, after completing the student designs, watch the DVDs of
The Barber of Seville and have the class compare and contrast the different ideas. Or, student work can be put on
display for parents. Attend a live performance of The Barber of Seville and write a review of the production.

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CREATING YOUR OW N SET S AND COSTUMES FOR THE BARBER OF SEVILLE CHECKLIST AN D RUBRIC

Lesson 4 name

directions
A. Read the libretto of The Barber of Seville. You may follow along with a CD recording. Be able to answer these
questions:
1. What time period does the opera take place?
2. What location are the various acts in?
3. Describe the characters. What would they be wearing in each situation?
4. What would the lighting be in each scene? (i.e. Would the lighting in Bartolo’s house be different than outside
on the square in front of the house at the beginning of the story?)
5. How does the music describe the setting of the drama?
B. Create designs – sets and/or costumes – for your own production of The Barber of Seville. Choose one of the options
below:
– Design sets for Act I or II
– Design costumes for all the principal characters
– Design a set or costumes for either Act I or II
– Build an actual costume or set piece for one of the principal characters.
*
Set design should include lighting considerations and entrances and exits for the characters.
*
Costume designs should include swaths of cloth to accompany the drawings.
C. Upon completion of the design, prepare a short presentation describing your work. Follow the CREATING YOUR
OWN SETS AND COSTUMES FOR THE BARBER OF SEVILLE CHECKLIST AND RUBRIC to help prepare your presentation.

checklist
What is your design option?
for set designs:
 Identify all entrances and exits
 Include lighting cues
for costume designs:
 Label each character and scene where a costume is used
 Include cloth swaths with each costume design
questions to be answered during design presentation:
1. Where did you get your inspiration for your designs?
2. Where does each design occur in the opera?
3. What you trying to convey with your design? Or, how does what you created enhance the story being told
onstage?

opera box lesson plans 24

DESIGN PRESENTATION RUBRIC

4 – above standards 3 – meets standards 2 – approaching 1 – below standards

c at e g o r y
standards

Student seems pretty The student is

Student is completely Student does not seem
prepared but might somewhat prepared,
p r e pa r e d n e s s prepared and has at all prepared to
have needed a couple but it is clear that
obviously rehearsed. present.
more rehearsals. rehearsal was lacking.

Student uses several

props (could include Student uses 1 prop
The student uses no
costume) that show that shows considerable Student uses 1 prop
props OR the props
props considerable work/creativity and that makes the
chosen detract from the
work/creativity and that make the presentation better.
presentation.
that make the presentation better.
presentation better.

Uses vocabulary Uses vocabulary

Uses vocabulary
appropriate for the appropriate for the
appropriate for the Uses several (5 or more)
audience. Extends audience. Includes 1–2
audience. Does not words or phrases that
vocabulary audience vocabulary words that might be
include any vocabulary are not understood by
by defining words that new to most of the
that might be new to the audience.
might be new to most audience, but does not
the audience.
of the audience. define them.

Shows a full Shows a good Shows a good Does not seem to

content understanding understanding understanding understand the topic
of the topic. of the topic. of parts of the topic. very well.

Speaks clearly and Speaks clearly and Speaks clearly and

Often mumbles or can
distinctly all (100- distinctly all (100- distinctly most (94-
not be understood OR
s p e a k s c l e a r ly 95%) the time, and 95%) the time, but 85%) of the time.
mispronounces more
mispronounces no mispronounces one Mispronounces no more
than one word.
words. word. than one word.

score

opera box lesson plans 25

opera box lesson plans 26
 The Ba rb e r o f S e v i l l e O p e r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 5: Who is Figaro?

objective(s)
Students will create a poem describing the character “Figaro” from The Barber of Seville.

material(s)
• LIBRETTO The Barber of Seville
• WHO IS FIGARO BIOPOEM WORKSHEET (one per student)

procedure(s)
(1) Give one handout of the BIOPOEM WORKSHEET per student. Read through the directions and explain that a
“biopoem” is a biographical sketch of a real or fictional person.
(2) Assign students to complete the worksheet .

assessment(s)
Value will be assigned to the successful completion of the assignment and creativity. Suggested point value is one
point per request item (24 total). Two examples are given.

line 1 First name [1 pt.]

line 2 Four traits that describe the character [4 pts.]
line 3 Relative (brother, sister, cousin, etc.) of ______________ [1 pt.]
line 4 Who loves ________________ [1 pt.]
line 5 Who feels _________________ (three items) [3 pts.]
line 6 Who needs ________________ (three items) [3 pts.]
line 7 Who fears _________________ (three items) [3 pts.]
line 8 Who gives _________________ (three items) [3 pts.]
line 9 Who would/would not like to see ________________ (three items) [3 pts.]
line 10 Resident of ________________ [1 pts.]
line 11 Last name (think up a last name for your character if there isn’t one) [1 pt.]

opera box lesson plans 27

example (on student worksheets)
based on Emily Dickinson

line 1 Emily
line 2 Untravelled, eccentric, wealthy, recluse
line 3 Lavinia, your younger sister, your refuge.
line 4 A lover of nature, correspondence, words and white dress
line 5 Who feels inner passion, need for solitude and loss.
line 6 Regular rhythm, similar sounds, and dashes are your needs
line 7 But disappointment, relationships, and publication your fears.
line 8 You have given your letters, your insights, your love.
line 9 But would you like to see your works published, your public life, your emotions explored?
line 10 Resident of your beloved Amherst, Massachusetts.
line 11 Dickinson

example (not on student worksheets)

Figaro
line 1 Figaro
line 2 Confident, fun, loving, sneaky
line 3
line 4 Life
line 5 Empathy of young lovers, bravado
line 6 Excitement, friends, friends with money
line 7 Getting caught, injustice, friends with no money
line 8 Happiness, love, shaves
line 9 Would like to see
line 10 Resident of Seville
line 11

opera box lesson plans 28

WHO IS FIGAR O BI OP OEM WOR KSHEET

Lesson 5 name

directions
A “biopoem” is a biographical sketch of a person, real or fictional. In this lesson, create a biopoem to describe the
fictional character of Figaro. Read through the example below to help guide through the lesson.

line 1 First name [1 pt.]

line 2 Four traits that describe the character [4 pts.]
line 3 Relative (brother, sister, cousin, etc.) of ______________ [1 pt.]
line 4 Who loves ________________ [1 pt.]
line 5 Who feels _________________ (three items) [3 pts.]
line 6 Who needs ________________ (three items) [3 pts.]
line 7 Who fears _________________ (three items) [3 pts.]
line 8 Who gives _________________ (three items) [3 pts.]
line 9 Who would/would not like to see ________________ (three items) [3 pts.]
line 10 Resident of ________________ [1 pts.]
line 11 Last name (think up a last name for your character if there isn’t one) [1 pt.]

example
based on Emily Dickinson

line 1 Emily
line 2 Untravelled, eccentric, wealthy, recluse
line 3 Lavinia, your younger sister, your refuge.
line 4 A lover of nature, correspondence, words and white dress
line 5 Who feels inner passion, need for solitude and loss.
line 6 Regular rhythm, similar sounds, and dashes are your needs
line 7 But disappointment, relationships, and publication your fears.
line 8 You have given your letters, your insights, your love.
line 9 But would you like to see your works published, your public life, your emotions explored?
line 10 Resident of your beloved Amherst, Massachusetts.
line 11 Dickinson

opera box lesson plans 29

WHO IS FIGAR O BI OP OEM WOR KSHEET

line 1

line 2

line 3

line 4

line 5

line 6

line 7

line 8

line 9

line 10

line 11

opera box lesson plans 30

 The Ba r b e r o f S e v i l l e O p e r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 6: “That was a great performance and I know why!”

objective(s)
Students will learn about applying objective and subjective statements toward a musical performance. Students will
apply this knowledge of criticism by writing a critique of a performance. Ideally this lesson should be used in conjunction
with attending a live performance.

material(s)
• The Barber of Seville CD or DVD (any recording found on the Opera Box will work)
• “THAT WAS A GREAT PERFORMANCE AND I KNOW WHY!” WORKSHEET
(one copy per student – see following page)
• Various reviews from newspapers and magazines of opera, concerts, musicals, theater, movies and other media.
(not in Opera Box)
Depending on your particular subject area, you may choose to focus on different aspects of reviewing. For example, a
music class might choose to limit themselves and only look at musical reviews.

procedure(s)
(1) Play an excerpt from The Barber of Seville. Suggested excerpts would be any complete act, finale of Act I or Act II.
(2) After listening or viewing, ask students to make objective and subjective statements about the performance.
Chart and categorize the class comments into two categories, objective and subjective.
DISCUSSION POINTS

– Differences between objective and subjective statements

– Which is easier to make, subjective or objective statements?
– Which type of statement provides more information about a performance for a potential listener?
(3) Explain that the role of any critic (and all musicians!) is to balance the differences between the two. A possible
extension for this lesson could be to have students conduct research on the professional critic.
(4) Assign students to find and read three reviews from a newspaper, magazine or online source. Students are then
to analyze the reviews, identifying the subjective and objective attributes. They will put their answers on the
“THAT WAS A GREAT PERFORMANCE AND I KNOW WHY!” WORKSHEET.
(5) In class, question students about their findings.
(6) Then assign students to write a review about a common, singular topic. For example, everyone will write about
their experiences passing in the halls between periods, or eating in the cafeteria. Discuss the subjective and
objective nature of the comments given.
(7) Assign students to write a review outside of class. This review could be based on the performance the class will
attend.

opera box lesson plans 31

assessment(s)
option one
Evaluation shall include the successful completion of the reviews found, analyzed and written. Class participation
should also be included.
option two
Evaluation shall include the successful completion of the reviews found, analyzed, and written. In addition, students
are to fill out another “THAT WAS A GREAT PERFORMANCE AND I KNOW WHY!” WORKSHEET evaluating an additional
excerpt from The Barber of Seville. (The suggested The Barber of Seville excerpt is one of the excerpts not used in step
(1) above. Class participation should also be assessed.

additional c omment(s)
Encourage students to write a review about a live performance of another ensemble within the school or a professional
group. A group of students could also review a new movie. Also, if possible, inquire if some of these reviews could
be included in a school or local newspaper.

opera box lesson plans 32

 THAT W AS A GREAT PER FORMANCE AN D I KNOW WHY!

SUB JECTIVE/OBJECTIVE CHART

name
Lesson 6

directions
After listening to a piece of music, create a list of five (5) objective statements regarding the overall performance itself, the quality of the piece(s) and the
performers. Then make a list of five (5) subjective statements regarding the same criteria. In the “criteria” box, identify what you are (sub) objectifying.

criteria criteria criteria

objective subjective objective subjective objective subjective

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4
opera box lesson plans

5 5 5
33
 Create your own Opera Box Lesson Plan and send it to us.

Ope r a B ox L e s s o n P l a n

name(s) school

phone/email

title of lesson class and grade level

please include any original materials, if p ossibl e.

objective(s)

material(s)

procedure(s)

assessment(s)

additional c omment(s)

opera box lesson plans 34

 IL BARBIERE DI SIVIGLIA (THE BARBER OF SEVILLE)
MUSIC BY GIOACHINO ROSSINI
LIBRETTO BY CESARE STERBINI
AFTER THE PLAY LE BARBIER DE SÉVILLE
BY PIERRE-AUGUSTIN-CARON DE BEAUMARCHAIS

CAST OF CHARACTERS

FIGARO, A BARBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .BARITONE

ROSINA, WARD OF DR. BARTOLO . . . . . . . . .MEZZO-SOPRANO
COUNT ALMAVIVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .TENOR
DR. BARTOLO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .BARITONE
DON BASILIO, A MUSIC TEACHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .BASS
BERTA, BARTOLO’S HOUSEKEEPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . .SOPRANO
FIORELLO, SERVANT TO ALMAVIVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . .BARITONE
AMBROGIO, SERVANT TO DR. BARTOLO . . . . . . . . . . . . .BASS

MUSICIANS, SERVANTS, SOLDIERS, POLICE OFFICERS, A NOTARY

SETTING: SEVILLE IN THE 18 TH

CENTURY

S ynopsis and Musical Excerpts

The overture is a popular concert piece and the allegro section frequently is used in commercials and cartoons.

# œ. œ. œ. œ œ œ. œ. œ. œ œ œ. œ. œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œœœ œ œ . œ. œ. œ. œ œ ‰ œJ œ œ ‰ œJ
œ œ œ >
& c Ó ‰ Œ ‰ Œ ‰ ‰ J ‰J
(1) overture
j

œœ
# œ œ >œ . œ. œ. œ. œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ . > . œ œ œ > . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ‰œ œ‰œ œ œ ≈ œ ≈ œ ≈œ ≈ œ Œ Ó
& #œ J J J J
act i
The young Rosina is under the careful watch of her guardian, Dr. Bartolo, who intends to marry her in order to maintain
control over her dowry. She has attracted the attention of Count Almaviva, who has disguised himself as a poor student,
Lindoro, to determine if her love is reciprocal and genuine. He serenades at Rosina’s window, yet she does not appear.

2 j r j œ r j œ œ. œ œ œ
& 4 œ œ . œR Jœ œ
J œ œ œ œ6 œ œ œ œJ ‰ œ R œ œ R Rœ J ‰
Largo
(2) cavatina: ecco ridente (the count)

j r Ÿ œ Uj #œ œ . #œ œ #œ . œ œ œ œ
œ . . œ œ œ œ#œ œ œ œ œ œ J
Ec - co ri- den - te in cie - lo spun - ta la bel - la au - ro - ra,

& œ œ . œR Jœ œJ J
Gent - ly the dawn is break - ing, Gold - en and ten - der - ly glow - ing.

Ô J
6

e tu non sor - gi an - co - ra, e puoi dor - mir co - sì?

Can you, my love, un - know - ing, Dream on in peace - ful sleep?

synopsis and musical excerpts 35

Instead the Count encounters Figaro, the town factotum of many indispensable talents and formerly in his employ.

œ . œ œ œ œ œœ œ œœ œ j >
#œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ fœ
?6 JJ J J J J ‰‰ œ ‰ ‰ Œ ‰ Œ ‰ ‰ œ J Jœ J Jœ J J ‰ ‰
(3) cavatina: largo al factotum (figaro)
Allegro vivace

8 J J J J

œ . œ œ #œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ >œ œ œ œ œœ œ œœ œ œ
Lar - go al fac - to - tum del- la cit - tà, lar - go! La ran la la ran la la ran la la.

? ∑ J J J J J J J ‰‰ œ
J ‰ ‰ Œ ‰ Œ ‰ ‰ J J J JJ J JJ J ‰ ‰ ‰
I am the bar - ber of Se - ville, I am. La la la le ra, la la la la la!

Pre - sto a bot - te - ga, chè l'al- ba è già, pre - sto! La la ran la la ran la la ra la.
I am a manwith a way and a will, I am. La la la le ra la la la la la!

The Count describes his predicament and (for a price) Figaro offers to help – because he has access to Bartolo’s house-
hold as his barber, he might be useful in winning Rosina’s release for the Count. Rosina appears at the window with a
letter in hand, but is apprehended by her jealous guardian. She lets the letter drop, and while Bartolo runs down to
retrieve it, beckons to the Count to pick it up. When Bartolo finds no letter, Rosina insists that the wind must have
blown it away, but he remains suspicious and forces her back inside. Encouraged by Figaro, the Count sings another
song describing himself as a poor student (a disguise intended to determine if Rosina’s affections are genuine). Rosina
responds from inside.

6 j œ œj Jœ Jœ œ Jœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj œj œ œ œ œ Jœ œ Jœ œ # œ œ ‰
& 8 Œ ‰ ‰ œ Jœ J J J J J J œ
(4) canzone: se il mio nome saper (the count)

J
Andante

U j j >œ . œ œ œ >œ . œ œ œ œ œ # >œ . œ œ œ # œ œ # >œ . œ œ œ Uœ .

Se il mio no - me sa - per voi bra - ma - te, dal mio lab - bro il mio no - me ascol - ta - te.

‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ
& œ œ J JJ J J RJ J J J J RJ J J J J R J J J J J R J
ΠJ
If my name your dear heart would dis - cov - er, Hear it now from the lips of your lov - er.
j
#œ

Io son Lin - do- ro, che fi - do v'a - do - ro, che spo - sa vi bra- mo, che a no - me vi chia - mo, che a no - me vi chia - mo
I am Lin - do- ro, who lives to a - dore you, Who sees you ad - mir- ing, And calls you, de - sir - ing, And calls you, de - sir - ing.

Figaro devises a plan to have the Count gain entrance to the house by disguising himself as a drunken soldier. Once
inside, he will be able to make contact with his beloved. Figaro is thrilled by the prospect of money, the Count by his
chance to meet Rosina. They agree to meet at Figaro’s shop, No. 15.

œ.. œ œ.. œ œ.. œ

?# c œ.. œ œ . . œ R œ œŒ R œ œ ‰. œ R œ œ Œ
j j
(5a) duet: all’idea di quel metallo (figaro, then the count)

R
j

J J
œ

J J R
œ

J RÔ J J
Allegro maestoso œ

Al - l'i - dea di quel me - tal - lo por - ten - to - so, on - ni - pos - sen - te,
At the mer - est thought of mon - ey, That de - light - ful, al - might - y met - al,

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
(5b) duet: numero quindici (figaro, then the count)

?# 3 J J J R R J J J J J J J J J
Allegro

8 ‰ ‰
Nu - me - ro quin - di - ci a ma - no man - ca, quat - tro gra -

?
My fa - mous bar - ber - shop, White on the out - side; House num - ber

synopsis and musical excerpts 36

 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
?# J J ‰ J J J J J ‰ J J J J J ‰

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
di - ni fac - cia - ta bian - ca, cin - que par - ruc - che

?# J J J J J ‰ J J J J J ‰ J J J J J ‰
fif - teen, Right on the left side. Wigs in the win - dow,

nel - la ve - tri - na, so - pra un car - tel - lo: Po - ma - ta fi - na.

Quite a se - lec - tion, Pow - ders and lo - tions, For the com - plex - ion

Inside Bartolo’s house Rosina considers the Count’s recent visit outside her window. She’ll play the obedient young
woman but only to a point – if crossed, there’ll be trouble.

## j Kr œ j Kr œj Kr œ
& # # 34 Œ Œ
œ .. œ œ .. œ . . œ Œ œ œ j
œ œ
‰ œ
œ œj . œ œ
(6) cavatina: una voce poco fa (rosina)
3

#### j œKr œ j K j
Un - a vo - ce po - co fa qui nel cor mi ri - suo -

& Œ œ . . œr œ . . œKr œ Œ œ œ n œJ n œ j œ j œ
œ . . RÔ œ . . RÔ
You a - lone have won my heart, With your song not long a -

œ œ ..
3

# ## œ œ . œ œrK œ . œ œrK œ Œ œ œ œj r j j ‰
nò, il mio cor fe - ri - to è già, e Lin - dor fu che il pia -

& # œ Œ Jœ . . Rœ . œ œrK œ . œ œ œ œœ œ œœœ œœ

go. As I heard you from a - far, Love was born, I seemed to

œ œ œ
Ô
3 3 3
3

#### œ œ œ œ œ >œ œ
gò. Sì, Lin- do - ro mio sa - rà, lo giu - ra - i, la vin - ce -

.. œœ œ œœœ œ œœ ‰ Jœ œ œ œ œ œ œ
& œ Œ œJ œRÔ j j j‰
œ œ œ œ œœ œ œœ œ
Œ Œ
know. Yes, Lin- do - ro dear, you are, 6 You are mine, it shall be

> > œ œ œ œ œ
3 3 3

rò, sì Lin - do - ro mio sa - rà, lo giu - ra - i, la vin - ce - rò.

so! Yes, Lin - do - ro dear, you are, You are mine it shall be so!

Figaro briefly confers with Rosina, who is determined to outwit her doddering gaoler. The sound of Bartolo approaching
puts Figaro into hiding. Bartolo enters in a fury – Figaro has debilitated his household staff by administering all the
wrong potions and medicines. Once accused, Rosina admits to speaking to him and curtly leaves the room. Bartolo
receives a visit from Rosina’s music teacher, Don Basilio, who brings news that Count Almaviva is in Seville and travel-

œ œ
ing incognito in order to court Rosina undetected. Basilio advises Bartolo to destroy his rival by spreading vicious rumors.

.
? ## c ˙ . œ œ œ Œ
J J Ó Œ Jœ ‰ œJ ‰ Jœ ‰ œ J Œ ˙. œ
Allegro
(7) aria: la calunnia (basilio)

Œ œJ ‰ œJ ‰ œJ ‰ œ . œJ œ Œ œ. œ œ œ
J J J Jœ œJ ˙ # œ UŒ
La ca - lun - nia è un ven - ti - cel - lo, un' au -

? ## œ œ Œ Ó
Let me teach you the art of slan - der, So e -

J J
ret - ta as - sai gen - ti - le, che in sen - si - bi - le, sot - ti - le,
the- real, you scarce - ly feel it, Not a mo - tion will re - veal it,

synopsis and musical excerpts 37

 ? # # œ . Jœ œJ œJ œ œ ˙ œU . . . œ. . . .
J J Œ Ó œ. ‰ Jœ. ‰ œJ ‰ Jœ ‰ Jœ ‰ J ‰ œJ ‰ Jœ ‰ œJ ‰ œJ. ‰ œ. Œ Ó
J
leg - ger- men - te, dol- ce - men - te in - co - min - cia, in - co - min - cia a su - sur - rar.
Till it gen - tly, o so gen - tly, Al - most im - per - cep - ti - bly be - gins to grow.

T
Bartolo decides instead to marry Rosina quickly, and they exit as Basilio agrees to help with the marital arrangements.
Figaro, who has been listening the entire time, finds Rosina to tell her of Bartolo’s plot and to let her know of her mys-
tery lover’s imminent visit.

# K K U
& c j r œ Œ Œ œ ≈ œr œr j j Œ Œ j . r œ Œ Œ œj œ . œ œ Œ
(8) duet: dunque io son (rosina, then figaro)

œ œ œ œ R RÔ œ
Allegro

œ .œ J
Dun - que io son tu mon m'in - gan - ni? Dun- que io son la for - tu - na - ta!
I'm his love... you real - ly mean it? I my - self am his be - lov- ed?

Rosina is overjoyed, and at Figaro’s suggestion, begins to write “Lindoro” a note. Figaro leaves as Bartolo returns. He
accuses Rosina of writing secret letters – a doctor of his standing cannot be easily fooled. He is determined to keep her
under lock and key until their marriage is finalized.

œ.. œ œ œ.. œ œ..

? b c Ó
b b Œ J R .. œ œ.. œ œ œ Œ J R œ œ.. œ
Ô R R
(9) aria: a un dottor della mia sorte (bartolo)

Ô R R
Allegro maestoso

œ œ. œ . .
? b œ œ Œ œJ . . œR R RÔ Rœ n Rœ Rœ b œR Rœ œ Rœ . œ œ . œ œ jU
A un dot - tor del - la mia sor - te que - ste scu - se, si - gno -

J œ ‰ ∑
To a man of my a - cu - men Do you of - fer lies and

b b Ô Ô Ô RÔ RÔ R RÔ
ri - na! A un dot - tor del - la mia sor - te que - ste scu - se, si - gno - ri - na!
rus - es? To a man of my a - cu - men Do you of - fer lies and rus- es?

Dressed in his soldier’s disguise, Almaviva arrives at Bartolo’s house and gives the doctor an order that he is to be given a
night’s lodging. Bartolo desperately protests that he has an exemption from such billeting. Meanwhile, Rosina attempts
to retrieve a letter from the Count and tries to convince Bartolo that it is a laundry list. As the pandemonium grows, the
police are summoned, but an attempt to take Almaviva into custody is aborted as he privately reveals his true identity to
the sergeant. It seems everyone, especially Dr. Bartolo, is left completely confounded by the day’s events.

b b 12 j œ ‰ œj ‰ j
& b b 8 Ó. œ ‰ Jœ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ j œ œj ‰
(10) finale – sestet: fredda ed immobile (rosina, then the count, figaro, bartolo, basilio, berta)

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
> >
b
& b b b n œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œj ‰ . œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ
Fred - da ed im - mo - bi - le co - me u - na sta - tu - a, fia - to non

∑
b œn œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Rig - id and mo - tion - less, Like a mar - ble mon - u - ment, I can - not

R
6

re - sta - mi da re - spi - rar

stir a step, I can't draw a breath

synopsis and musical excerpts 38

 act ii
With Figaro’s help the Count, in his continuing effort to win a few moments with Rosina and eventually free her from
the household prison, has assumed the new disguise of Don Alonso, a music teacher. Bartolo is made to believe that he
is a student of Don Basilio and has been sent in his place because Basilio is ill. He then gains Bartolo’s confidence by
telling him he is privy to the plan to defame the Count and hands him Rosina’s letter as further evidence of his com-
plicity. Bartolo falls for the story and allows the lesson to begin. Rosina sings a song.

# # c Maestoso
Ó Œ œj . œr œ # œ œ œ œ n œ œ œ œ # œ œ œ œ n œ œ œ œ
& j j Œ œ #œ nœ œ
(11) aria: contro un cor (rosina)

œ œ
j
œ œ

# j r
& # œ j j
Con-tro un cor che ac - cen - de a - mo - re di ve -

œ ∑
œ œ œœ . œ ˙
There's no force, no might or pow - er Strong e -

œ œ
œ œœœœœœ

œ œ>
rK œœœ
œ œœœœœœ œ œ

ra - ce in - vit - to ar - do - re
nough to de - stroy a love in flow - er.

Bartolo doesn’t like it and offers one of his own.

œ œ œ œœ œ
? 68 Jœ . œ œ œ J œ œ œœœ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ J ‰ ‰
(12) arietta: quando mi sei vicina (bartolo)
rK

R J
Allegro

J
rK œ

J J J
œ

Quan - do mi - sei vi - ci - na, a - ma - bi - le Ro - si - na

All of the world looks green - er, When I am near Ro - si - na…

Figaro enters to shave Dr. Bartolo and takes the opportunity to steal the keys to Rosina’s balcony. He then smashes some
crockery to temporarily lure Bartolo away and Rosina and Almaviva (whom she still believes to be “Lindoro”) discuss
the details of their nocturnal escape. The arrival of Basilio complicates the matter, but sufficiently bribed, he is quick-
ly ushered away.

# 2 Moderato
∑ ∑ Œ œ œj
œ œ œ œ
(12) quintet: buona sera, mio signore (the count, rosina, then figaro, basilio, bartolo)

& 4 œ J
ROSINA

œ œ œ
# 2 >œ . œ œ. œ
œ œœœ œ œœœ Œ ∑
Buo - na se - ra, buo - na

V 4 J R J R
THE COUNT Till to - mor - row, Don Ba -
rK rK
œ œ

Buo - na se - ra, mio si - gno - re,

Till to - mor - row, Don Ba - si - lio.

synopsis and musical excerpts 39

 # jj
& œ œ Œ ∑ ∑ ∑ Œ

# œ. œ œ3 Ÿ œ. œ œ ‰
V Œ
œ . œ œKr œ œ œ
J R œ
œ.
J œ œrK # œ œ œ œ J R œ œ œ œ œ œJ
se- ra!

R J
si - lio. 3

buo - na se - ra, mio, si - gno - re, pre - sto an - da - te via di qua.

Till to - mor - row, Don Ba - si - lio. Hur - ry home and get some rest.

T
Bartolo eventually overhears details of the lovers’ plot and orders “Don Alonso” from his house. Berta muses over the
events of the day and of marriage in general.

# # # 4 Allegro œ j j j j j
& 8Œ œ œ
J
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj œj # œj
(13) aria: il vecchiotto cerca moglie (berta)

J J J J J

### j œ j j j j j
œ œj œj # œj
Il vec - chiot - to cer - ca mo - glie, vuol ma - ri - to la ra -

œ œ œ œ œ œ œJ œ Œ
& œ œj J J J œ
When old men wish to be mar - ried And young wom - en long for

J J œ
gaz - za, quel - lo fre - me, que - sta è paz - za, tut - ti e due son da le - gar,
hus - bands, Both are fren - zied, both are har - ried. They com - plete - ly lose their mind.

Realizing the Count’s agents have penetrated his home, Dr. Bartolo is determined to marry Rosina at once. He shows
her the letter to Lindoro, claiming that he obtained it from Count Almaviva, for whom Lindoro must clearly be work-
ing. Rosina is left alone to consider her betrayal as a storm rages outside. As night falls Figaro and Almaviva appear on
the balcony as planned but are confronted by a furious Rosina, who believes she has been deceived. Almaviva reveals his
true identity, and Rosina, at first stunned, accepts him with joy. Time is of the essence and urged by Figaro, all realize

Kr
they must leave quickly.

j
Œ œ .. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ K
&b c Ó ‰ r r Kr Kr œr . œr œ œœœœ Œ j r
(14a) trio: ah, qual colpo inaspettato (rosina, then the count, figaro)

œ nœ œ . œ œ. œ
Andante

r
& b œj œj ‰ . r j
(Ah! qual col - po, ah! qual col - po ina - spet - ta - to! E - gli

œ œœ ‰. œ œ œ œœœœ ∑
œ œ œj
Ah, how glo - rious! What a joy - ous hap - py end - ing! Al - ma -

stes - so? oh ciel! che sen - to!

vi - va, the Count my lov - er!

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ j j
Vb C Ó Œ J J œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Allegro
(14b) trio: zitti, zitti, piano, piano (t he count, then rosina, figaro)

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Zit - ti zit - ti, pia - no pia - no, non fac - cia - mo con - fu -

œ J J œ œ œ œ J J œ
V b œ œ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
Hur - ry, scur - ry, hur - ry, scur - ry, With - out noise or clit - ter

œ
sio - ne; per la sca - la del bal - co - ne pre- sto andi - amo via di qua,
clat - ter, Out the win - dow, down the lad - der. Be as qui - et as a mouse.

synopsis and musical excerpts 40

Don Basilio enters with the notary Dr. Bartolo has engaged for his own wedding. Both threatened and bribed with more
money, Basilio agrees to act as witness to the marriage of Rosina and Almaviva. Bartolo arrives, but it is too late.
Almaviva placates the old doctor by allowing him to keep Rosina’s dowry, and all celebrate the happy couple’s matri-

œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ
mony.

œ œ. œ œJ œJ œ. œ œ œ œ
? # 34 Œ Œ ‰ J J J J
(15) finale – sestetto and chorus: di sì felice innesto (rosina, then all)

J J
Allegro

œ . œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ
? # œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ >
3

œ œ œ œ œ J Jœ œ Jœ Œ .
3

œ œ
Di sì fe - li - ce in - ne - sto ser - biam me - mo - ria e -

J J J J J
Suc - cess has vencrown- ed our
- ture. The lov
are u - ers -

J J 3 3
J
ter 3 - 3 na. Io smor - zo la lan - ter - na; qui più non ho che far.
nit - ed, The flame of love is light - ed. I'll snuff the lan - tern light.

a scene from Minnesota Opera’s 2009 production of The Barber of Seville

synopsis and musical excerpts 41

 The Barber of Seville
F l ow C h a r t
act i

Scene OVERTURE scene one scene two

Musical Introduction No. 1: Introduction Recitative (pp. 29 – 31)

Description Andante sostenuto (pp. 1 – 2) Moderato (pp. 9 – 13)
key: e major key: g major No. 4: Cavatina
Allegro vivace (pp. 31 – 41)
First and second themes No. 2: Cavatina key: c major
Allegro (pp. 2 – 8) Largo (pp. 13 – 18)
key: e minor key: c major Recitative (pp. 41 – 45)

Coda No. 3: Continuation and Stretta of Intro.

Più mosso (p. 8) Recitative and Allegro vivace (p. 18 – 29)
key: e major key: g major

Themes and The themes from the overture do not Figaro’s famous aria (“Largo al
Orchestration relate to any music from the opera. In factotum”) is written in a style
fact, Rossini used this overture for two commonly referred to as a “patter
earlier operas, Aureliano in Palmira and song.”
Elisabetta, regina d’Inghilterra.

Drama Fiorello leads a group of musicians to Figaro is heard singing in the

the square in front of Bartolo’s house. distance.
Count Almaviva enters to meet them.
Figaro sings about his wonderful life.
The count sings a serenade to his fair
maiden. Figaro explains his various jobs. He
sees the count and learns of his love
The count doesn’t see Rosina and for Rosina. Figaro tells him he can
sends the musicians away. help.

Related Extremely popular in the concert hall, “Le Barbier de Séville is not a comedy of “But barbers as a class were freelance
flow chart

Information this overture is used in the noted Bugs character, but a comedy of intrigue and valets, and Figaro retains this
Bunny cartoon What’s Opera, Doc? words.” (Johnson, p. 160) dramaturgical function, expanded to
include compositorial duties both
literary and musical.” (Johnson, p. 167)
42
 The Barber of Seville
F l ow C h a r t
act i

Scene scenes three – FOUR scene four scenes five – seven (act ii in vocal score)

Musical Recitative (p. 45 – 51) No. 6: Recitative and Duet No. 7: Cavatina
Description Allegro maestoso (pp. 54 – 74) Andante (pp. 75 – 81)
No. 5: Canzone key: g major key: e major
Andante (pp. 51 – 53)
key: a minor Recitative (pp. 82 – 86)

Themes and “Una voce poco fa” – “opening bars

Orchestration were borrowed, appropriately enough,
from another character’s rondò in
Aureliano in Palmira …”
(Johnson, p. 171)

Drama Rosina drops a note to the count. The count is excited and asks Figaro to Rosina sings that her choice is
Bartolo chases her inside. They read get him in the house. Figaro comes up Lindoro.
the letter and learn of Rosina’s with some ideas once it is agreed that
situation. The count comes up with a he will be paid. Rosina wants to give Lindoro a letter
plan to not tell her his real name and and Figaro should deliver it. Bartolo
Figaro suggests he sing her a serenade. Figaro comes up with the idea to enters complaining about Figaro and
disguise the count as a solider who is learns that Rosina has been talking to
The count sings to Rosina and tells to be quartered in the house and is him, but not from Berta or
her that he is “Lindoro,” who is poor. drunk. The count learns that Figaro Ambrogio.
Rosina likes what she hears. lives just around the corner. They part
by thinking of his love and Figaro
about money.

Related The recitative on p. 74 – 75 is usually

flow chart

Information omitted in performance.

43
 The Barber of Seville
F l ow C h a r t
act i

Scene scene eight scene nine scenes ten – twelve

Musical No. 8: Recitative and Aria No. 9: Recitative and Duet No. 10: Recitative and Aria
Description Allegro (pp. 86 – 94) Allegro (pp. 95 – 107) Andante maestoso (pp. 107 – 123)
key: d major key: g major key: e-flat major
Recitative (p. 95) Recitative (p. 124)

Themes and
Orchestration

Drama Bartolo is angry with Figaro and Figaro overhears Bartolo’s plan and Rosina is happy that Figaro will
Basilio says he can start a scandal to tells Rosina. He also tells her about his deliver the letter. Bartolo enters and
damage the count. “cousin” and his love for Rosina. questions Rosina about her talking to
Figaro, among other things.
Basilio sings about how to start a They sing of writing a letter (that
rumor. Rosina has already written) that Bartolo sings that Rosina needs to be
expresses her love. Figaro leaves. quicker to outwit a man of his
Bartolo decides that things must be acumen.
done in a hurry and wants to create a
marriage contract quickly.

Related
flow chart

Information
44
 The Barber of Seville
F l ow C h a r t
act i

finale one
Scene
scenes thirteen – fifteen scene sixteen scene sixteen (continued)

Musical Marziale (p. 125 – 146) Andante (pp. 154 – 155) No. 11b: Stretta from Finale I
Description key: c major Allegro (pp. 166 – 201)
Allegro (pp. 146 – 154) key: c major
key: e-flat major Vivace (pp. 155 – 159)
key: g major

No. 11a: Sextet from Finale I

Andante (pp. 160 – 165)
key: a-flat major

Themes and “The ensemble ending Act I is a Rossini “Rossini then initiates his final storm:
Orchestration coup de théâtre.” (Fisher, p. 25) a demonstration of his grand art of
crescendo and accelerando.”
(Fisher, p. 25)

Drama The count, disguised as a drunken The guards enter and questions what Bartolo tries to continue his
soldier, tries to quarter himself in is going on. explanation but everyone else tries to
Bartolo’s house. Rosina enters and learns end the fight. They all sing about the
that “Lindoro’ is the solDIer. Bartolo Everyone tries to explain his/her craziness of the situation.
tries to resist. Lindoro drops a letter and position. The officer tries to arrest the
Rosina covers it with her handkerchief. count but he shows them a paper to
Bartolo questions what it is. identify himself.

Figaro enters and wonders about the The guards and everyone all stand
confusion. Bartolo and “Lindoro” motionless.
continue to fight. The guards arrive
because of the noise.

Related
flow chart

Information
45
 The Barber of Seville
F l ow C h a r t
act ii

act ii (act iii in vocal score)

Scene
scenes one – three scene three (continued) scene three (continued) – FOUR scene five – six

Musical No. 12: Recitative and Duettino No. 13: Aria * Recitative (pp. 227– 231) Recitative (p. 258)
Description Andante moderato (pp. 202– 211) Maestoso (pp. 216 – 224) No. 15: Quintet No. 16: Recitative and Aria
key: b-flat major key: d major Andante (pp. 232 – 257) Allegro (pp. 259 – 264)
Recitative (pp. 211– 216) No. 14: Recitative and Arietta key: e-flat major key: a major
Allegro (pp. 225 – 226)
key: g major

Themes and “Rosina’s lesson aria … was almost

Orchestration always replaced in performance
with an aria of the prima donna’s
choice.” (Johnson, p. 172)

Drama Bartolo is still wondering who the Rosina sings about love surpassing Figaro enters and wants to shave Bartolo calls Ambrogio and Berta
soldier was and can’t find anyone who all and wanting to be taken away Bartolo who says, “No.” Figaro tries to get Don Basilio and guard the
knows. He hears a knock at the door. by Lindoro. Bartolo falls asleep. to get the key to the balcony and door, respectively.
creates a distraction by breaking
The count enters dressed as a music Don Alonso compliments Rosina’s Berta complains about Bartolo
china. Lindoro asks Rosina to be his
teacher, “Don Alonso” and repeatedly singing, but Bartolo says that in and sings of the craziness of the
wife and she says, “Yes.” Figaro
blesses the house. his day, music was better. house.
returns and starts to shave Bartolo.
Don Alonso shows the letter Rosina He sings what he can remember Don Basilio arrives unexpectedly.
wrote to Bartolo telling him that he of an old melody. Confusion reigns as Basilio is asked
found it at Almaviva’s house. Don about his fever. Figaro tells Basilio
Alonso and Bartolo plan to slander that he has scarlet fever and needs
Almaviva. to leave. A bag of money convinces
Bartolo brings in Rosina for a music him to do so. Figaro begins to
lesson and she sees Lindoro in disguise. shave Bartolo, and the two lovers
He accompanies Rosina in an aria. plan for a midnight escape.

Related *
This aria is another very common melody heard outside of the opera. “The quintet, ‘Don Basilio! ...’ … inspires the Dionysian kind of laughter
flow chart

Information Stendhal described as ‘a roar as rollicking and irrepressible as the mirth

“… Beaumarchais’s Rosine has much perplexed commentators … that her
of the gods’. … Fairy-tale-like in its sustained improbability, the scene
character has ‘two nuances’ … ‘a woman carried away by confinement and
was recognized in its own time as one of the funniest ever written.”
passion’ and on the other, ‘she is a small, timid person’.” (Johnson, p. 170)
(Johnson, p. 170)
46
 The Barber of Seville
F l ow C h a r t
act ii

Scene scenes seven and eight scene nine scene nine (continued) – TEN scene ten (finale ii)

Musical Recitative (pp. 264– 269) No. 18: Recitative and Trio Recitative (pp. 290 – 293) No. 20: Recitative and Finale II
Description Andante (pp. 273 – 289) No. 19: Scene Allegro (pp. 309+)
No. 17: Storm key: f major key: g major
Allegro (pp. 270 – 273) Allegro (pp. 294 – 308)
key: c major/minor/major key: d major

Themes and “At the end of the opera, though, it

Orchestration is Figaro who leads off the strophic
Finaletto, a French vaudeville final
addressing the opera’s cautionary
maxim directly to the audience.”
(Johnson, p. 174)

Drama Bartolo learns that Basilio doesn’t Figaro and Lindoro are They find the ladder missing Bartolo understands that he
know Don Alonso. Basilio leaves climbing the ladder. Rosina and Bartolo is returning. caused the marriage and
to get a lawyer. Bartolo uses the tells them to leave as she Basilio arrive with a lawyer. doesn’t have to pay the
letter Rosina wrote to the count thinks Lindoro is deceiving Figaro gets the notary to allow dowry.
to deceive her. her. He tells her he is really Rosina and the count to sign
Count Almaviva. the contract. Bartolo returns Figaro sings about putting
with an officer and tries to get out the light of the lantern,
They sing of the joy of their the count arrested. The count Rosina about the love she has
love. Figaro tries to get them identifies himself. always wanted, the count
to leave, but they see two The Count tells Bartolo that his about the love he and Rosina
people with lanterns. cruel game has ended and will discover. All sing about
Rosina shall enjoy her faithful love and joy to all.
husband.

Related No. 19 is customarily

flow chart

Information omitted in stage

performances.
47
G ioachino Rossini
b Pesaro, February 29, 1792; d Passy, November 13, 1868

T he most prominent Italian composer of

the first half of the 19th century, Gioachino
Rossini transformed the form and content of
Italian opera. Though best known for his comic
works – and for music that is sensuous, brilliant
and rhythmically vital – Rossini’s contribution
to stage works of mixed genres is equally
important, making him Verdi’s most
significant forerunner.

Born into the closely knit community of

Pesaro, Italy, at a time of war and political
upheaval in Europe, Rossini was brought up by
parents who were both working musicians. His
father, a horn player and teacher at Bologna’s
prestigious Accademia Filarmonica, was also an
ardent and outspoken Republican who was
imprisoned briefly by the Austrians. Rossini’s A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 2006 production of La donna del lago
mother, despite her lack of musical training,
was a reasonably successful soprano. Rossini entered Bologna’s Liceo Musicale at the precocious age of 14 and began
composing as early as 1802–1803. Shortly after finishing his studies, he obtained a commission for a one-act farce, La cambiale
di matrimonio, for the Venetian Teatro San Moisè. Further commissions from Venice yielded more successes, and by the time
La pietra del paragone had premiered in 1812, the 20-year-old Rossini was without a doubt the leading composer in Italy.

Rossini seemed equally confident in both

serious and comic veins. Tancredi was a major
landmark in opera seria and L’italiana in
Algeri was the same for opera buffa – both
were composed in 1813. In 1815 he had the
good fortune to be secured by Domenico
Barbaja, impresario for the Neapolitan
theaters, and significantly developed his
style and technique over the next seven years.
One of the Teatro San Carlo’s assets was
Isabella Colbran, a soprano who specialized
in opera seria; as a result Rossini wrote many
works specifically for her voice. She was to
become his mistress and later his first wife.

Rossini’s contract with Barbaja allowed him

to accept commissions elsewhere on the
Italian peninsula, but by 1822, the composer
showed signs of his patience wearing thin;
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 2000 production of Semiramide during the contract period he had written a
total of 19 operas. The composer later

rossini biography 48
 quipped, “If he had been able to do so, Barbaja would
have put me in charge of the kitchen as well.”

Rossini was released from his Neapolitan contract

that year. The Viennese tour that followed proved
enormously successful for the composer, whose works
were now familiar all over Europe. Returning to Italy,
Rossini signed another contract with La Fenice in
Venice for what would become one of his greatest and
grandest opera serias, Semiramide.

With Italy and Austria conquered, Rossini turned his

attention to France and England. A contract was
signed in London, but it appears no opera was ever
produced. In Paris Rossini accepted the directorship
of the Théâtre Italien for two years (1824–1826) and
oversaw the remounting and revisions of a number of
his works. For the coronation of Charles X, he
composed a new opera, Il viaggio a Reims, and a year
later he refashioned an earlier opera seria, Maometto II,
into Le siège de Corinthe for the Paris Opéra. He would
present three more works at that theater: Moïse et
Pharaon (reworked from the earlier Mosè in Egitto), Le
Comte Ory (incorporating music from Il viaggio a
Reims) and Guillaume Tell. Cast in the newly evolving
form of French grand opéra, Guillaume Tell is a lengthy
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 2007 production of
four-act work complete with ballet. It proved to be
The Italian Girl in Algiers
exceedingly popular (the opera had over 500
performances during Rossini’s lifetime); it was
also Rossini’s last. He retired at age 37.

After a short return to Italy, Rossini found

himself back in Paris pursuing a lifetime
annuity granted by Charles X but revoked by the
new government of Louis-Philippe. What was
to be a short stay turned into six years of
litigation, and while his wife and father
remained at Isabella’s estate in Italy, Rossini
formed a new romantic attachment with
Olympe Pélissier. When his estranged wife died
in 1846, they married soon after.

The Rossinis eventually set up house in an

apartment on the Rue de la Chaussée d’Antin
and also built a villa in the Paris suburb of Passy. A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 1998 production of La Cenerentola
Their famous samedi soirs were initiated in 1858
– on Saturday evenings Rossini’s salon became a meeting place for composers, artists and friends. The evening would have
a prearranged musical program, mostly of Rossini’s own compositions with the composer at the piano and many young
singers making their debuts. The last occurred September 26, 1868; Rossini’s chronic ill health finally overcame him, and
he died two months later. Rossini was buried in Paris’ Père Lachaise cemetery among the graves of his fellow composers
Cherubini, Chopin and Bellini. In 1887 his remains were brought to the city of Florence – a procession of more than 6,000
mourners attended the re-interment in Santa Croce.

rossini biography 49
G i o a c h i no Rossini – Catalogue of Operas

title premiere
Demetrio e Polibio Rome, Teatro Valle, May 18, 1812
dramma serio; libretto by Vincenza Viganò Mombelli
after Pietro Metastasio’s Demetrio

La cambiale di matrimonio Venice, Teatro San Moisè, November 3, 1810

(The Bill of Marriage) farsa comica; libretto by Gaetano Rossi,
after Camillo Federici’s play by the same title

L’equivoco stravagante Bologna, Teatro del Corso, October 26, 1811

(The Absurd Misunderstanding) dramma giocoso; libretto by Gaetano Gasparri

L’inganno felice Venice, Teatro San Moisè, January 8, 1812

(The Happy Stratagem) farsa; libretto by Giuseppe Foppa, after Giuseppe Palomba’s
libretto for Giovanni Paisiello’s opera by the same title

Ciro in Babilonia, ossia La caduta di Baldassare Ferrara, Teatro Comunale, March 14, 1812
(Cyrus in Babylon, also The Fall of Belshazzar) dramma con cori; libretto by Conte Francesco Aventi

La scala di seta Venice, Teatro San Moisè, May 9, 1812

(The Silken Ladder) farsa comica; libretto by Giuseppe Foppa,
after François-Antoine-Eugène de Planard’s L’Échelle de soie

La pietra del paragone Milan, Teatro alla Scala, September 26, 1812
(The Touchstone) melodramma giocoso; libretto by Luigi Romanelli

L’occasione fa il ladro Venice, Teatro San Moisè, November 24, 1812

(Opportunity Makes the Thief) burletta per musica; libretto by Luigi Prividali

Il Signor Bruschino, ossia Il figlio per azzardo Venice, Teatro San Moisè, January 27, 1813
(Mr. Bruschine, or A Son by Chance) farsa giocosa; libretto by Giuseppe Foppa, after Alisan de
Chazet and E.-T. Maurice Ourry’s Le fils par hazard

Tancredi Venice, Teatro La Fenice, February 6, 1813

melodramma eroico; libretto by Gaetano Rossi, after Torquato
Tasso’s Gerusalemme liberata and Voltaire’s Tancrède

L’italiana in Algeri Venice, Teatro San Benedetto, May 22, 1813

(The Italian Girl in Algiers) dramma giocoso; libretto by Angelo Anelli,
originally set, under the same title, by Luigi Mosca

Aureliano in Palmira Milan, Teatro alla Scala, December 26, 1813

(Aurelianus in Palmyra) dramma serio; libretto by Gian Francesco Romanelli

Il turco in Italia Milan, Teatro alla Scala, August 14, 1814

(The Turk in Italy) dramma buffo; libretto by Felice Romani

Sigismondo Venice, Teatro La Fenice, December 26, 1814

dramma; libretto by Giuseppe Foppa

rosssini operas 50
Elisabetta, regina d’Inghilterra Naples, Teatro San Carlo, October 4, 1815
(Elizabeth, Queen of England) dramma; libretto by Giovanni Federico Schmidt,
after Carlo Federici’s play based on Sophia Lee’s The Recess
Torvaldo e Dorliska Rome, Teatro Valle, December 26, 1815
dramma semiserio; libretto by Cesare Sterbini
Il barbiere di Siviglia (Almaviva, ossia L’inutile precauzione) Rome, Teatro Argentina, February 20, 1816
(The Barber of Seville (Almaviva, or The Useless Precaution)) commedia; libretto by Cesare Sterbini, after Pierre-Augustin
Beaumarchais’ Le Barbier de Séville and Giuseppe Petrosellini’s
libretto for Giovanni Paisiello’s Il barbiere di Siviglia
La gazzetta, ossia Il matrimonio per concorso Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini, September 26, 1816
(The Gazette or The Marriage by Contest) dramma; libretto by Giuseppe Palomba, after Carlo Goldoni’s
play by the same title; revised by Andrea Leone Tottola
Otello, ossia Il moro di Venezia Naples, Teatro del Fonda, December 4, 1816
(Othello, or The Moor of Venice) dramma; libretto by Francesco Berio di Salsa,
after Shakespeare’s Othello
La Cenerentola, ossia La bontà in trionfo Rome, Teatro Valle, January 25, 1817
(Cinderella, or Goodness Triumphs) dramma giocoso; libretto by Jacopo Ferretti, after Charles
Perrault’s Cendrillon and probably both Charles-Guillaume
Étienne’s libretto for Niccolò Isouard’s Cendrillon and Felice
Romani’s libretto for Stefano Pavesi’s Agatina
La gazza ladra Milan, Teatro alla Scala, May 31, 1817
(The Thieving Magpie) melodramma; libretto by Giovanni Gherardini,
after Jean-Marie-Théodore Baudouin d’Aubigny and
Louis-Charles Caigniez’s La pie voleuse
Armida Naples, Teatro San Carlo, November 11, 1817
dramma; libretto by Giovanni Federico Schmidt,
after Torquato Tasso’s Gerusalemme liberata
Adelaide di Borgogna, ossia Ottone, re d’Italia Rome, Teatro Argentina, December 27, 1817
(Adelaide of Burgundy, or Ottone, King of Italy) dramma; libretto by Giovanni Federico Schmidt
Mosè in Egitto Naples, Teatro San Carlo, March 5, 1818
(Moses in Egypt) azione tragico-sacra; libretto by Andrea Leone Tottola,
after Padre Francesco Ringhieri’s Sara in Egitto
Adina, o Il califfo di Bagdad Lisbon, Teatro de San Carlos, June 22, 1826
(Adina, or The Caliph of Bagdad) farsa; libretto by Marchese Gherardo Bevilacqua-Aldobrandini,
derived from Felice Romani’s Il Califfo e la schiava
Ricciardo e Zoraide Naples, Teatro San Carlo, December 3, 1818
dramma; libretto by Marchese Francesco Berio di Salsa,
after Niccolò Forteguerri’s Il Ricciardetto
Ermione Naples, Teatro San Carlo, March 27, 1819
azione tragica; libretto by Andrea Leone Tottola,
after Jean Racine’s Andromaque

rosssini operas 51
Eduardo e Cristina Venice, Teatro San Benedetto, April 24, 1819
dramma; libretto by Giovanni Federico Schmidt, originally set
to Stefano Pavei’s Odoardo e Cristina – revised by Andrea
Leone Tottola and Marchese Gherardo Bevilacqua-Aldobrandini

La donna del lago Naples, Teatro San Carlo, October 24, 1819
(The Lady of the Lake) melodramma; libretto by Andrea Leone Tottola
after Sir Walter Scott’s The Lady of the Lake

Bianca e Falliero, ossia Il consiglio dei tre Milan, Teatro alla Scala, December 26, 1819
(Bianca and Falliero, or The Council of Three) melodramma; libretto by Felice Romani, after Antoine-Vincent
Arnault’s Les vénitiens, ou Blanche et Montcassin

Maometto II Naples, Teatro San Carlo, December 3, 1820

dramma; libretto by Cesare della Valle,
after Voltaire’s Mahomet, ou Le Fanatisme

Matilde di Shabran Rome, Teatro Apollo, February 24, 1821

(Matilde of Shabran) melodramma giocoso; libretto by Jacopo Ferretti after François
Benoît Hoffmann’s libretto for Étienne Nicolas Méhul’s
Euphrosine, ou Le Tyran corrigé, itself derived from Voltaire

Zelmira Naples, Teatro San Carlo, February 16, 1822

dramma; libretto by Andrea Leone Tottola,
after Dormont de Belloy’s Zelmire

Semiramide Venice, Teatro La Fenice, February 3, 1823

melodramma tragico; libretto by Gaetano Rossi,
after Voltaire’s Sémiramis

Il viaggio a Reims, ossia L’albergo del giglio d’oro Paris, Théâtre Italien, June 19, 1825
(The Journey to Reims, or The Golden Lily Inn) dramma giocoso; libretto by Luigi Balocchi,
after Madame de Staël’s Corinne, ou L’Italie

Le siège de Corinthe Paris, Opéra, October 9, 1826

(The Siege of Corinth) tragédie lyrique; libretto by Luigi Balocchi and Alexandre
Soumet, a refashioning of Duca di Ventignano’s libretto for
Maometto II

Moïse et Pharaon, ou Le passage de la Mer Rouge Paris, Opéra, March 26, 1827
(Moses and Pharaoh, or The Passage of the Red Sea) opéra; libretto by Luigi Balocchi and Étienne de Jouy, a re-
fashioning of Andrea Leone Tottola’s libretto for Mosè in Egitto

Le Comte Ory Paris, Opéra, August 20, 1828

(The Count Ory) opéra [oc]; libretto expanded from a play by Eugène Scribe and
Charles-Gaspard Delestre-Poirson, making large use of
numbers from Il viaggio a Reims

Guillaume Tell Paris, Opéra, August 3, 1829

(William Tell) opéra; libretto Étienne de Jouy, Hippolyte-Louis-Florent Bis,
and Armand Marrast, after Friedrich von Schiller’s Wilhelm Tell

rosssini operas 52
A bout The Ba r b e r o f S e v i l l e

I n November 1815, Rossini was in Rome on one

of his excused absences from the Neapolitan
theaters to supervise a revival of Il turco in Italia
and to write a new work, Torvaldo e Dorliska, for
the Teatro Valle to open its Carnival season. He was
approached by the rival Teatro Argentina with yet
another commission. The new opera required all
parties to work within a narrow timeframe – the
Argentina was looking for a comic work to fill out
its own winter season (the production had to be
cast and ready by mid-February), and Rossini was
expected back in Naples at any time. The contract
was signed on December 15 with no specific
subject in mind.
Jacopo Ferretti (later to be librettist for La
Cenerentola) was initially selected to provide the scenes from Minnesota Opera’s production of The Barber of Seville
text, but his product – a sentimental drama
involving a typical love triangle – proved disappointing. Rossini turned to Cesare Sterbini, a librettist of less experience
but one with whom he had just worked on Torvaldo. It is said to have been the composer’s brainchild to set Beaumarchais’
Le barbier de Séville, not a wholly original idea, as there were about six or seven treatments already on the market. This
was not an uncommon thing to do – many operas of the 18th and 19th centuries were different musical settings of the same
text, and Beaumarchais’ Barbier had already been set by two German composers of note, F. L. Benda and Johann André
in 1776. Most notable of these, however, was Giovanni Paisiello’s Il barbiere di Siviglia, an exceedingly popular work from
the 18th century that inspired Mozart to write his masterpiece on the playwright’s sequel, Le mariage de Figaro. Paisiello
was still alive and somewhat of a curmudgeon when it came
to his colleagues. So Rossini took an extra precaution, writing
the venerated composer and explaining that his intention was
not to best the older man’s cult favorite. Paisiello apparently
had no objections, yet Sterbini and Rossini continued to play
it safe by placing a “Notice to the Public” in their published
libretto indicating their purpose was only to update
Beaumarchais’ play to modern tastes. They even gave their
opera a new title: Almaviva, ossia L’inutile precauzione (Almaviva
or The Useless Precaution).
The collaborators probably fooled no one as each of their
variants seemed for the better. Paisiello’s opera was cast in
18th-century courtly elegance, its music adhering to the
Classical style, and its text revealing none of Beaumarchais’
sassy impertinence. Though Rossini still downplayed some
of the political overtones, he consistently one-upped the old master with his inborn wit and exuberance. (Rossini, like
Beaumarchais, seemed to have breathed a little of his own personality into the character of Figaro.) One excellent example
is Don Basilio’s calumny aria, a perfect vehicle for the famous “Rossini crescendo” – slander first starts with a whisper,
and with every repeated phrase adding greater instrumentation, eventually erupts like a thundering cannon. (The original

background notes 53
play was truly inspirational, with the music master’s tirade laced with musical dynamic terms). Rossini casts several of
his numbers in the recently cultivated bel canto double aria – a slow section, often repeated and embellished to highlight
the singer’s beautiful tone, followed by a fast-moving cabaletta, intended to show off great vocal agility and brilliant
technique. In contrast, Bartolo’s Act II arietta is fashioned in the style of Paisiello’s era, an obvious indicator of the foppish
doctor’s advanced age (Paisiello himself used an old
Spanish serenade to accomplish the same purpose). Rossini
didn’t dare best Paisiello’s “sneezing trio” sung by Bartolo
and his servants, the aged Giovinetta and the lazy
Svegliato (to become Ambrogio and Bertha), but his
enhancement of the brilliant quintet that follows Don
Basilio’s unexpected arrival that during the music lesson
showed a temerarious challenge to his predecessor, as well
as other distinguishing moments in the score. And, of
course, Rossini’s ebullient orchestration and quick pace
made a vast improvement on his Neapolitan counterpart’s
otherwise serene and stodgy score, cautiously accented by
occasional woodwind obbligato.
In accordance with the theatrical demands of the day, composition went swiftly. It was Rossini’s custom to settle into a
city for a few days and get to know the singers before dashing off his score in a creative fervor, often in the most distracting
environments (indeed, he found the rehearsal process to be the most arduous part of the process – back in the era of no
stage directors, the composer and librettist bore that responsibility). The Argentina’s impresario, Duke Sforza-Cesarini,
was beset with his own problems. He had inherited the theater from his ancestors and it continually lost money. There
was no help from the papal government, which frowned upon theatrical entertainment, pronouncing Rome a “city of
churches.” They did stipulate the Argentina was now to do comedy – formerly it was restricted to opera seria on a grand
scale, with star singers and lavish sets – and this might have saved Sforza-
Cesarini some money. Still, the poor Duke, overwhelmed with stress, died
of a stroke two weeks before the new opera’s premiere. All of these ills
would bear down on the fateful opening night.
Rossini worked well under pressure but a closer examination reveals many
borrowed melodies from previous works (a practice not unheard of in the
opera industry of the era), including all the storm music from La pietra
del paragone and motives for Rosina’s first aria from Elisabetta, regina
d’Inghilterra. The overture is another story. Apparently there had been an
original work, based on Spanish folk songs, but it subsequently became
detached from the autograph and disappeared. For later productions
Rossini appropriated the overture from his recently produced Elisabetta,
itself taken from Aureliano in Palmira. This is the popular orchestral work
we know today.
The premiere of Il barbiere di Siviglia (as the work became known several
months later, after Paisiello’s death) is one for the history books, yet no
one knows for certain what really happened. There’s talk of open
trapdoors and bloody noses, snarling cats and broken guitar strings,
whistling and shouting (Roman audiences were not known for being
docile theatergoers). It appears that the performance was disrupted by
both supporters of Paisiello and those of the Teatro Valle who were upset

background notes 54
over the infringement on its comic
repertoire. Though dramatically more
interesting, the late placement of Rosina’s
“Una voce poco fa” didn’t help matters
much, as audiences expected the prima
donna to sing her entrance aria on her first
appearance. At the end of the first act
Rossini applauded his singers for their
perseverance (barely a note had been heard),
but the audience members took the gesture
of conceit and a blatant disregard of their
opinion. Act II hardly went any better.
Not surprisingly, Rossini feigned illness for
the second night (contractually he was to
conduct the first three performances). With
the rioters disbanded, the music could be
heard and was immediately understood for the great masterpiece it would soon become. A surly mob surrounded Rossini’s
hotel and demanded to see the maestro so they could show their great appreciation. When he refused to come out, things
turned ugly as they began throwing food and smashing windows. Rossini was reported to have said “‘F**k them and their
bravos and all the rest. I’m not coming out of here.’ I don’t know how poor García (the first Almaviva) phrased my refusal
to that turbulent throng. In fact, he was hit in the eye by an orange, which gave him a black eye for several days.
Meanwhile, the uproar in the street increased more and more.” (translation by Charles Osborne, The Bel Canto Operas,
Amadeus Press, 1994)

beaumarchais – the real figaro?

The curiously diverse career of Pierre-Augustin Caron de
Beaumarchais (1732–1799) went far beyond that of the
average playwright, a factotum-like existence that have led
many to conclude he is the source of his own character,
Figaro. Son of a watchmaker, he followed in the family
tradition and his first notable achievement brought him
to the attention of the king himself – a tiny escapement
that vastly improved on the accuracy of time, an invention
from which we benefit to this day. To his good fortune,
Beaumarchais was also musical and, in addition to making
watches for the king, he gave instructions to the royal
daughters on the finer points of the harp.
Louis xv must have seen potential in the young Beaumarchais (who obtained his noble name by marrying a penniless
widow). He was sent to Spain to negotiate a deal with Charles iii over the leasehold of Louisiana, which had passed into
Spain’s hands as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession. Beaumarchais was unsuccessful in this pursuit, but still
became the darling of Madrid. It was his first exposure to Spain, later the setting of his Figaro plays.
The budding playwright produced two early works, Eugenie in 1767 and Les deux amis in 1770, but things were about to
go awry. As the result of some questionable business transactions, Beaumarchais found himself accused of forgery. In the
process of bungling a bribe to the court magistrate (a customary practice of the day), he received a sentence just short of
the death penalty. The intervention of influential friends saved him from long-term imprisonment but not from the loss
of his civil rights. The bitter experience empowered him to write his most enduring works, Le barbier de Séville (1775)
and the more politically subversive Le mariage de Figaro (completed in 1778).

background notes 55
 During his legal troubles, the royal household remained strangely aloof. But with the ascension
of the new king, Louis xvi, Beaumarchais found himself once again in its employ. He was
instructed to covertly suppress some slanderous pamphlets about to be published concerning
the royal family and was sent to England as a spy. Successful in these endeavors, The
playwright was further engaged to arrange and supply arms to the New World in its struggle

COSTUME SKETCH FOR FIGARO BY JAMES SCOTT

for American independence (France taking a special interest in discrediting its traditional
foe, England). His efforts likely secured the victory at Saratoga, but the newly
united democracy was short of cash, and Beaumarchais went to his grave unpaid.
In 1835, his widow finally settled for a fraction of the debt and had to sail to
America to get it.
Beaumarchais underwrote several other interesting entrepreneurial escapades
including hot-air balloons (a marvel in France at the time) and a canal system
that supplied water to Parisian homes. He also dabbled in opera, engaging
Antonio Salieri to set his libretto for Tarare (1787) to music. A final installment to the
Figaro series, La mère coupable (1792), failed to achieve the tenor or success of its two
predecessors (it has since inspired at least three composers: Darius Milhaud (1966), Hiram
Titus (as Rosina, produced by The Minnesota Opera in 1980 and John Corigliano (The
Ghosts of Versailles). Beaumarchais had planned for more sequels, but following the French
Revolution, his role in the ancien régime was scrutinized by the new government. In
1794, while he was abroad, his family was placed under arrest and he himself designated
a criminal émigré. He spent his final years clearing his name.

commedia dell’ arte

The Figaro plays are indebted not only to Beaumarchais eclectic lifetime activities but also
to the theatrical tradition of commedia dell’arte. Of Italian origin, commedia dell’arte evolved
during the 16th century from improvisatory scenes played at county fairs and marketplaces
into a somewhat codified art form involving stock characters with predictable behavior
and costume. Derived in part from the custom of more frequent commedia dell’arte performances during Carnival, a
time for anonymous celebration of the deadly sins, acts that would also make their way into commedia plots. The use of
masks further obscures the identity of the actual person, reinforces the character “type” and captures mankind’s many faces.
Like the Renaissance itself, the genre spread quickly across Europe. Brought to France by Catherine de’ Medici during
the reign of her son, Charles ix, commedia dell’arte underwent a revival in 18th-century France and is found most famously
in the works of Molière. In England, Shakespeare (whose sources were frequently Italian) would draw upon commedia
plots and would sometimes introduce a “zanni” or nameless clown as a comic or
sagacious figure (from which the word “zany” is derived).
Though only visual evidence remains (as the plots were never scripted), elements of
commedia dell’arte can be found in nearly every one of Barber’s characters. The crafty
valet, left as a foundling (but thinks he the son of a noble), Truffaldino/Arlecchino
easily translates into Figaro himself, a mixture of wit and ignorance but adept at
SKETCH FOR PANTALONE BY FRANCIS O’CONNER

slipping out of tricky situations. The nameless Lovers (sometimes identified as Lindoro
and Isabella) transmute into the youthful infatuation between the count and Rosina.
The characteristics of Il dottore and Pantalone are seen in Dr. Bartolo, the doddering,
slightly stupid older man (though probably only middle-aged by Renaissance
standards) in search of a young bride, a bit of a dolt, stingy and verbose. The slander-
wielding, go-between Don Basilio is a conflation of several commedia characters’
darker side (the musical Brighella and Scapino in particular). Equally important is
the pace of the production itself. The slapstick comedy of characters hiding behind

background notes 56
 chairs and inside closets, jumping out windows and receiving blows meant for
SKETCH FOR ROSAURA BY FRANCIS O’CONNER
others, and creating deception by use of disguise are all descended from the
commedia dell’arte, particularly seen in the 18th century plays of Carlo Goldoni
(also a librettist to many opera buffa) and Carlo Gozzi (later to inspire several
19th- and 20th-century operas).
Unable to survive the Age of Sensibility, the art form seems to have died in the
written works of these two authors, yet commedia dell’arte remained of interest
in the operatic world. Donizetti’s L’elisir d’amore features a potion-pushing
charlatan in the character of Dr. Dulcamara as well as the braggart soldier Belcore
(based on another commedia figure, Il capitano, the Spanish captain). Rossini
drew upon the Italian comedy more than once, in the Turkish-abduction scenario
outlined in L’italiana in Algeri (also utilized in Mozart’s The Abduction from the
Seraglio) and La Cenerentola in the
SKETCH FOR ARLECCHINO BY FRANCIS O’CONNER
characters of the helpful servant
Dandini and the pompous father
Don Magnifico (another personage
from the commedia). Leoncavallo’s Pagliacci tells the story of a commedia
dell’arte troupe and includes an actual performance of a traditional skit, the
cuckolded husband, and Carlo Collodi managed to include the same plot
and characters in his Le avventure di Pinocchio (most recently realized by
composer Jonathan Dove). In the 20th century, we find the harlequinade in
Puccini’s Turandot (renamed Ping, Pang and Pong), Richard Strauss’ Ariadne
auf Naxos and Dominick Argento’s Casanova’s Homecoming. These
examples, familiar to The Minnesota Opera’s repertoire, are only a few from
a larger body of commedia dell’arte-inspired works of the operatic genre.
le barbier de séville
Although a fragment exists, Le Sacristain (1765), during which a
masquerading “Lindor” gives a music lesson to “Pauline” under Bartholo’s
watchful eye, Beaumarchais’s first instance of his alter ego was within the
form of a parade, a shorter, less formal extemporaneous plot of an indelicate,
even bawdy nature intended for the village fair. Le barbier de Séville next
became a comic opera that failed to make the cut at Paris’ Opéra-
CHARACTERS IN PIERRE-AUGUSTIN-CARON DE Comique. As a play it was expanded to five acts between
B E A U M A R C H A I S ’ S P L A Y LE BARBIER DE SÉVILLE 1774–1775, but the excessive length caused the premiere to be

LE COMTE ALMAVIVA . . . . . . . . . . . . .SPANISH GRANDEE

unsuccessful, and Beaumarchais reverted to his four-act format,

FIGARO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .THE BARBER OF SEVILLE

which represents the final form of the play as we know it today.

ROSINE . . . . . . . . . . . .A YOUNG LADY OF NOBLE ORIGIN

Rossini’s opera adheres closely to the play’s dramatic outlay, yet

BARTHOLO . . . . . . . . . . .DOCTOR, GUARDIAN OF ROSINE

the mood of the play and its characters are noticeably different.

DON BAZILE . . . . . .ORGANIST, SINGING TUTOR TO ROSINE While the second play in the trilogy, Le mariage de Figaro, was
LA JEUNESSE . . . . . . . . . . .AGED SERVANT TO BARTHOLO intended to make a bold political statement, Le barbier de Séville is
L’ÉVEILLÉ .BARTHOLO’S OTHER SERVANT, A SLEEPY SIMPLETON a little more subtle in its critique of class division, a reversal of a
UN NOTAIRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A LAWYER repressive moral order that closes the door on the passing world of
UN ALCADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .AN OFFICER OF THE LAW servant and aristocrat, where a man could have quality whatever his
POLICEMEN, SERVANTS ancestry and look his master squarely in the eye. Not really all that
SETTING: SEVILLE, IN THE STREET AND BENEATH ROSINE’S
innocent, Figaro’s characterization has a bit more grit – in his first
WINDOW, AND INSIDE THE HOUSE OF BARTHOLO
encounter with the count we quickly learn that he been dismissed
from a post the count had helped him obtain. The barber has been

background notes 57
living a vagabond existence, finding work where he can. He is a man with unceasing energy and drive, yet one believes
his hedonistic ideal would be do nothing at all. We discover that Figaro has a multitude of talents, a Renaissance man
far beyond what is described in the opera’s “Largo al factotum” (including, quite naturally, a man of the theater). His
downfall is his poetry, and his loyal companion is
misfortune – he laughs at everything for fear of
breaking into tears. In the spirit of Victor Hugo’s
theory of the grotesque (somewhat akin to
Triboulet, later Verdi’s Rigoletto), Figaro becomes
the archetype of a new type of individual and
independent Romantic hero whose laughter
becomes sardonic rather than benign. There is an
air of cynisism surrounding his soul.
Figaro dominates the stage with his vital energy
and stages the drama, becoming larger life while
at the same time making the count’s character
appear flat and meager (yet another jab at the
upper class). He is a man of liberty, wit and self-
confidence, a puppeteer capable of shaping his
own destiny and those of others. In contrast, Almaviva’s fate is predetermined and dependent on extraneous factors – birth,
breading, wealth and social standing. Yet, in spite of their differences and a certain animosity (a detail expunged in the
opera), the two men realize they need one another. The count, failing at his antiquated troubadourian techniques (an
attempt at providing a bit of Spanish Orientalism), requires Figaro’s cunning to win Rosine. Figaro needs the count’s
money, embodying the attributes of a long list of impudent theatrical valets.
Turning to Rosine, we find a young woman equally in control even though she is held captive by her guardian. Already
rather spirited in the opera, she exhibits a greater sense of earthly “sass” in the play when enraged by her surrogate parent,
Dr. Bartolo, as they execute together the classic Il vecchio geloso plot of the commedia. In contrast to her pensive, more
mature role as La Comtesse Almaviva in Le mariage of Figaro, she is operatically translated into “a beguiling character who,
instead of singing a melancholy aria about her understandably frustrating predicament, sings a bravura aria that catalogues
her romantic objectives … this Rosina seems to sing directly to the audience, acknowledging the artifice and theatricality
of her song” (Dale Johnson, “The Two Rosinas”). Seconded only by the opera’s title character, she commands the stage
and her own fate, becoming a force to be with which to be reckoned (and, not surprisingly, cast as a contralto, a voice type
commonly reserved for the young male hero in bel canto opera seria).
Le barbier de séville is a comedy of intrigue rather than
a comedy of character in the tradition of Molière’s
École des femmes. It is the ultimate work of reaction,
with enough interest to still be on the playbill of
the Comédie-Française even today. The title
character may bear the name of its creator, fils de
Caron – son of Caron – but could also be derived
from the original French and Figaro’s raison d’être,
“faire la figue” – idiomatically speaking, to laugh at
the world. In that humorous light, Beaumarchais’
wily barber is permitted to pronounce the final
moralizing maxim before the vaudeville conclusion,
both the play and opera’s overriding theme: “When
youth and love are in accord, working to foil a old
man, even the very best he can do stop them can
only be called La précaution inutile, a futile
precaution.

background notes 58
The Two Rosinas
Dale Johnson, Artistic Director

O f all the enchanting characters created throughout the vast history

of opera, two of the most memorable are actually the same person.
That character is Rosina, the long-suffering wife of Mozart’s The
Marriage of Figaro, and the young ward in Rossini’s The Barber of Seville.
The character of Rosina comes from the trilogy of plays by the 18th-
century French playwright Beaumarchais, whose popular series
pointedly and viciously lampooned the ruling class. The two Rosinas, as
interpreted by the these great composers, become two quite different
portraits that give us a glimpse into the differing eras in which they
were created: the Enlightenment of the 18th century (The Marriage of
Figaro); and the early Romantic movement that took place at the
beginning of the 19th century (The Barber of Seville).
Mozart’s The Marriage of Figaro highlights the ideals of the
Enlightenment, an era that promoted the concept of reconciliation, or
the belief that human beings, through reason and intelligence, can
overcome the antagonism that separates one from another. Mozart’s
Figaro is a well-thought-out, perfectly symmetrical composition with a
warmth and beauty that lends a humane element to Beaumarchais’s
vivid satire. Mozart’s music is the embodiment of the Enlightenment. It
is dominated by warm woodwind sounds and vocal placement: the male
roles are generally written as baritones, and even his sopranos tend to
sing in the middle range. His characters are in control and can solve
their problems. No matter how mad the comedy, there is a rational,
satisfying ending.

Rosina in Minnesota Opera’s

2009 production of The Barber of Seville

While philosophers of the Enlightenment

argued that injustice could be overcome by a
simple effort of mind and goodwill, the
philosophers of the early 19th century argued that
the insufficiencies of our existence were firmly
rooted in human nature and the precariousness of
communal survival. The Barber of Seville, despite
having a plot that precedes The Marriage of
Figaro, in the Beaumarchais trilogy, is the perfect
musical embodiment of this new mood of
intellectual and emotional retreat. The work is
completely unserious. It displays human cruelty
Rosina (the Countess) in Act II of Minnesota Opera’s 2007 production of in its many guises, and refuses any kind of
The Marriage of Figaro psychological or moral investment. In essence,

the two rosinas 59

the argument of both libretto and music
is that life can be managed only by
laughing at it.
Let us look at the two Rosinas and see
how the two characters define the times in
which they were written. Our first
impression of Rosina the Countess in The
Marriage of Figaro, comes at the top of Act
II. We’ve already heard much about her
and realize that she has much to complain
about. Instead, we hear her sing an aria of
such melancholy that we are moved by
her restraint. There is a stillness to her
character that speaks volumes. In her
second aria, the sorrow is replaced by
another emotion: hope. While the first
part of the aria covers much the same emotional territory as the first aria, the second half of the aria concludes with a
brilliant passage that speaks much about the 18th-century mind, and gives the character a richness and dimension. We
find out that this countess will not be defeated by her circumstances. The Countess’ last appearance reflects the
Enlightenment ideal of humanity: a generous response to other humans, a tolerance of their shortcomings, and finally,
a readiness to forgive. When we look at the letter duet with Susanna in Act III, we see a countess and her servant singing
together in perfect harmony, suggesting their equality. We are overwhelmed by her act of forgiveness at the evening’s
end, an act that sums up this Rosina’s character and serves as the perfect symbol of an era.
There couldn’t be a bigger contrast when we are first introduced to Rossini’s Rosina. We see a beguiling character who,
instead of singing a melancholy aria about her understandably frustrating predicament, sings a bravura aria that
catalogues her romantic objectives. And, whereas the Countess seems to muse to herself (the audience merely eavesdrops
on her real-life declamations), this Rosina
seems to speak directly to the audience,
acknowledging the artifice and theatricality of
her song. All in all, this aria is a celebration of
self. Love is not the subject, merely the
occasion.
The Barber of Seville seems to be the ultimate
opera of reaction: Romanticism’s reaction to
the Enlightenment. Like other Romantic
characters in opera and literature, Rossini’s
characters – absurd stereotypes – leave their
fates to circumstance, coincidence and trickery.
The opera’s cynicism is a pointed criticism of
Western culture that contrasts greatly with the
rational humanism of The Marriage of Figaro.
In this opera Rossini takes nothing seriously:
God, society, love and even music. He thumbs
his nose at his more serious contemporaries such as Beethoven and Schubert. While Mozart celebrated the richness of
the human experience, Rossini wanted his audiences to have a good time, not to think too hard about what they saw on
stage. It is through these two composers and their two extreme Rosinas, that we can see two very different eras come to
life.

the two rosinas 60

P ierre-Augustin Caron de Beauma r c h a i s
b Paris, January 24, 1732; d Paris, May 18, 1799

T he diverse career of Pierre-Augustin

Caron de Beaumarchais went far
beyond that of the average playwright, a
factotum-like existence that have led
many to conclude he is the source of his
own character Figaro. Son of a
watchmaker, Beaumarchais followed in
the family tradition. His first notable
accomplishment brought him to the
attention of the king himself – a tiny
escapement that vastly improved on the
accuracy of time (an invention from which
we benefit to this day). To his good
fortune, Beaumarchais was also musical,
and in addition to making watches for the
king, he instructed the royal daughters on
the finer points of the harp.
Louis XV must have seen potential in the young Beaumarchais (who obtained his noble name by marrying a penniless
widow). He was sent to Spain to negotiate a deal with Charles III over the leasehold of Louisiana (which had passed into
Spain’s hands as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession). Beaumarchais was unsuccessful in his pursuit but still
became the darling of Madrid. It was his first exposure to Spain, later the setting of his first two Figaro plays.
The budding playwright produced two early works (Eugénie in 1767 and Les deux amis in 1770), but things were about
to go sour. As the result of some questionable business transactions, Beaumarchais found himself accused of forgery,
and in the process of bungling a bribe to the court magistrate (a customary practice of the day), Beaumarchais received
a sentence just short of the death penalty. The intervention of influential friends saved him from long-term
imprisonment but not from the loss of his civil rights. The bitter experience empowered him to write his most
enduring works, Le barbier de Séville (1775) and the more politically subversive Le mariage de Figaro (completed in
1778).
During his legal troubles, the royal household remained strangely aloof. But with the ascension of the new monarch,
Louis XVI, Beaumarchais found himself once again in its employ. He was directed to covertly suppress several
slanderous pamphlets about to be published concerning the royal family and was sent to England, the Netherlands and
Austria. Successful in these endeavors, Beaumarchais was further engaged to supply arms to the New World in its
efforts toward American independence.
Handsomely compensated by both the French and American governments, Beaumarchais underwrote several
interesting entrepreneurial escapades including hot-air balloons (a marvel in France at the time) and a canal system
that supplied water to Parisian homes. He also dabbled in opera, engaging Antonio Salieri to set his libretto for Tarare
(1787) to music. A final installment to the Figaro series, La mère coupable (1792), failed to achieve the tenor or success
of its two predecessors (it was finally set to music in the 20th century by Darius Milhaud). Following the French
Revolution, Beaumarchais’ role in the ancien régime was scrutinized by the new government. In 1794, while he was
abroad, his family was placed under arrest and he himself was designated a criminal émigré. He spent his final years
clearing his name.

beaumarchais and figaro 61

 The Figaro plays are indebted not only to
Beaumarchais’ eclectic lifetime activities but
also to the rich theatrical traditions of commedia
dell’arte. Of Italian origin, commedia dell’arte
evolved during the 16th century from
improvisatory scenes played at county fairs and
marketplaces into a somewhat codified art form
involving stock characters with predictable
behavior and costume. The use of masks
(derived in part from the custom of more
frequent commedia dell’arte performances
during Carnival) further obscures the identity of
the actual person and reinforces the character
“type.” First brought to France by Catherine de’
Medici during the reign of her son, Charles ix,
commedia dell’arte underwent a revival in 18th-
century France. The characters in the Figaro
plays are derived from these stock characters: the prima donna in love (Isabella – Rosina (the Countess); her virtuous
maid, who is also a confidante (Columbina – Susanna in Mariage); the crafty valet, left as a foundling but thinks he is
the son of a noble (Arlecchino – Figaro); the enamored young man in pursuit of the prima donna (Lindoro, the Count’s
assumed name in Barbier, and in a younger incarnation, Cherubino in Mariage); the doddering, stingy older man in
search of a young bride (Il dottore – Dr. Bartolo as he is in Barbier); the slander-wielding, shifty go-between
(Brighella/Scapino – Don Basilio). Even Mariage’s Don Curzio’s stammering can be found in the tradition of the
stuttering Tartaglia. Equally important is the pace of the action. The slapstick comedy of characters hiding behind
chairs and inside closets, jumping out windows and receiving blows meant for others are all descended from the
commedia dell’arte, are present in Beaumarchais’ play.
The character of Figaro changes throughout the trilogy.
In Le barbier de Séville, his quick solutions and sense of
adventure solve many a problem with relative ease, but
by Le mariage de Figaro his answers are not as readily
available (as evidenced by the second act finale), and he
must be aided by his nimble-minded fiancée, Susanna,
who soon becomes the real brains of the operation. Also,
by Mariage, Figaro has acquired a bit of an attitude and is
sassy, even insolent to his boss, Count Almaviva, in a
constant battle of wits and surprises. Figaro’s growing
bitterness reflects Beaumarchais’ own disillusioning
experiences with royal authority. By La mère coupable, the
Barber of Seville has become worldwise with age as he
confronts the consequences of infidelity in his own family
as well as the results of the Almavivas’ indescretions.
Operatically, this play has been treated in the 20th
century, by Darius Milhaud in 1966, and by John
Corigliano as The Ghosts of Versailles in 1991. A sequel to
Le mariage de Figaro was also conceived by Hiram Titus
and Barbara Field as Rosina and premiered by Minnesota
Opera in 1980 at the former Guthrie Theater in 1980.

beaumarchais and figaro 62

S p o t l i g h t on History
Opera in Rossini’s day

I n 1815, Domenico Barbaia secured Rossini's services under a multi-year contract to compose for the Neapolitan
theaters (which included the San Carlo, Nuovo, Fondo and Fiorentini). The theater manager reaped the rewards of his
efforts after Rossini’s eventual success, The Barber of Seville, the following year. During this period a number of Rossini
operas had their premiere in Naples, including Armida, Mosè in Egitto, Ermione, La donna del lago, and Zelmira. Barbiere,
however, did not – Rossini had a clause in his contract that allowed him a certain amount of time away from Naples so
that he could compose and remount his works in other cities throughout Italy. Still, Barbaia worked him hard, requiring
two new operas a year, and the revival of older works.
Barbaia was not only an astute impresario, but also a gambling tycoon. Opera houses, at the beginning of the 19th
century, were subsidized by legalized gambling, and part of Rossini’s salary included proceeds from the tables. Located
in the theater’s foyer, the tables often provided a tempting diversion for opera patrons who attended the opera not only
for musical entertainment but for social activity. Inside the theater, the scene was very different from what it is today –
people ate, drank and talked to and about one another during the performances. In fact, the original horseshoe shaped
design of the theater was intended so that the audience could watch each other as well as what was going on the stage.
The boxes, which were often owned by patrician families in perpetuity, had private rooms behind them lavishly
furnished to provide a “home away from home.”
The opera itself was constructed around
this need for socialization. The lengthy
overtures allow for the numerous late
arrivals and dinners in the private boxes.
Solo numbers, to which audiences would
actually stop to listen, were spread out
uniformly, alternating with recitative and
ensembles. During the second act, an aria
di sorbetto (“sherbet aria”), sung by a
secondary character late in the opera, was
often inserted so that ice cream venders
had a chance to sell their goods. In
Barbiere, Berta’s aria “Il vecchiotto cerca
moglie” is the aria di sorbetto.
During the Bel Canto period, the singer was paramount. Often they were engaged by a particular theater long before
an opera had been composed or a subject even considered. Composers frequently had to suit a particular role to a certain
singer, staying within a certain range, and focusing on their strengths. The singer was free to embellish their arias at
will – a practice that irritated Rossini so much that he was careful to write out and enforce his own embellishments as
much as possible. Artists would sometimes insert an aria of their own choosing, not composed by the opera’s composer
at all, but a piece that showed off the singer’s impressive technique. These became known as “suitcase arias”.
If a particular singer did not suit them, or if a performance was substandard to their tastes, the audience was known to
riot. This could include catcalls, fistfights, or even the throwing of food. Rather than booing, opera patrons would blow
across the opening of their wine bottles, creating a hollow, haunting sound. As a result, a failed premiere became known
as a fiasco from the Italian word for wine bottle, fiascone. (In Rossini’s La Cenerentola, Don Magnifico, the baron of
Montefiascone, and a magnificent wine drinker, derives his name from the same word). Rossini would draw varying sizes
of wine bottles in his letters to describe the degree in which a work had failed. Although this practice fell out of favor,
Giuseppe Verdi would still use the term to describe operas that had not had successful premieres well into the 19th
century.

opera in rosssini’s day 63

World Events in 1816

h istory and politics

John vi succeeds his mother Maria of Braganza, on the throne. He has been
emperor of Brazil since 1807 when he fled from Portugal to escape Napoleon’s army.
The Chinese authorities at Changsha (Hunan) execute the Italian missionary Giovanni
Lantrua of Triora.
Gurkha tribesmen in Nepal sign a peace treaty with the British, ending their year-long war.
United Provinces of Rio de la Plata (Argentina) declare independence.
In Florida, Fort Apalachiocola, which was occupied by runaway slaves after being abandoned by the British, is
destroyed and 270 of its occupants killed after a ten-day siege by United States troops.
King Louis xviii dissolves the chamber of deputies, which has become too reactionary and independent, challenging

6
his authority by opposing the initiatives of his chief minister, the duke of Richelieu.
The Diet of the German Confederation, created by the 1815 treaty of Vienna, meets for the first time, at Frankfurt.
In London, rioting breaks out in Spa Fields during a mass meeting to promote demands for parliamentary reform.
James Monroe, who served as secretary of state under his President, James Madison, is elected to succeed him.
Indiana becomes the 19th state in the union.
British ships reach the Ryukyu islands (Okinawa) in Japan and Uraga Bay near Edo (Tokyo) seeking trade. Their
overtures are rebuffed, but increase the governments’ awareness of western pressures to open the country to foreign
business.
1
The island of Java is restored to Dutch control.
A group of Russian Guards officers founds the Union of Salvation to promote the establishment of constitutional
government and to abolish serfdom.
With the death of Senzangakhoma, chief of one of several small Zulu tribes of Bantu people centered along the
Tugelo River near Durban in southeastern Africa, Chaka became chief and began to gain control of other tribes.
In accordance with agreements made at the Congress of Vienna, several of France’s former colonies were returned to
8
France, including her ports in India.

b usiness and economics

The Second Bank of the United States is charted. Because its legality was questioned on constitutional grounds and
because many state banks were hampered by the more conservative regulation of capitalization demanded by the
federal bank, opposition to a U.S. bank still remained.
Sir David Brewster invents the kaleidoscope.
1

R. T. Laënnec invents the stethoscope.

England’s economic crisis causes large-scale emigration to Canada and the United States.

world events in 1816 64

r eligion and philosophy
The linguist Franz Bopp publishes a study of the System of Conjugation in Sanskrit, in which he seeks to trace the
common origin of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek and Latin.
American Bible Society is founded.

s cience and technology

The British engineer John Cockerill takes over the factory founded by his father at Seraing, near Liège, in 1807, and
starts to manufacture steam engines.
A new science of “comparative anatomy” is born with the publication of Georges Cuvier’s book on classifying the
animal kingdom. Cuvier is also a clever paleontologist, able to “reconstruct” whole skeletons of long-dead animals
from just a few bones.

6
a rt, music, and literature
Charlotte Brontë is born.
Lord Byron writes The Siege of Corinth.
Percy Bysshe Shelley writes Alastor.
The Elgin Marbles are bought for the British Museum.

1
Francisco Goya y Lucientes paints The Duke of Osuna.
Louis Spohr premieres his opera Faust, conducted by Carl Maria von Weber.
The anonymous author of Pride and Prejudice and Mansfield Park publishes another novel, Emma. She is Jane Austin.

daily life
The use of torture in the investigation of heresy by those tribunals of the Inquisition still in practice was abolished
in a degree issued by Pope Pius vii.
8
1

world events in 1816 65

H istory of Opera

In the beginning …

j acopo peri 1561–1633

c laudio monteverdi 1567–1643
Although often considered an Italian innovation, opera had its debut in
Ancient Greece, where drama frequently incorporated singing, declamation and
dance to tell a narrative tale. Ecclesiastical music dramas of the Middle Ages
were also important precursors. But the operatic art form familiar to us today
has its roots in Florence, between 1580 and 1589, where a group of musicians,
poets and scholars explored the possibility of reviving tragic drama of the
ancients.
The circle was known as the camerata and consisted of writers, theorists and
composers, including giulio caccini, ottavio rinuccini and vincenzo A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
galilei (father of the famed astronomer). Their efforts exacted musical com- 1971 production of Monteverdi’s
L’incoronazione di Poppea
positions that took special care to accentuate the dramatic inflection of their
chosen text, to evoke its precise emotional shading and to find the ideal marriage between words and music. jacopo
peri, a rival of Caccini and a collaborator with Rinuccini, produced the first known (but no longer existing) opera,
Dafne, in 1597.
The Camerata met at the home of the nobleman giovanni de’ bardi . Thus, no sooner had opera had made its first
appearance than it became a court activity, which fit the social and political conditions of the day. As a result of Bardi’s
influence, these composers were hired by the Grand Duke of Tuscany Ferdinand i, who gave them their first wide expo-
sure. When his daughter, Marie de’ Medici, married Henry iv of France, Peri’s Euridice was produced at the ceremony,
and Italian opera gained its first international premiere. Even though Euridice was a simply staged production accom-
panied by a small group of strings and flute, in 1600 this type of musical drama was considered revolutionary.
claudio monteverdi’s Orfeo (1607) is the most significant opera of this period, more so than those works of the
Florentines. The boldness of his harmonies and the richness of his orchestration dramatically developed the art form,
and this work, along with L’incoronazione di Poppea (1642) are still popular pieces performed today.
Opera in Venice

f rancesco cavalli 1602–1676

a ntonio cesti 1623–1669
The new art form quickly spread to other Italian cities. By 1636, the first public opera house was opened in Venice and
opera became quite popular among the people. Le nozze di Teti e di Pele, the first of francesco cavalli ’s thirty-plus
operas for the Venetian stage, premiered two years later. Competing with Monteverdi and antonio cesti (who took
a post in Innsbruck after producing only two works for Venice), Cavalli quickly rose to the top.
At the same time, Italian stage designers were fast improving their techniques and were able to produce stupendous
special effects, a happy coincidence for the new operatic art form. The use of the proscenium arch allowed the spectator
to view the stage from a narrower angle, thus producing a better illusion of perspective. The proscenium also hid elab-
orate flying apparatus, and allowed for quick and seamless scene changes with drops from the top and flaps from the
side wings. Spectacular stage effects became a speciality of French opera, and with the inclusion of ballet, became the
part of established style of France by the 18th century.

history of opera 66
North of Italy, Hamburg composer reinhard
keiser (1694 – 1739) became the director of
one of the first public opera houses in Germany.
He often set libretti by Venetian librettists.

Baroque Opera in France, England

and Germany

j ean-baptiste lully 1632–1687

h enry purcell 1658/59–1695
g eorge frideric handel 1685–1759 A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
c hristoph willibald gluck 1714–1 7 8 7 2008 production of Keiser’s The Fortunes of King Croesus

In 1646, Giovanni Battista Lulli arrived in France from Florence and tried to establish Italian opera in the French Court.
He was unsuccessful because the reigning monarch, Louis xiv, preferred dance. Nonetheless, jean-baptiste lully ,
as he became known, rose in royal favor by composing ballets for the king and eventually gained control of the Académie
Royale de Musique, the official musical institution of France. Through Lully’s influence in this important position, and
by way of his own compositions, a distinctive French operatic form began to emerge and thrive on its own.
The Italian and French forms of opera were slow to catch on among the English, who preferred spoken theater. A com-
promise was reached in a form referred to as semi-opera , featuring spoken dialogue alternated with musical masques
(which often included dance). henry purcell ’s The Fairy Queen (1692) is one popular example from this period.
Purcell’s first opera, Dido and Aeneas (1689), is his
only opera in the Italian style and continues to be
occasionally revived in modern times.
A major player in the early part of the 18th century
was george frideric handel , who began his
career in Hamburg. As early as 1711, Handel
enjoyed success in England and would remain
there for the next forty years. During that time, he
wrote 35 operas (many in the Italian style), most of
which focused on historical, classical
or romantic subjects. His inventive
musical style began to set new
standards for the art form,
and his works redefined
A scene from The Minnesota Opera’s
the dramatic potential of
1994 production of Handel’s Julius Caesar opera as a vital and vivid
experience.
Another German, christoph willibald gluck , arrived in England on the heels of
Handel’s last London operas, and later moving to Vienna, he began to see what he found to be flaws in
the conventional Italian opera of the day. Singers had taken control of the productions, demanding solo
arias and sometimes adding their own pieces to show off their vocal technique. Operas were turning into
a collection of individual showpieces at the sacrifice of dramatic integrity. Although Gluck wrote some
operas which shared these flaws, one work, Orfeo ed Euridice (1762), reasserted the primacy of drama and music

Costume sketch for Minnesota Opera’s

2010 production of Gluck’s Orfeo ed Euridice

history of opera 67
 by removing the da capo (repeated and embellished) part of the aria, by using
chorus and instrumental solos only to reinforce the dramatic action, and by not
allowing the singers to insert their own music. Gluck completed his career in Paris,
where he became a master of French opera’s serious form, the tragédie lyrique .
During the 18th century, opera began to fall into two distinct categories: opera
seria and opera buffa . Opera seria (serious opera) focused on historical, reli-
gious or Greco-Roman subjects. The glorification of saints, kings and gods went
hand-in-hand with the grandiose baroque style and the spectacular stage effects of
court opera. Librettist Pietro Metastasio provided 28 libretti that continued to
serve composers again and again well into the 19th century. Opera buffa (comic
opera) had its roots with the popular audience, each country specializing in its own
distinct form. In France, charles-simon favart ’s operas of the 1740s parodied
the serious tragédie lyriques of Lully (the Opéra-Comique, the Paris theater for
comic opera, would later be named after him). In Naples, Italy, the intermezzi
(short comic works inserted in between acts of a serious opera), of giovanni bat-
tista pergolesi paved the way to the development of opera buffa in the latter
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s half of the 18th century. His masterpiece, La serva padrona (1733), is considered a
2009 production of Argento’s Casanova’s milestone in the development
Homcoming [which included a scene from
Metastasio’s opera seria Demofoonte (1733)] of comic opera.

Opera during the Classical Period

g iuseppe sarti 1729–1802

f ranz joseph haydn 1732–1809
g iovanni paisiello 1740–1816
d omenico cimarosa 1749–1801
a ntonio sali eri 1750–1825
v icente martin y soler 1754–1806
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 1996 production of
w olfgang amadeus mozart 1756–1 7 9 1 Mozart’s Don Giovanni

Two composers are invariably linked to the Classical Period – franz joseph haydn and wolfgang amadeus
mozart . Of the former, few of his operas are produced today even though he wrote over 25, most of which were cre-
ated and performed for his employer, Prince Nikolaus Esterházy. Mozart’s operas, however, remain in repertory as some
of the most frequently produced works. Of the five most favorite – The
Abduction from the Seraglio (1782), The Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don
Giovanni (1787), Così fan tutte (1790), The Magic Flute (1791) – two are
singspiels (a popular German form, replacing sung recitative with
spoken dialogue), two opera buffas and one opera “semi-seria.” Two
opera serias (the form Mozart preferred, incidently) frame his adult
career – Idomeneo (1781) was his first mature opera and La clemenza di
Tito (1791) was his last commission.
Lesser composers of this period include antonio salieri (born in
Legnago, settling later in Vienna), who served the court of Emperor
Joseph ii. Through the emperor’s influence with his sister, Marie
Antoinette, Salieri made headway in Paris as well, establishing himself
as a worthy successor of Gluck in the serious vein of his tragédie
lyriques. Returning to Vienna in 1784, Salieri found himself in strict
Artist rendering of Minnesota Opera’s
2008 production of Mozart’s
The Abduction from the Seraglio
history of opera 68
competition with other leading composers of the day, giovanni paisiello and vincente martín y soler . These
two composers were known partly from their brief service to Catherine the Great of Russia, along with several other
advanced Italian composers including giusepp e sarti and domenico cimarosa .

After the Revolution – French Grand Opera

l uigi cherubini 1760–1842

f erdinando paer 1771–1839
g aspare spontini 1774–1851
daniel-françois-esprit auber 1782 – 1 8 7 1
g iacomo meyerbeer 1791–1864
In the decades following the French revolution, french grand
opera developed extensively, moving from a private entertain-
ment for royalty to an art form eagerly consumed by the upward-
ly mobile bourgeoisie. Opera in France at the turn of the 19th cen-
tury was dominated by expatriate Italian composers. First and
most notable was luigi cherubini, who established residence
Paris Opéra – Palais Garnier (completed in 1875; still in use)
in Paris in 1785. Eventually rising to the position of director of the The old Opéra on the Salle de la Petelier, birthplace of
national conservatory, he virtually ceased composing operas in French Grand Opera, burned down in 1873
1813. The most lasting work in his oeuvre is Médée of 1797.
ferdinando paer came to prominence during the first empire of Napoleon i – he was engaged as the Emperor’s
maître de chapelle in 1807 and later became the director of the Opéra-Comique. Just before Napoleon’s abdication, Paer
assumed directorship of the Théâtre Italien, a post he held until it was yielded to Rossini in 1824. None of his many
operas survive in the modern repertory, although the libretto he wrote for one, Leonora (1804), served to inspire Ludwig
van Beethoven’s only opera, Fidelio (1805). gaspare spontini was another Italian who moved to Paris and eventual-
ly ran the Théâtre Italien, a theater devoted to producing
Italian works in their native language. Most popular among
his repertoire were La Vestale (1807) and Fernand Cortez
(1809).
French grand opera came into its own through the efforts of
two composers: da n i e l - f r a n ç o i s - e s p r i t a u b e r and
giacomo meyerbeer . Collaborating with Eugène Scribe
(whose plays would later serve as inspiration for a number of
Verdi operas), Auber produced La muette de Portici (1828), the
first definite grand opéra of this period, which proved extreme-
ly popular with French audiences. Characteristic of the genre
was a five-act framework that incorporated spectacular stage
effects, large crowd scenes and a ballet. A specific, mannered
formula for the drama’s unfolding was also inherent in the art
form.
Meyerbeer brought grand opera to fruition first with Robert le
diable (1831), then with Les Huguenots (1836), and with these
works, also established a close relationship with Scribe. Two
Today’s Opéra National de Paris
later works of note include La prophète (1849) and L’Africaine
at the Place de la Bastille (completed in 1989)
(1865), also cast in the grand opera schema.

history of opera 69
Early 19th-century Italy – The Bel Canto composers
Promotional material for
g ioachino rossini 1792–1868 Minnesota Opera’s
g aetano donizetti 1797–1848 2001 production of Bellini’s
The Capulets and the
v incenzo bellini 1801–1835 Montagues
Back in Italy, opera saw the development of a distinctive style known as bel canto .
Bel canto (literally “beautiful singing”) was characterized by the smooth emission of
tone, beauty of timbre and elegance of phrasing. Music associated with this genre con-
tained many trills , roulades and other embellishments that showed off the par-
ticular singer’s technique.
Traditionally, a bel canto aria
begins with a slow, song-like
cantabile section followed by
an intermediate mezzo section
with a slightly quicker tempo. It ends with a dazzling cabaletta ,
the fastest section, where the singer shows off his or her talents.
Often these were improvised upon, or replaced with “suitcase” arias
of the singers’ own choosing, much to the consternation of the com-
poser.
gioachino rossini was the first and perhaps best known of the
three composers associated with this style. In his early years,
between 1813 and 1820, Rossini composed rapidly, producing two
or three operas a year. The pace slowed after he moved to France in
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 1824 – there he produced
2000 production of Rossini’s Semiramide
five works for the Paris
Opéra, several of which show tendencies of the French grand opera style. William
Tell was his last opera – Rossini retired at age 37 with 39 more years to live.
gaetano donizetti and vincenzo bellini were two other Italian Bel
Canto composers who premiered operas in both Paris and Italy. A tendency that
began with Rossini and continued into their works was the practice of accom-
panied recitatives. Opera to this point had been organized in a very specific man-
ner with more elongated “numbers”
(arias, duets, ensembles) alternated
with recitative (essentially dialogue
set to music, intended to move the
action along). In Mozart’s day, these
recitative would be played by a
harpsichord or fortepiano (some-
times doubled with cellos and bass-
es) and was known as recitativo
s e c c o . As Rossini’s style pro-
gressed, the orchestra took over
playing the recitatives which
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
became known as r e c i tat i v o 2004 production of Donizetti’s Lucrezia Borgia
Set model for Minnesota Opera’s accompagnato . The practice con-
2010 production of Donizetti’s Roberto Devereux tinued into Verdi’s day.

history of opera 70
Three Masters of Opera

g iuseppe ver di 1813–1901

r ichard wagner 1813–1883
g iacomo puccini 1858–1924

giuseppe verd i ’s roots began in bel canto but the composer

transformed the Italian style into a more fluid, less structured
form. With a legacy of 26 operas, Verdi is never out of the
repertory and four of these (Rigoletto, 1851; Il trovatore, 1853;
La traviata, 1853; Aida, 1871) are some of the most familiar of
the art form.
Verdi’s contemporary, richard wagner , is also considered
one of the greats. Taking the idea of “fluidity” one step further, A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
1998 production of Verdi’s Aida
Wagner developed his operas into freely flowing music-dra-
mas united by melodic motifs that become associated with persons, places and things. Taking the grandeur of French opera
one step further, he crafted his own libretti out of Nordic legends and created spectacular operatic moments. Wagner also
greatly expanded the orchestra and developed his own particular brass instruments for greater impact. A Wagnerian singer
is one with great stamina – they
must sing over a large orchestra
in an opera that can be up to
four hours long.
Italian opera’s successor to Verdi
turned out to be g i a c o m o
puccini . With a gift of popu-
lar melody and musical econo-
my, his operas La bohème (1896),
Tosca (1900) and Madame
Set model for Minnesota Opera’s Butterfly (1904) remain at the
1992 production of Wagner’s The Flying Dutchman top of the standard repertory.

Costume sketch for Minnesota Opera’s

1994 production of Verdi’s
Il trovatore

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s

2004 production of Puccini’s Madame Butterfly A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
2002 production of Verdi’s Don Carlos

history of opera 71
Later French Opera

h ector berlioz 1803–1869

c harles-françois gounod 1818–18 9 3
j acques offenbach 1819–1880
e douard lalo 1823–1892
c amille saint-saëns 1835–1921
l éo delibes 1836–1891
g eorges bizet 1838–1875
j ules massenet 1842–1912
g ustave charpentier 1860–1956

The grand opera schema continued into the latter half of A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
2009 production of Bizet’s Les pêcheurs de perles
the 19 century in such works as hector berlioz ’s Les
th

Troyens (composed 1856 – 58), and charles-françois gounod ’s Faust (1859) and Roméo et Juliette (1867). An ele-
ment of realism began to slip into the French repertoire, seen in works by georges bizet (Carmen, 1875) and gus-
tave charpentier (Louise, 1897). jacques offenbach revolutionized the art of comic operetta in such works as
Orphée aux enfers (1858), La belle Hélène (1864) and La Périchole (1868). Other composers of this period include camille
saint-saëns (Samson et Dalila, 1877), edouard lalo (Le
Roi d’Ys, 1875) and j ul e s m a s s e ne t (Manon, 1884;
Werther, 1892; Cendrillon, 1899).

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s

2009 production of Gounod’s Faust

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s

Verismo in Late 19 -century Italy
th 2008 production of Gounod’s Roméo et Juliette

r uggero leoncavallo 1857–1919

p ietro mascagni 1863–1945
u mberto giordano 1867–1948

A realist vein began to penetrate Italian opera toward the end of the 19th century, influenced in part by naturalism in
French literature of the period and by the writings of an Italian literary circle, the scapigliatura . Translated as the
“dishevelled ones,” the Scapigliatura displayed their distaste for bourgeois society in works of gritty realism, often bor-
dering on the morbid and the macabre. Nearly all the members of the group (lead by giovanni verga ) led tragic
lives ending in early death by alcoholism and suicide.

history of opera 72
Operas to come out of the resulting verismo school include
pietro mascagni ’s Cavalleria rusticana (1890), ruggero
leoncavallo ’s Pagliacci (1892) and umberto giordano ’s
Mala vita (1892). Other works are attributed to this movement
by nature of their rapid action with passionate tension and vio-
lence quickly alternating with moments of great sentimentality.

Opera in Russia

m ikhail ivanovich glinka 1804–18 5 7

p yotr il’yich tchaikovsky 1840–18 9 3
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
n ikolay andreyevich rimsky-korsa ko v 1 8 4 4 – 1 9 0 8 2001 production of Leoncavallo’s Pagliacci
m odest petrovich musorgsky 1839 – 1 8 8 1
s ergei prokofiev 1891–1953
d mitri shost okovich 1906–1975
Opera was introduced in Russia during the succession of powerful czarinas that culminated in the reign of Catherine
the Great (ruled 1762 – 1796). She employed a number of important Italian composers (see above) and established St.
Petersburg as a major city for the production of new opera, later to be elevated to the same par as London, Paris and
Vienna by her descendent, Nicholas i (ruled 1825 – 1855). Of native Russian
composers, the first to come to prominence was mikhail glinka with A Life for
the Tsar (1836), and later, Ruslan and Lyudmila (1842). pyotr tchaikovsky,
now known more for his ballets and symphonies, was a prolific composer of opera.
His best works include Eugene Onegin (1879), Mazepa (1884) and The Queen of
Spades (1890). Other Russian composers of the latter 19th century include niko-
lay rimsky-korsakov (The Snow Maiden, 1882; The Tsar’s Bride, 1899; The
Golden Cockerel, 1909) and modest musorgsky (Boris Godunov, 1874).

Russian opera continued into the 20th century with works by sergei prokofiev
composed The Love for Three Oranges (1921) and The Gambler (1929), among oth-
ers. His crowning achievement, written toward the end of his life, was War and
Peace (1948), based on the novel by Leo Tolstoy. dmitri shostokovich ’s most
notable work is Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (1934). Both artists suffered
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
1978 production of Prokofiev’s censure from the Soviet government.
The Love for Three Oranges

Into the 20th Century

c laude debussy 1862–1918
r ichard strauss 1864–1949
paul dukas 1865–1935
a rnold schoenberg 1874–1951
i gor stravinsky 1882–1971
a lban berg 1885–1935
darius milhaud 1892–1974
paul hindemith 1895–1963
k urt weill 1900–1950
b enjamin britten 1913–1976
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
1996 production of Debussy’s Pelléas et Mélisande

history of opera 73
 c l a u d e d e b u s s y ’s impressionist score for Pelléas et
Mélisande (1902) paved the way for the radical changes in
20th-century opera. Also based on a Symbolist text by
Maurice Maeterlinck was paul dukas ’ Ariane et Barbe-
Bleue (1907), an opera about the notorious Bluebeard and
his six wives. But causing the most sensation was richard
strauss ’ Salome (1905), which pushed both tonality and
the demands on the singers to the limits. He followed that
opera with an even more progressive work, Elektra (1909),
drawn from the Greek tragedy by Sophocles.
Important innovations were taking place in Vienna.
arnold schoenberg made a complete break with
tonality in his staged monodrama Erwartung (1909), giv-
ing all twelve tones of the chromatic scale equal impor-
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
2010 production of Strauss’ Salome
tance. He codified this approach in his twelve-tone
system where a theme is created with a row of notes using
all twelve notes of the chromatic scale. This “row” can be played in transposition, in reverse, upside-down, or in any
combination of the three. Schoenberg also evolved a particular style of singing, sprechstimme , an intoned speech
halfway between singing and speaking.
Sprechstimme was well suited to the expressionist nature of operas being produced at this time. Schoenberg’s student,
alban berg , employed it in Wozzeck (1925) and used the serialized twelve-tone method in his opera Lulu (1937).
Another avant-garde composer, paul hindemith , created a series of expressionist one-act operas that shocked audi-
ences of the day: Murder, Hope of Women (1921), Das Nusch-Nuschi (1921) and Sancta Susanna (1922). Two later operas
include one based on a short story by E.T.A. Hoffmann (Cardillac, 1926) and a satire on modern social behavior (News of
the Day, 1929). At about the same kurt weill was causing an uproar with his new works: The Threepenny Opera (1928),
The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny (1930) and Der Silbersee (1933). The up-and-coming Nazi party did not favor
his works, and he was forced to leave the country, eventually to settle in America.
In Paris, Russian igor stravinsky was shocking
audiences and causing riots with his ballet music. His
early operas include The Nightingale (1914) and Mavra
(1922). Oedipus Rex (1927) is representative of his first
neoclassical works, using forms from the 18th century
with modern tonality and orchestration. His later (and
longest) opera, The Rake’s Progress (1951), is a culmina-
tion of this neoclassical style. French composer darius
milhaud was extremely prolific in all genres of music.
In opera, he produced the one-act Le pauvre matelot
(1927) and a large-scale work in the tradition of grand
opera, Christophe Columbe (1930). Later in his life he
composed La mère coupable (1966), based on the
Beaumarchais Figaro trilogy (which includes The Barber
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
of Seville and The Marriage of Figaro). 1999 production of Britten’s The Turn of the Screw

In England, benjamin britten emerged as one of Britain’s foremost composers of opera since Henry Purcell. Out of
his 16 original works for the stage the most popular include Peter Grimes (1945), Billy Budd (1951), Gloriana (1953)
and The Turn of the Screw (1954).

history of opera 74
20th- and 21st-century American Composers of Opera

v irgil thomson 1896–1989

g eorge antheil 1900–1959
s amuel barber 1910–1981
g ian carlo menotti 1911–2007
c arlisle floyd 1926–
d ominick argento 1927–
c onrad susa 1935–
p hilip glass 1937–
j ohn corigli ano 1938–
j ohn adams 1947–
Paris in the 20s served to inspire the next generation of A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
composers, several of which were expatriates from 1998 American premiere of Antheil’s Transatlantic
America. george antheil was the first American
composer to have an opera premiered in Europe – his work, Transatlantic, was written in France but premiered in
Frankfurt in 1930. Compatriot virgil thomson studied with famed teacher Nadia Boulanger and later produced
Four Saints in Three Acts (1934) and The Mother of Us All (1947), both to texts by Gertrude Stein. samuel barber
stayed on American soil, studying at the newly founded Curtis Institute in 1935. He went on to compose Vanessa
(1958), and to open the new Metropolitan Opera House at Lincoln Center, Antony and Cleopatra (1966).
On Vanessa, Barber collaborated with another composer, gian carlo menotti , who wrote the libretto. Also the
author of 25 libretti for his own operas, Menotti is best known for The Medium (1946), The Consul (1950), Amahl and
the Night Visitors (1951) and The Saint of Bleecker Street (1954). Another American composing at about the same time was
carlisle floyd , who favored American themes and liter-
ature. His most important works include Susannah (1955),
Wuthering Heights (1958), The Passion of Jonathan Wade
(1962) and Of Mice and Men (1970).
During the sixties and seventies, the minnesota opera
was the site of many world premieres of lasting significance:
conrad susa ’s Transformations (1973) and Black River
(1975), and dominick argento ’s The Masque of Angels
(1964), Postcards from Morocco (1971), The Voyage of Edgar
Allen Poe (1976), Miss Havisham’s Wedding Night (1981) and
Casanova’s Homecoming (1985; revived in 2009). Other
Argento works of merit include Miss Havisham’s Fire (1979)
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s and The Aspern Papers (1988).
1989 production of Glass’ The Juniper Tree

Other composers currently at the fore include philip glass , john corigliano and john adams . The Minimalist
music of Philip Glass has won popular acclaim among even non-opera-going audiences – his oeuvre includes Einstein on
the Beach (1976), Ahknaten (1984), and most recently, The Voyage (1992), commissioned by the Metropolitan Opera to
commemorate the 500th anniversary of Columbus’ discovery of America. The Met also commissioned The Ghosts of
Versailles from john corigliano in 1991 – like Milhaud’s opera of 1966, its text involves Beaumarchais’ third part
of the Figaro trilogy with the playwright himself appearing as the lover of 18th-century Queen of France Marie

history of opera 75
 Antoinette. john adams ’ focus on contemporary
events lead him to compose Nixon in China (1987)
and The Death of Klinghoffer (1991).

Opera continues to be a living and vital art form in

the revival of many of these works as well as the
commissioning of new pieces. Among world pre-
mieres in the last two decades include t o b i a s
p i c k e r ’s Emmeline (1996) by Santa Fe Opera,
daniel catán ’s Florencia en el Amazonas (1996)
by Houston Grand Opera, m y r o n f i n k ’s The
Conquistador (1997) presented by San Diego
Opera, anthony davis’ Amistad (1997) presented
by Lyric Opera of Chicago and Central Park (1999)
by Glimmerglass Opera, a trilogy of short operas
set by three composers. Recent seasons included
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
such
2005 production of Adams’ Nixon in China n e w
works
as poul ruders ’ The Handmaid’s Tale (Royal Danish Opera; 2000), bright
sheng’s Madame Mao (Santa Fe Opera; 2003), D A N I E L C AT Á N ’ S Salsipuedes
(Houston Grand Opera; 2004), R I C H A R D D A N I E L P O U R ’s Margaret Garner
(Michigan Opera Theatre; 2005), ricky ian gordon’s The Grapes of Wrath
(Minnesota Opera; 2007), j o nat h a n d o v e ’ s The Adventures of Pinocchio
(Opera North, Leeds; 2008), H O WA R D S H O R E ’s The Fly (Los Angeles Opera;
2009), jake heggie’s Moby Dick (Dallas Opera; 2010), kevin puts ’ Silent
Night (Minnesota Opera; 2011) and D O U G L A S J . C U O M O and J O H N PAT R I C K
S H A N L E Y ’s Doubt (Minnesota Opera; 2013).

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s

2003 American premiere of Ruders’
The Handmaid’s Tale

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s Pulitzer Prize-winning

2011 world premiere of Puts’ Silent Night

Costume sketch for Minnesota Opera’s

2009 American premiere of Dove’s The Adventures of Pinocchio

history of opera 76
H istory of the Minnesota Opera

Minnesota Opera combines a culture of creativity and fiscal responsibility to produce opera
and opera education programs that expand the art form, nurture artists, enrich audiences
and contribute to the vitality of the community.

Minnesota Opera’s roots were planted in 1963 when the Walker Art Center
commissioned Dominick Argento to compose an opera (The Masque of Angels) for
its performing arts program, Center Opera. Center Opera focused on the
composition and performance of new works by American composers, and, under
the influence of the Walker Art Center, emphasized visual design. The company
grew steadily, and in 1969 became an independent entity, changing its name in
1971 to The Minnesota Opera.
Throughout the first 12 years of its history, The Minnesota Opera was known as a progressive, “alternative” opera
production company, a complement to the traditional orientation of the annual Metropolitan Opera tour and the
productions of the St. Paul Opera. In 1976, The Minnesota Opera merged with the St. Paul Opera, adding a focus on
traditional repertory to its program of contemporary opera.
In January 1985, The Minnesota Opera entered a new era with the opening of
the Ordway Center for the Performing Arts in St. Paul, one of the nation’s most
respected performance halls. Today, the company presents its entire season at the
Ordway.
In September 1990, the company moved its scenic and costume shops, rehearsal
facilities and administrative offices to the 51,000 square-feet Minnesota Opera
Center, which comprises three renovated warehouses on the Mississippi
riverfront in Minneapolis. Winner of a 1990 Preservation Alliance of Minnesota
Award, the Minnesota Opera Center is one of the finest opera production
Set design for Minnesota Opera’s
1971 production of Dominick Argento’s facilities in the nation and has served to strengthen the company both artistically
Postcard from Morocco and institutionally.
Throughout the 1990s, the company gained a national reputation for its high-quality, innovative productions of standard
repertoire operas like Aida, Carmen and Turandot, which were seen on stages across the nation, and firmly established
Minnesota Opera’s reputation as a lead coproducer in the industry. In that decade, Minnesota Opera also grew
institutionally, launching an artistic development campaign to establish a foundation for the expansion of its season and
increased artistic quality.
In 1997, the company launched its Resident Artist Program to bridge the gap between an artist’s academic training and
their professional life on the world stage. The RAP is acclaimed for its exceptional, intense and individualized training as
well as the elite group of young artists it produces. Alumni
have earned engagements at prestigious houses such as the
Metropolitan Opera, the Salzburg Festival and Covent Garden.
In 2000, Artistic Director Dale Johnson articulated a new
artistic vision for the company inspired by bel canto (“beautiful
singing”), the ideal upon which Italian opera is based. Bel canto
values, which emphasize intense emotional expression
supported by exquisite technique, inform every aspect of the
company’s programs, from repertoire selection, casting and
visual design to education and artist training. As one
manifestation of its philosophy, Minnesota Opera is committed
to producing one work from the early 19th-century Bel Canto
period each season, attracting luminary singers like Bruce Ford,
Vivica Genaux, Brenda Harris and Sumi Jo to its stage. A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 1984 production of
Peter Schickele’s The Abduction of Figaro

history of the minnesota opera 77

Minnesota Opera is also recognized for its progressive and
far-reaching educational programs. Residencies in schools,
opera education classes and pre-performance discussions are
building an audience for tomorrow and enhancing the
enjoyment of audiences today.
Throughout its history, Minnesota Opera has attracted
international attention for its performances of new operas
and innovative productions of masterworks. Among its
most renowned world and American premieres are:
Dominick Argento’s Postcard from Morocco, The Voyage of
Edgar Allan Poe and Casanova’s Homecoming, William Mayer’s
A Death in the Family, Libby Larsen’s Frankenstein, The
Modern Prometheus, Oliver Knussen and Maurice Sendak’s
Where the Wild Things Are, Conrad Susa’s Transformations and
Black River, PDQ Bach’s The Abduction of Figaro, Robert
Moran’s From the Towers of the Moon, Gioachino Rossini’s A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 2000 production of
Armida, Evan Chen’s Bok Choy Variations, George Antheil’s Gioachino Rossini’s Semiramide
Transatlantic, Poul Ruders’ The Handmaid’s Tale, Laurent Petitgirard’s Joseph Merrrick dit Elephant Man, Saverio Mercadante’s
Orazi e Curiazi, Ricky Ian Gordon’s The Grapes of Wrath, Reinhard Keiser’s The Fortunes of King Croesus, Jonathan Dove’s The
Adventures of Pinocchio, Kevin Puts’ Pulitzer Prize-winning Silent Night and Douglas J. Cuomo’s Doubt.
Building on the legacy of its commitment to new work and following the overwhelming success of its commission of The
Grapes of Wrath in 2007, Minnesota Opera launched the New Works Initiative, a landmark program designed to invigorate
the operatic repertoire through the production and dissemination of new commissions and revivals of contemporary
American works. The seven-year, $7 million program includes an international coproduction (The Adventures of Pinocchio,
2009), three revivals (Casanova’s Homecoming in 2010; Wuthering Heights in 2011 and The Dream of Valentino in 2013) and
three commissions (Silent Night in 2011; Doubt in 2013 and The Manchurian Candidate in 2015).
On the Minnesota Opera stage, talented national and internationally known artists are brought together to create
productions of the highest artistic integrity, emphasizing the balance and total integration of theatrical and musical values.
Throughout the past five decades, the company has presented such artists as Tim Albery, Isabel Bayrakdarian, John Lee
Beatty, Harry Bicket, Richard Bonynge, William Burden, John Conklin, Roxana Constantinescu, David Daniels, Bruce
Ford, Elizabeth Futral, Vivica Genaux, Colin Graham, Denyce Graves, Greer Grimsley, Nancy Gustafson, Brenda Harris,
Jason Howard, Judith Howarth, Robert Indiana, Robert Israel, Sumi Jo, Kelly Kaduce, Antony McDonald, Catherine
Malfitano, Daniel Massey, Johanna Meier, Suzanne Mentzer, Erie Mills, Sherrill Milnes, Julia Migenes, Fernando de la
Mora, James Morris, Suzanne Murphy, Maureen O’Flynn, Susanna Phillips, Ashley Putnam, Patricia Racette, James
Robinson, Neil Rosenshein, William Shimell, James Valenti, David Walker and Keith Warner.
Minnesota Opera, now the 13th
largest opera company in the
nation with an annual budget of
$10.2 million (Fiscal Year 2012),
is guided by President and General
Director Kevin Ramch and
Artistic Director Dale Johnson.
Today Minnesota Opera is
enjoying unprecedented stability
and unity of mission, working
toward its vision to create a new,
dynamic opera company model
based upon innovation, world-
class artistic quality and strong
community service.

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s

2001 production of Carl Orff’s Carmina burana

history of the minnesota opera 78

 Minnesota O p e r a R e p e r t o i r e – 1 9 6 3 – 2 0 1 4

2013–2014 2003–2004
Manon Lescaut (Puccini) Rigoletto (Verdi)
Arabella (Strauss) Lucrezia Borgia (Donizetti)
Macbeth (Verdi) Passion (Sondheim)
The Dream of Valentino (Argento) Die Zauberflöte (Mozart)
Die Zauberflöte (Mozart)
2002–2003
2012–2013 Die lustige Witwe (Lehár)
50th anniversary season Norma (Bellini)
Nabucco (Verdi) Der fliegende Holländer (Wagner)
Anna Bolena (Donizetti) La traviata (Verdi)
§ † Doubt (Cuomo) * The Handmaid’s Tale (Ruders)
Hamlet (Thomas) 2001–2002
Turandot (Puccini) Lucia di Lammermoor (Donizetti)
La clemenza di Tito (Mozart)
2011–2012 La bohème (Puccini)
Così fan tutte (Mozart) Little Women (Adamo)
§ † Silent Night (Puts) Don Carlos (Verdi)
Werther (Massenet)
Lucia di Lammermoor (Donizetti) 2000–2001
Madame Butterfly (Puccini) Turandot (Puccini)
I Capuleti ed i Montecchi (Bellini)
2010–2011 Street Scene (Weill)
Orfeo ed Euridice (Gluck) Il barbiere di Siviglia (Rossini)
La Cenerentola (Rossini) Pagliacci/Carmina burana (Leoncavallo/Orff)
Maria Stuarda (Donizetti)  The Barber of Seville (Rossini)
La traviata (Verdi)
Wuthering Heights (Herrmann) 1999–2000
Der Rosenkavalier (R. Strauss)
2009–2010 Macbeth (Verdi)
Les pêcheurs de perles (Bizet) Semiramide (Rossini)
Casanova’s Homecoming (Argento) Le nozze di Figaro (Mozart)
Roberto Devereux (Donizetti)  The Marriage of Figaro (Mozart)
La bohème (Puccini)
Salome (R. Strauss) 1998–1999
Otello (Verdi)
2008–2009 Madama Butterfly (Puccini)
Il trovatore (Verdi) The Turn of the Screw (Britten)
Die Entführung aus dem Serail (Mozart) Faust (Gounod)
Faust (Gounod)  Madame Butterfly (Puccini)
* The Adventures of Pinocchio (Dove)
Il barbiere di Siviglia (Rossini) 1997–1998
Aida (Verdi)
2007–2008 La Cenerentola (Rossini)
Un ballo in maschera (Verdi) * Transatlantic (Antheil)
L’italiana in Algeri (Rossini) Tosca (Puccini)
Roméo et Juliette (Gounod)  Cinderella (Rossini, Massenet)
* Croesus (Keiser)
Rusalka (Dvořák) 1996–1997
La traviata (Verdi)
2006–2007 Die Zauberflöte (Mozart)
La donna del lago (Rossini) The Rake’s Progress (Stravinsky)
Les contes d’Hoffmann (Offenbach) Carmen (Bizet)
§ † The Grapes of Wrath (Gordon)  Carmen (Bizet)
Lakmé (Delibes)
Le nozze di Figaro (Mozart) 1995–1996
La bohème (Puccini)
2005–2006 Don Giovanni (Mozart)
Tosca (Puccini) Pelléas et Mélisande (Debussy)
Don Giovanni (Mozart) Les contes d’Hoffmann (Offenbach)
* Orazi e Curiazi (Mercadante)  The Bohemians (Puccini)
* Joseph Merrick dit Elephant Man (Petitgirard) 1994–1995
2004–2005 Turandot (Puccini)
Madama Butterfly (Puccini) Il barbiere di Siviglia (Rossini)
§ World Premiere Maria Padilla (Donizetti) Rigoletto (Verdi)
* American Premiere Carmen (Bizet) § † Bok Choy Variations (Chen and Simonson)
† Commissioned by The Minnesota Opera Nixon in China (Adams)  Figaro’s Revenge (Rossini, Paisiello)
or by The Minnesota Opera Midwest Tour
 Tour production
 Outreach/Education tour
• New Music-Theater Ensemble production

repertoire 79
 1993–1994 1984–1985 1974–1975
Julius Caesar (Handel) * Animalen (Werle) § † Gallimaufry (Minnesota Opera)
* Diary of an African American (Peterson) § † Casanova’s Homecoming (Argento) § Gulliver (Blackwood, Kaplan, Lewin)
Il trovatore (Verdi) The Magic Flute (Mozart) The Magic Flute (Mozart)
§ The Merry Widow and The Hollywood Tycoon (Lehár)  La bohème (Puccini) Albert Herring (Britten)
 Don Giovanni (Mozart)  Meanwhile, back at Cinderella’s (Arlan)
1973–1974
1992–1993 1983–1984 El Capitan (Sousa)
Der fliegende Holländer (Wagner) Hansel and Gretel (Humperdinck) Transformations (Susa)
* Armida (Rossini) Madama Butterfly (Puccini) Don Giovanni (Mozart)
Madama Butterfly (Puccini) La Cenerentola (Rossini) § † The Newest Opera in the World
The Pirates of Penzance (Gilbert & Sullivan) § The Abduction of Figaro (PDQ Bach) (Minnesota Opera)
 The Boor (Argento)
 Chanticleer (Barab)
1991–1992 1972–1973
 Don Pasquale (Donizetti)
Tosca (Puccini) The Threepenny Opera (Weill)
Les pêcheurs de perles (Bizet) Postcard from Morocco (Argento)
Le nozze di Figaro (Mozart) 1982–1983 The Barber of Seville (Rossini)
§ † From the Towers of the Moon (Moran & La Chiusa) Hansel and Gretel (Humperdinck) § † Transformations (Susa)
 The Magic Flute (Mozart) Lucia di Lammermoor (Donizetti)
Carousel (Rodgers & Hammerstein) § A Death in the Family (Mayer)
1971–1972
§ † Postcard from Morocco (Argento)
1990–1991 Kiss Me, Kate (Porter)
 The Barber of Seville (Rossini)
§ † The Business of Good Government
Norma (Bellini)
 The Frog Who Became a Prince (Barnes)
(Marshall)
The Aspern Papers (Argento)
 Zetabet (Barnes)
The Good Soldier Schweik (Kurka)
Carmen (Bizet) The Marriage of Figaro (Mozart)
Così fan tutte (Mozart) 1981–1982
 Così fan tutte (Mozart) Hansel and Gretel (Humperdinck) 1970–1971
 Swing on a Star (Winkler) The Village Singer (Paulus) § † Christmas Mummeries & Good Government
Gianni Schicchi (Puccini) (Marshall)
1989–1990 § † Faust Counter Faust (Gessner)
La bohème (Puccini) The Barber of Seville (Rossini) The Coronation of Poppea (Monteverdi)
A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Britten) § Feathertop (Barnes)
§ The Mask of Evil (Mollicone)
The Mother of Us All (Thomson)
Roméo et Juliette (Gounod)
§ † Frankenstein, The Modern Prometheus (Larsen)  Hansel and Gretel (Humperdinck) 1969–1970
My Fair Lady (Lerner & Loewe) § Rosina (Titus) § † Oedipus and the Sphinx (Marshall)
• § Snow Leopard (Harper & Nieboer) * Punch and Judy (Birtwistle)
 Madame Butterfly (Puccini)
1980–1981 * 17 Days and 4 Minutes (Egk)
The Merry Widow (Lehar) § † The Wanderer (Paul and Martha Boesing)
Where the Wild Things Are (Sendak/Knussen) Black River (Susa)
1988–1989 Carmen (Bizet) 1968–1969
Don Giovanni (Mozart) A Water Bird Talk (Argento) Così fan tutte (Mozart)
Salome (R. Strauss) § Miss Havisham’s Wedding Night (Argento) § † Horspfal (Stokes)
The Mikado (Gilbert & Sullivan)  The Marriage of Figaro (Mozart) The Wise Woman and the King (Orff)
The Juniper Tree (Glass & Moran)  The Threepenny Opera (Weill)
Show Boat (Kern & Hammerstein) 1967–1968
§ † • Without Colors (Wellman & Shiflett) 1979–1980 The Man in the Moon (Haydn)
§ † • Red Tide (Selig & Sherman) The Abduction from the Seraglio (Mozart)
§ † • Newest Little Opera in the World A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Britten)
(ensemble) The Pirates of Penzance (Gilbert & Sullivan)
1966–1967
 Cinderella (Rossini)
La bohème (Puccini)
The Mother of Us All (Thomson)
 Tintypes (Kyte, Marvin, Pearle)
§ † Rosina (Titus)
 A Christmas Carol (Sandow) The Sorrows of Orpheus (Milhaud)
1987–1988 * The Harpies (Blitzstein)
Die Fledermaus (J. Strauss) 1978–1979 Socraties (Satie)
Rigoletto (Verdi) The Love for Three Oranges (Prokofiev) Three Minute Operas (Milhaud)
Rusalka (Dvorak) § The Jealous Cellist (Stokes)
The Passion According to St. Matthew 1965–1966
• Cowboy Lips (Greene & Madsen) The Abduction from the Seraglio (Mozart)
§ † • Fly Away All (Hutchinson & Shank)
(J.S. Bach)
La traviata (Verdi) The Good Soldier Schweik (Kurka)
• Book of Days (Monk)
The Consul (Menotti)
 Viva la Mamma (Donizetti)
Oklahoma! (Rodgers & Hammerstein) 1964–1965
 Carmen (Bizet) The Rape of Lucretia (Britten)
 Jargonauts, Ahoy! (McKeel) 1977–1978 The Wise Woman and the King (Orff)
1986–1987 * Christopher Columbus (Offenbach) 1963–1964
Les pêcheurs de perles (Bizet) The Mother of Us All (Thomson) § † The Masque of Angels (Argento)
The Postman Always Rings Twice (Paulus) The Marriage of Figaro (Mozart) The Masque of Venus and Adonis (Blow)
Ariadne auf Naxos (R. Strauss) § Claudia Legare (Ward)
Albert Herring (Britten)
South Pacific (Rodgers & Hammerstein) 1976–1977
 Hansel and Gretel (Humperdinck) The Bartered Bride (Smetana)
§ †  Jargonauts, Ahoy! (McKeel) The Passion According to St. Matthew
1985–1986 (J.S. Bach)
§ World Premiere
* Where the Wild Things Are/Higglety Pigglety Pop! (Knussen/Sendak) Candide (Bernstein)
* American Premiere
La traviata (Verdi) Mahagonny (Weill)
† Commissioned by The Minnesota Opera
L’elisir d’amore (Donizetti) 1975–1976 or by The Minnesota Opera Midwest Tour

The King and I (Rodgers & Hammerstein)  Tour production

§ † Black River (Susa)
§ † Opera Tomorrow  Outreach/Education tour
El Capitan (Sousa)
 The Fantasticks (Schmidt) Così fan tutte (Mozart) • New Music-Theater Ensemble production

 The Magic Flute (Mozart) § † The Voyage of Edgar Allan Poe (Argento)
§ †  The Music Shop (Wargo)

repertoire 80
The Standard Repertory

eighteenth century nineteenth century (continued)

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 1756–1791 Jacques Offenbach 1819–1880
The Abduction from the Seraglio 1782 Les contes d’Hoffmann 1881
The Marriage of Figaro 1786
Don Giovanni 1787 Georges Bizet 1838–1875
Così fan tutte 1790 Carmen 1875
The Magic Flute 1791 Modest Musorgsky 1839–1881
Boris Godunov 1874
nineteenth century
Ludwig van Beethoven 1770–1827 Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky 1840–1893
Fidelio 1805 Eugene Onegin 1879

Gioachino Rossini 1792–1868 Engelbert Humperdinck 1854–1921

The Barber of Seville 1816 Hänsel und Gretel 1893
La Cenerentola 1817 Ruggero Leoncavallo 1857–1919
Gaetano Donizetti 1797–1848 Pagliacci 1892
The Elixir of Love 1832 Pietro Mascagni 1863–1945
Lucia di Lammermoor 1835 Cavalleria rusticana 1890
Don Pasquale 1843
twentieth century
Vincenzo Bellini 1801–1835
Norma 1831 Giacomo Puccini 1858–1924
Manon Lescaut 1893
Richard Wagner 1813–1883 La bohème 1896
The Flying Dutchman 1843 Tosca 1900
Tannhäuser 1845 Madama Butterfly 1904
Lohengrin 1850 Turandot 1926
Tristan und Isolde 1865
Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg 1868 Claude Debussy 1862–1918
The Ring Cycle 1876 Pelléas et Mélisande 1902
—Das Rheingold, Die Walküre, Siegfried and Götterdämmerung
Richard Strauss 1864–1949
Parsifal 1882
Salome 1905
Giuseppe Verdi 1813–1901 Elektra 1909
Rigoletto 1851 Der Rosenkavalier 1911
Il trovatore 1853 Ariadne auf Naxos 1912
La traviata 1853
Alban Berg 1885–1935
La forza del destino 1862
Wozzeck 1925
Don Carlos 1867
Lulu 1937
Aida 1871
Otello 1887 Benjamin Britten 1913–1976
Falstaff 1893 Peter Grimes 1945
Albert Herring 1947
Charles-François Gounod 1818–1893
Billy Budd 1951
Faust 1859
The Turn of the Screw 1954
Roméo et Juliette 1867

the standard repertory 81

 The Elements of Opera

Often called “all the arts in one” opera includes the Aristotelian elements of drama: theme, spectacle, plot, diction, movement and music. A production is truly
successful only when these components work together. Many individuals are engaged to accomplish this purpose.

in the beginning
A subject is selected by a compos-
t h e o p e r a c o m pa n y a d m i n i s t r at i o n
er . It may be mythical, biblical,
historical, literary or based on cur- An opera company’s artistic The company’s marketing
rent events. A librettist is director agrees to stage the department sells tickets and the
employed to adapt the story into work. In many cases, an opera has development department raises
poetic verse and the composer then already been written and staged funds through donations to cover
writes the music (or score). many times. the costs of the production. The
finance department controls
costs and balances the production’s
budget. The education depart-
ment prepares the audience for
what they are going to see on
casting stage.
The opera company’s artistic
director selects performers from sets and costumes
auditions. These performers are A design team is assembled con-
divided into principals, compri- sisting of a stage director , set rehearsal
marios (singers in secondary roles), designer and costume design-
choristers, and players for the The production goes into rehearsal. Principals, choristers
er . They agree on a visual concept
orchestra . Often in a produc- and the orchestra often rehearse separately until the director
for the opera and sets and cos-
tion, supernumeraries are begins staging. The conductor of the orchestra attends stag-
tumes are created.
employed (people who act but do ing rehearsals which are accompanied by a répétiteur , or
not sing). Sometimes the opera has rehearsal pianist. The orchestra joins the singers for the first
a ballet which requires dancers, time at the sitzprobe . During tech week, sets and lighting
or a banda which requires orches- are put into place at the theater. Several dress rehearsals
elements of opera

tra members to play on stage. (with the performers in costume and the orchestra in the pit)
occur before the first performance of the opera. Sometimes
these rehearsals are attended by a select audience.
82
 the premiere stagehands move scenery and props
The first presentation of the opera to the general public is known as the premiere. Long before the curtain and handle lighting. dressers help
goes up, preparations are being made. the cast into their often elaborate
costumes.
6:00 pm Continuity
stagehands (1) set the scenery for the first act of the production.
6:15 pm Makeup calls principals sing the major roles.
principals and comprimarios (2) begin to arrive at the theater to be put into costume by comprimarios sing minor named
dressers, then are wigged by the wigmaster (1a) and made up with theatrical makeup. roles. choristers make up the rest of
6:30 pm House opens the singing cast and are prepared by
Opera patrons are admitted to the auditorium (4) and seated by ushers (5). The house manager (6) the chorusmaster.
oversees the activities in the front of the house, including the ushers and concession sales. The box
office manager (7) takes care of any last minute ticket purchases. Patrons may remain in the
lobby (8) to attend an informational session of Opera Insights, led by the Opera’s music staff. The conductor leads the orchestra.
The stage director instructs the cast
6:45 pm Notes
where to move onstage. He or she
The stage director may give last minute instructions to the cast before the performance begins.
generally stays only for the premiere.
7:00 pm Warm-ups
principals and comprimarios (2) warm-up in their dressing rooms.
7:15 pm Chorus and orchestra warm-ups The orchestra rehearses several
The chorus (10), who have already put on their costumes, warms up with the chorusmaster. The times independently from the
orchestra warms up in the orchestra pit (11). singers. The first rehearsal during
which singers and orchestra perform
7:25 pm Places
together is called a sitzprobe. The
The production stage manager (12) calls places. Two other stage managers (13) are posted stage
concertmaster is the first violin and
left and stage right to cue the entrances of the singers and choristers.
is responsible for “bowing” the string
7:28 pm Orchestra tune parts so the performers all move their
The principal oboe gives a concert “a” to which the orchestra tunes. The surtitle prompter (15) bows together.
cues the preshow titles. The conductor shakes the concertmaster’s hand and mounts the podium.
7:30 pm Curtain
The house lights goes out, and the flyman (1a) raises the curtain (16). The show begins. The production stage manager
“calls” the show, announcing entrance
8:25 pm Intermission and lighting cues. Two other stage
elements of opera

The audience returns to the lobby (8) for refreshments while the stagehands (1) reset the stage managers assist in getting the cast
(14) for the next act. and chorus on and off the stage. The
10:15 pm Curtain calls surtitle prompter cues the English
The performance ends, and the stage director, designers, conductor and singers get to take translations projected above the stage
a bow for all their hard work. from the control booth.
83
 1

2
BACKSTAGE
BACKSTAGE STAGE (14)

OFFSTAGE
SCENERY

2
13 13

OFFSTAGE
SCENERY
3A

3
WIGS AND
1A
MAKEUP
12
CURTAIN (16) PROP TABLE

ORCHESTRA PIT (7)

CHORUS WARM-UP
AND DRESSING
ROOMS (10)

CONTROL BOOTH (15)

5
5

BOX OFFICE (7)

AUDITORIUM (4)
6 LOBBY (8)
Th e E l e m e n t s of O p e r a – Th e S i n g e r s

The most important part of the opera is the singers. They are categorized into six different voice types.

2
1
DON CARLOS
DON CARLOS
the soprano
High-voiced woman. Voted “Most
Likely to Die Before the Curtain
Goes Down.” Putty in the hands
of the tenor, baritone and
occasionally even the mezzo
(especially if she is in pants).
THE CAPULETS AND THE MONTAGUES

1 1 2
2 the mezzo-soprano
Middle- to lower-voiced woman.
Nobody’s pawn. May hook up
with the baritone , unless she’s
playing a young man, in which
LA CLEMENZA DI TITO
case she usually gets the soprano.

4
LA BOHÈME
PELLÉAS ET MÉLISANDE t h e c on t r a lt o t h e t e no r
1
Lowest-voiced woman. Usually High-voiced man. Whether
the mother, maid or duenna (an comic or tragic, most often the
older woman charged with misunderstood romantic role.
3 monitoring the virtue of the Often kill themselves; almost
impressionable soprano ). always get the girl.
Generally the contralto calls
herself a mezzo in order to get
more work. 4 LUCIA DI LAMMERMOOR

DON CARLOS
the bass and baritone
6
6 Middle- to lowest-voiced man.
Usually the bad guy, the father or
guardian, or the hero’s best friend.
If he hooks up with another singer,
it’s usually a mezzo .

THE MERRY WIDOW LUCIA DI LAMMERMOOR

t h e fat l a d y
1
1
There is no fat lady in helmet and
horns—that is a myth. It ain’t over till
the curtain goes down for the last time
and everyone around you is clapping.

CLOCKWISE, LEFT TO RIGHT: ÉLISABETH; EBOLI; GIULIETTA, ROMEO; MIMÌ, RODOLFO;

1 - SOPRANO; 2 - MEZZO; 3 - CONTRALTO;
EDGARDO, ENRICO; LUCIA; HANNA; PHILIPPE, GRAND INQUISITOR; GENEVIÈVE;
4 - TENOR; 5 - BARITONE; 6 - BASS
SERVILIA, ANNIO

elements of opera 85
G lossary of Opera Terms

acoustics The science of sound; qualities which determine hearing facilities in an auditorium, concert
hall, opera house, theater, etc.
act A section of the opera, play, etc. usually followed by an intermission.
area lights Provide general illumination.
aria (air, English and French; ariette, French). A formal song sung by a single vocalist. It may be in
two parts (binary form), or in three parts (see da capo) with the third part almost a repetition
of the first. A short aria is an arietta in Italian, ariette or petit air in French.
arioso Adjectival description of a passage less formal and complete than a fully written aria, but
sounding like one. Much recitative has arioso, or songlike, passages.
azione teatrale (It.: ‘theatrical action’, ‘theatrical plot’). A species of Serenata that, unlike many works in this
genre, contained a definite plot and envisioned some form of staging.
atonality Lack of a definite tonal focus, all sharps and flats being applied in the score when necessary.
With no key and therefore no sense of finality, such music sounds odd to the conservative ear,
but with practice the listener can find pleasure in it.
artistic director The person responsible for the artistic concept of the opera – the overall look and “feel” of the
production.
backdrop A large, painted surface at the rear of the stage, associated with old-fashioned stage settings,
two-dimensional, but often striving with painted shadows and perspective to suggest a third
dimension.
backstage The area of the stage not visible to the audience, usually where the dressing rooms are located.
ballad opera A play with many songs; the number has ranged from fifteen to seventy-five. In the early
eighteenth century its music was drawn from popular folk song or quite sophisticated songs
appropriated from successful operas.
banda A group of musicians who perform onstage or slightly offstage.
baritone The male singing voice which is higher than a bass but lower than a tenor.
baroque A style of art and music characteristic in particular of the Louis xiv period in France and the
Charles II period and after in England. Baroque pictorial art is associated with theatrical
energy and much decoration but nevertheless respects classical principles. The music theater
of the Baroque, highly pictorial, developed the opera seria, with comic intermezzi between the
acts.
bass The lowest male singing voice.
bel canto Although meaning simply “beautiful song,” the term is usually applied to the school of
singing prevalent in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Baroque and Romantic) which
gave much attention to vocal purity, control, and dexterity in ornamentation.
bravo (a) (i) An acknowledgement of a good performance shouted during moments of applause (the ending
is determined by the gender and the number of performers).
bravura Implying brilliance and dexterity (bravura singing, a bravura aria, etc.). Intended for display
and the technical execution of difficult passages.

glossary of opera terms 86

cabaletta A fast, contrasting short aria sung at the close of or shortly following a slower aria (called a
cantabile, often for vocal effect only but sometimes dramatically motivated.
cadence A resting place or close of a passage of music, clearly establishing tonality.
cadenza An elaborate passage near the end of an aria, which shows off the singer’s vocal ability.
camerata A group of musicians, poets and scholars who met in Florence in 1600 and created opera.
cantilena Originally a little song, but now generally referring to smooth cantabile (It: ‘singable,’ or
‘singing’) passages.
cavatina Originally an aria without a repeated section. Later used casually in place of aria.
chorus A group of singers (called choristers) who portray townspeople, guests or other unnamed
characters; also refers to the music written for these people.
chorus master Person who prepares the chorus musically (which includes rehearsing and directing them).
claque A group attending performances in the larger opera houses and paid by leading singers to
encourage and direct applause (a member of which is a claqueur).
coloratura A voice that can sing music with many rapid notes, or the music written for such a voice.
commedia dell’arte Masked comedy or improvised Italian comedy of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth
centuries. A popular theatrical form with a sketched-out plot and stock characters, a pair of
lovers without masks surrounded by comedians—Arlecchino, Brighella, Pantalone, Dottore,
etc. Some of Mozart’s and Rossini’s operas retain the vestiges of these characters. Strauss,
Busoni, and other recent composers have deliberately used them.
comprimario A small singing role, often a servant or other minor character.
conductor The person who supervises all musical detail, rehearsals and leads the orchestra and advises the
artistic director about the hiring of singers and musical staff (also called the music director).
contralto The lowest female singing voice.
countertenor The highest natural male voice, not a castrato. True male altos may be heard in choirs. The
term falsettist is sometimes used but disputed.
cyclorama A curved curtain or wall enclosing the playing area of the stage and hiding the work areas
behind it.
da capo (It: ‘from the top, or back to the beginning’). A familiar direction in music. A da capo aria of the
Baroque period repeats the first part of the aria, with different embellishments, after the
singing of a contrasting second part.
designer The person who creates the lighting, costumes or sets.
diaphragm The muscle which separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. It is used by singers
for breath control and it allows them to “project” their voices to the back of the auditorium.
director The person who instructs the singer/actors in their movements on stage and in the
interpretation of their roles.
downstage The front of the stage nearest the audience.
drame lyrique (It: dramma lirico). Modern term for opera, not necessarily of a lyrical character. The English
term “lyrical drama” is used in the same way.

glossary of opera terms 87

dramma per musica A term that refers to text expressly written to be set by a composer and by extension also to
the composition. The term was the one most commonly used for serious Italian opera in the
eighteenth century (as opposed to the modern term opera seria, with which it is in effect
interchangeable).
duet Music written for two people to play or sing together.
embellishment Decoration or ornament. A grace-note addition to the vocal line (also instrumental) of any
kind, a four-note turn, or a trill.
ensemble Three or more people singing at the same time, or the music written for such a group.
falsetto The falsetto voice is of high pitch and produced by the vibrations of only one part of the vocal
folds. The normal male voice sounds strained and effeminate in falsetto, but a natural alto or
high tenor can produce effective vocal sound by this method. It is a singing mannerism to
produce high tenor notes in falsetto.
festa teatrale (It.: ‘theatrical celebration’). A title applied to a dramatic work. Feste teatrali fall into two quite
distinct classes: opera and serenatas.
finale The last musical number of an opera, or of an act of an opera.
fioritura (It: ‘flowering’, ‘flourish’; plural fioriture). When a composition for the voice contains decorative
writing such as scales, arpeggios, trills and gruppetti (the groups of notes sometimes known
in English as ‘turns’), it is described as ‘florid’ and the decorations themselves will be described
collectively as ‘fioritura’. It is a more accurate term than ‘coloratura’, which is frequently used
as an alternative.
flats Stretched canvas and wood panels on which scenery is painted.
flies The space above a stage where scenery is “flown” when not in use. A counterweight system
simplifies raising and lowering flats, larger set pieces, and back drops.
full dress rehearsal The final rehearsal before opening night with all singers present in full costume.
grand opera Traditionally, a serious epic or historical work in four or five acts which makes extensive use
of the chorus and also includes a ballet. Also contains magnificent special effects.
grid Gridiron. Framework from which lines are hung and battens attached for the “flying” of
scenery. The grid is situated high in the flies just beneath the ceiling of the fly loft.
handlung für musik (Ger: ‘action in music’). Term used by Wagner to describe the libretto for Lohengrin and Tristan
und Isolde; it has occasionally been used since.
interlude A short piece of instrumental music played between scenes or acts to fill in delays brought
about by scenery changes.
intermezzo An instrumental interlude played between acts, or short two-act comic opera played between
the acts of an opera seria.
leitmotiv A recurring musical figure used to identify a person, event or idea.
legato A smooth, flowing line. In vocal music it demands steadiness of emission and a sensitivity to
phrasing.
libretto The words of an opera.

glossary of opera terms 88

masking A scenic frame or device to prevent the audience from seeing into the wings of the stage. Door
and window openings are usually masked, often with realistic backings.
masque An entertainment popular in the late sixteenth century and throughout the seventeenth. A
form of “total theater,” it combined music, scenic splendor, poetry, and some drama. Milton’s
Comus, with music by Henry Lawes, is the most celebrated.
melodrama A basically serious play, frequently using comedy for relief, it only outwardly resembles
tragedy. The conflicts and calamities are more interesting in themselves than are the
characters, who tend to be stereotyped, good and bad. Passion, excitement, and action, often
unmotivated, are emphasized. Intended for undiscriminating audiences, it uses much music
to stimulate the emotions and much scenic effect to please the eye.
mélodrame In addition to being the French word for melodrama, this term refers to a technique, which
became popular during the eighteenth century, of playing orchestral music under or between
the phrases of spoken dialogue.
melodramma Dramma per musica (drama for music) and Melodramma (sung drama) antedate by many years
the term opera, now in general use for works of this kind.
mezza voce Half-voice, with reference to a passage required to be sung softly throughout. A similar term,
messa di voce, has the different meaning of beginning a tone softly, swelling it gradually, and
then softening it again.
mezzo-soprano The middle female singing voice, lower than soprano but higher than contralto.
motive A short musical idea on which a melody is based.
musical play A convenient but inexact designation which has become popular in English-speaking
countries to distinguish the more ambitious works in the popular field of lyric theater from
(a) European operetta or imitations thereof, (b) musical comedy of the vaudevillian sort, and
(c) opera, especially in New York where the form is supposed to belong to the Metropolitan
and the New York City Opera Company and is somewhat provincially considered “poison at
the box office.” David Ewen regards Show Boat, 1927, as the first work of the new genre, the
musical play. By the 1930s, this term had become a catchall.
opera A term now used to cover musical-dramatic pieces of all kinds except musical comedy and
operetta, although comic opera comes very close to these forms. The seventeenth-century
Italian term for opera was Dramma per musica or Melodramma.
opera buffa A precise Italian definition, meaning Italian comic opera of the eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries. Musical numbers are strung along a continuum of dry recitative.
opéra comique French light opera of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Strictly speaking, any theater
piece written with spoken dialogue between the musical numbers (Faust, Carmen, and Manon)
whether a comedy or not. The Paris Opéra Comique is also called the Salle Favart and was
originally the home of all works using spoken dialogue, while the Opéra confined itself to
through-composed works.
opera seria Literally “serious opera.” An opera form of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries
which uses historical, biblical or mythological subjects with a focus on revenge, danger and
death.

glossary of opera terms 89

operetta A loosely used term, often used interchangeably with comic opera, opéra bouffe, and musical
comedy. In Italian it originally meant “little opera,” a short, light musical work. It has come
to mean a full-length piece on a light subject, with musical numbers and spoken dialogue, and
characterized by ingratiating tunes, decorative dances, colorful settings, social irresponsibility,
a slender dramatic line, and the requirement of at least two well-trained voices.
oratorio A musical-dramatic work originating in the twelfth century, now generally performed, in
contradistinction to opera, without action, costumes, and scenery. They are invariably
associated with sacred subjects.
orchestra pit The sunken area in front of the stage where the orchestra sits.
overture An orchestral introduction to the opera, usually played before the acting begins.
parlando (It: ‘in speaking style’). An informal and realistic technique occasionally used in Italian opera,
bringing singing close to speaking.
portamento An Italian singing term, asking the voice to glide from one note to another at some distance.
An authentic and effective device, to be distinguished from the mannerism of scooping.
principal A major singing role, or the singer who performs such a role.
proscenium The stage opening, resembling a three-sided picture frame. Immediately behind it and
concealing the acting areas is the curtain. The proscenium arch was originally created in the
1700s to conceal the machinery used to create special stage effects.
quartet Four singers, or the music written for that group.
recitative Musical singing in the rhythm of speech.
recitativo A sung passage with orchestral accompaniment, lacking the formality of an aria, yet more
accompagnato declamatory and agitated than recitativo secco.
recitativo secco Dry recitative. A sung passage so close to everyday speech that although the pitches and time
values are respected, a conversational quality prevails. A keyboard instrument generally
supplies the sketchy accompaniment. Commonly used in Italian opera seria and opera buffa.
repertory A system of stage production in which a number of works are played, virtually in rotation, by
a resident company throughout a season.
répétition French term for “rehearsal.” A répétition générale is a dress rehearsal to which critics and
guests are invited.
revolve Revolving stage. Turntable. A section of the stage floor (permanently established) or a circular
construction on a central pivot which revolves, to change scenery or supply movement of
objects as well as people.
ritornello A short instrumental piece, literally meaning repetition or refrain. In Monteverdi’s works it
usually consists of a few bars played between the verses of a strophic song.
rococo In art, associated with the late Baroque period and the late eighteenth century. In contrast to
the dignity, heaviness, and occasional pomposity of Baroque, Rococo art is playful, lighter in
tone and color, and adorned with scrolls, acorns, and shells.
role The character that a singer portrays.

glossary of opera terms 90

romanticism The movement strongly associated with nineteenth-century Germany, but felt through all
Europe and responsible for far-reaching changes in all forms of art. Rebels against the
establishment (which was founded on a deep respect for the classics), the romanticists opposed
authority and advocated freedom from formal regulations. They encouraged a subjective,
strongly emotional approach as an antidote to classical decorum.
score The music of an opera or other musical work in which the parts for different performers appear
vertically above one another.
scrim A thin curtain, often painted. When lit from behind, one can see through it.
serenata A dramatic cantata, normally celebratory or eulogistic in intent, for two or more singers with
orchestral accompaniment. In dramaturgical respects the serenata most closely resembles the
Baroque oratorio.
sinfonia A symphonic work the precedes an opera (English: overture); a shorter version is referred to as
a prelude.
singspiel A German form of comic opera with spoken dialogue.
sitzprobe A sit-down rehearsal where the performers sing with the orchestra for the first time.
soprano The highest female singing voice.
sprechstimme A form of declamation halfway between speech and song. Instead of exactly notated pitch an
approximation is given. The time, however, is given exactly and the singer is not allowed
absolute license. Notations up and down are also meant to be respected. This style of singing
is found in the works of Schoenberg and Berg.
stage left The left side of the stage from the performer’s perspective as s/he faces the audience.
stage right The right side of the stage from the performer’s perspective as s/he faces the audience.
stretta An accelerated passage at the end of an aria, scene, or act.
tenor The highest male singing voice.
tessitura Literally “texture.” The approximate range of a role or an aria.
through-composed Through-composed opera is a continuous music drama uninterrupted by spoken dialogue or
obviously recognizable recitative.
tragédie lyrique A French term associated mainly with Lully and Rameau. Tragédie lyrique comes somewhat
closer to the spoken play in dramatic expressiveness than does the Italian opera seria of the
same period, which may exceed it in vocal expressiveness.
trill A musical ornament requiring the rapid alternation of two adjacent notes.
trouser role Also called “pants role.” The part of a male character sung by a woman, usually a mezzo-
soprano.
understudy A replacement for a particular role in case of illness or emergency (also called a “cover”).
verismo A type of late nineteenth and early twentieth-century Italian opera that emphasized realistic
subjects.
wandelprobe Musical rehearsal which allows the conductor to hear what the singers sound like when they
perform on the set.
wings The sides of the stage where the performers wait before making their entrances.
Sources: Opera: Dead or Alive, by Ronald E. Mitchell. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970.
New Grove Dictionary of Opera, edited by Stanley Sadie. London: MacMillan Press Limited, 1992.
New York City Opera Education Department, Edmonton Opera

glossary of opera terms 91

G lossary of Musical Terms

adagio Slowly and smoothly. bar A vertical line across the

stave that divides the music
ad libitum As you please; freely. into units.
affectuoso Expressively; tenderly; buffo, buffa Comic.
lovingly.
cadenza A flourish or brilliant part of
agitato Agitated. an aria commonly inserted
just before a finale.
alberti bass Stereotyped figures of
accompaniment, consisting cantabile Songlike; singingly.
of broken chords.
cantata A choral piece generally
allargando Slowing and broadening. containing scriptural
narrative texts.
allegretto Fairly lively; not as fast
as allegro. con brio With spirit.
allegro Lively; fast. continuo A bass part (as for a
keyboard or stringed
a mezzo voce With half the voice. instrument) that was used
especially in baroque
andante Going; moving; at a
ensemble music; it consists
moderate rate.
of a succession of bass notes
andantino Sightly faster than with figures that indicate
andante. the required chords. Also
called figured bass,
animato With spirit; animated. thoroughbass.

appoggiatura An extra or embellishing counterpoint Music consisting of

note preceding a main two or more lines that
melodic note or tone. sound simultaneously.
Usually written as a note of
smaller size, it shares the crescendo Gradually getting
time value of the main note. louder.

arpeggio Producing the tones of a diatonic Relating to a major or minor

chord in succession but not musical scale that comprises
simultaneously. intervals of five whole steps
and two half steps.
assai Very; very much.
diminuendo Gradually getting
a tempo At the preceding rate softer.
of speed.
diminution The presentation of a melody
atonal Music that is not anchored in in halved values so that,
traditional musical tonality; it e.g. the quarter notes become
uses the chromatic scale eighth notes.
impartially, does not use the
diatonic scale and has no dissonance A mingling of discordant
keynote or tonal center. sounds that do not
harmonize within the
diatonic scale.
augmentation The presentation of a
melody in doubled values so dolorosamente Sadly; grievingly.
that, e.g. the quarter notes
become half notes.

glossary of musical terms 92

dominant The fifth tone of the diatonic mosso Moved; agitated; lively.
scale: in the key of C, the
dominant is G. moto Motion; movement.

fermata Pause sign; prolonged obbligato An elaborate

time value of note so accompaniment to a solo or
marked. principal melody that is
usually played by a single
forte Loud. instrument.

fortissimo Very loud. octave A musical interval

embracing eight diatonic
furioso Furious; violent. degrees: therefore, from C1
to C2 is an octave.
giocoso Playfully.
giusto Strict; exact. ornamentation Extra embellishing notes –
appoggiaturas, trills,
glissando A rapid sliding up or down roulades, or cadenzas – that
the scale. enhance a melodic line.

grandioso With grandeur; overture An orchestral introduction

majestically. to an act or the whole opera.
An overture can appear only
grave Slow; heavy; solemn. at the beginning of an
opera.
grazioso Elegantly; gracefully.
lamentoso Mournfully. ossia Or; or else; an alternate
reading.
larghetto Somewhat less slowly
than largo. pentatonic A five-note scale, like the
black notes within an octave
largo Broadly and slowly. on the piano.

p
piacere To please.

pp
legato Smoothly and
connectedly.
piano Soft.
leggiero Light; airy; graceful.
pianissimo Very soft.
lento Slow.
pitch The property of a musical
maestoso Majestic; stately; grand. tone that is determined by
the frequency of the waves
maestro From the Italian “master”: producing it.
a term of respect to
conductors, composers, più More.
directors, and great
musicians. pizzicato For bowed stringed
instruments, an indication
marcato Marked. that the string is to be
plucked with a finger.
mezzo Half; middle; medium.
poco Little.
misterioso With mystery.
polyphony Literally “many voices.” A
moderato Moderately; at a style of musical composition
moderate rate. in which two or more
molto Much; very. independent melodies are
juxtaposed in harmony;
morendo Dying away. counterpoint.

glossary of musical terms 93

polytonal The use of several tonal sostenuto Sustained.
schemes simultaneously.
sotto Under; beneath.
portamento A continuous gliding staccato Detached; separated.
movement from one tone to
another. stringendo Hurried; accelerated.
presto Very fast; lively; quick. strophe Music repeated for each
quaver An eighth note. verse of an aria.

rallentando Gradually slower. syncopation Shifting the beat forward or

back from its usual place in
ritardando Gradually slower. the bar; it is a temporary
ritenuto Held back; slower. displacement of the regular
metrical accent in music
ritornello A short recurrent caused typically by stressing
instrumental passage the weak beat.
between elements of a vocal tacet Silent.
composition.
tempo Rate of speed.
romanza A solo song that is usually
sentimental; it is usually tonality The organization of all the
shorter and less complex tones and harmonies of a
than an aria and rarely deals piece of music in relation to
with terror, rage and anger. a tonic (the first tone of its
scale).
roulade A florid vocal
embellishment sung to one triste Sad.
syllable.
twelve-tone The 12 chromatic tones of
rubato A way of playing or the octave placed in a
singing with regulated chosen fixed order and
rhythmic freedom. constituting with some
permitted permutations and
semitone One half of a whole tone, derivations the melodic and
the smallest distance harmonic material of a serial
between two notes in musical piece. Each note of
Western music. In the key the chromatic scale is used
of C, the notes are E and F, as part of the melody before
and B and C. any other note gets
repeated.
semplice Simply.
veloce Rapid.
sempre Always.
vibrato A “vibration”; a slightly
senza Without.
tremulous effect imparted to
serial music Music based on a series of vocal or instrumental tone
tones in a chosen pattern for added warmth and
without regard for expressiveness by slight and
traditional tonality. rapid variations in pitch.

sforzando With accent. vivace Brisk; lively.

sordino Muted.

glossary of musical terms 94

B i b l i o g r a p h y, D i s c o g r a p h y, Vi d e o g r a p h y

bibliography – rossini and the barber of seville

Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais The Barber of Seville, The Marriage of Figaro, The Guilty Mother:
Graham Anderson, translator Three Plays by Beaumarchais. London: Oberon Books, © 1993.
Rodolfo Celletti A History of Bel Canto.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.
James Harding The Great Composers: Rossini.
New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Col., 1971.
Nicholas John English National Opera Guide No. 36: The Barber of Seville.
editor London: John Calder Ltd., 1985.
Gladys Malvern Blithe Genius: The Story of Rossini.
New York: Longmans, Green and Co., Inc., 1959.
Charles Osborne The Bel Canto Composers.
Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1994.
Richard Osborne Rossini.
Boston: Northeastern University Press, © 1986.
Emanuele Senici The Cambridge Companion to Rossini.
editor Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, © 2004.
Herbert Weinstock Rossini. A Biography.
New York: Limelight Editions, 1987.

bibliography – opera in general

Dennis Arundell The Critics at the Opera.
New York: Da Capo Press, 1980.
Cyrus H. Biscardi The Storybook of Opera.
New York: Facts on File Publications, 1986.
James Camner How to Enjoy Opera.
New York: Doubleday, 1981.
Terence Dwyer Opera in Your School.
London: Oxford University Press, 1964.
Roger Englander Opera: What’s All the Screaming About?
New York: Walker & Co., 1983.
David Ewen Opera.
New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1992.
David Ewen Opera: Its Story Told Through the Lives and Works of its Foremost Composers.
New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1972.
Jean Grundy Fanelli Opera for Everyone: A historic, social, artistic, literary and musical study.
Oxford: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2004.

bibliography 95
Rudolph Fellner Opera Themes and Plots.
New York: Simon and Schuster, 1958.
Philip Gossett Divas and Scholars: Performing Italian Opera.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.
Philip Gossett The New Grove Master of Italian Opera: Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini, Verdi,
Puccini.
New York: W.W. Norton Press, 1983.
George Jellinger History through the Opera Glass.
White Plains (New York): Pro/Am Music Resources, Inc., © 1994.
Donald Jay Grout A Short History of Opera. Third edition.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1988.
Michael Hurd Young Person’s Guide to Opera.
New York: Roy Publishers. Inc., 1968.
Alan Kendall The Chronicle of Classical Music.
London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd., 1994.
Peter Kline Enjoying the Arts/Opera.
New York: Richards Rosen Press, Inc., 1977.
Ronald E. Mitchell Opera: Dead or Alive.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970.
Ethan Mordden Opera Anecdotes.
New York: Oxford University Press, © 1985.
Michael Raeburn The Chronicle of Opera.
London: Thames & Hudson, Ltd., 1998.
Jane Rosenberg Sing Me a Story: The Metropolitan Opera’s Book of Opera Stories for Children
(with introduction by Luciano Pavarotti).
New York: Thames & Hudson, Inc., 1989.
Dorothy and The Fabulous World of Opera.
Joseph Samachson New York: Rand McNally and Co., 1962.
Harold C. Schonberg The Lives of the Great Composers.
New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1981 (revised edition).
Michael Walsh Who’s Afraid of Opera?
New York: Simon & Schuster, © 1994.
John Warrack and The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera.
Ewan West Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
William Weaver Golden Century of Italian Opera.
New York: Thames and Hudson Inc., 1980.
Herbert Weinstock and The World of Opera.
Wallace Brockway New York: Random House, Inc., 1966.

bibliography 96
discography
na x o s Servile, Ganassi, Vargas, Romero, De Grandis, Kertesi; Humburg
66 0 0 2 7 Hungarian Radio Chorus and Failoni Chamber Orchestra
rc a v i c t o r l i ving stereo Merrill, Peters, Valletti, Tozzi, Corena, Marsh; Leinsdorf
68 5 5 2 Metropolitan Opera Chorus and Orchestra
so n y c l a s s i c a l Horne, Nucci, Barbacini, Ramey, Dara, Pierotti; Chailly
s3 k 3 7 8 6 2 Coro e Orchestra del Teatro alla Scala
te l d e c Larmore, Hagegard, Ramey, Gimenez, Corbelli, Malmberg; Lopez-Cobos
74 8 8 5 Lausanne Chamber Orchestra and Geneva Grand Theatre Chorus

videography
virgin classic s DiDonato, Flórez, Spagnoli, Furlanetto, Corbelli
arthaus music Bartoli, Feller, Kuebler, Quilco, Lloyd
deutsche grammophon Battle, Blake, Nucci, Dara, Furlanetto

bibliography 97
W
o Q C T E U D I R E C T O R R A N
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P U N L I T O R O N E T S S A B
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N M A I A N M N B A R I T O N E
e A E R R A J D U O C A V A L R Y
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r P Z E R T U E I S H N R E V P I
c L Z P A C E N U C I T O X A G M
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E O O T U I T R N S C S R U O N
S P O C R G A P E E I I Z A E A
O R I A S M U H E U S M A P C R
T E S E U A C S O L A S M N D B
R E R A R R I L T N I Y E P S L
C N E N O R E F A I L S H O H O
T B T T H W E R T O N R S L E C
R E T T C A I D E M M O C I E T
I I E I S A B E L L A E C C E D
O F L E L L I E V E L N T E E R

1. ________ _________ was Rossini’s first wife. 2 12. ________ ________ was Rossini’s second wife. 2
2. ______ ______ _____ de __________ wrote the 13. Beaumarchais’s play Le barbier de Séville was first
play upon which the opera was based. 1, 4 intended as a(n) _______. 4
3. The opening night of The Barber of Seville was consid- 14. In Act II the Count, posing as Don Alonso, shows to
ered by Rossini to be a ______, an Italian word that Bartolo Rosina’s ________ in order to gain his con-
describes a failure. 6 fidence. 1
4. Rossini wrote The Barber of Seville while he was on 15. A vocal number for one voice is called a(n) ____, for
leave from this city where he was under contract to two voices a(n) _____, for three voices a(n) ______
produce at least two operas a year. 2, 3, 6 and for four voices a(n) _____. 5
5. The Barber of Seville uses a male ______ to portray the 16. At the end of Act I, the Count poses as an officer
______ and _______ in Act I. 1, 5 who’s a doctor in the ________. 1
6. The five voice types commonly used in opera are 17. The ________ leads the ________ and the singers
______, ______, ______, ______, and _______. 5 on stage. 5
7. Duke Sforza-________ was the impresario who first 18. The ___________ instructs the performers how to
brought The Barber of Seville to the stage. 3 act on stage. 5
8. In the opera, Bartolo’s servants are named Berta and
Ambrogio but in Beaumarchais’s play they are called Answers can be found in the following articles:
1Synopsis and musical excerpts
_______ and _______. 3
2 Rossini biography
9. Beaumarchais made watches for this king of France. 4 3 About the writing of The Barber of Seville
10. Beaumarchais’s characters are based on the Italian 4 Beaumarchais and Figaro
theatrical tradition of ________ dell’arte. 4 5 Glossary of opera terms

11. Rossini spent most of his later years in this city. 2 6 Opera in Rossini’s day

word search 98
C rossword P uzzle 1 2

3 4
down
5 6
1. Rossini’s first name. 2
2. At the end of Act II, Figaro tricks the _______ 7

into marrying the Count and Rosina. 1

4. In Act I, the Count poses as a drunken _______ so
that he can get inside Bartolo’s house. 1
5. Last name of the impresario who hired Rossini in 8 9 10

Naples (with 13 across). 2, 4 11 12

6. Doctor _______ wants to marry Rosina so he can
13
keep her dowry under his control. 1
9. Last name of the composer who retired in 1829 at
age 37. 2 14
11. First name of the librettist who wrote the text for
15
The Barber of Seville (with 3 across). 3
12. ________ agrees to help his former master woo
Rosina for a price. 1
16 17 18 19 20
15. In Act II, Berta sings a(n) _____ di sorbetta, named
so because ice cream was frequently sold to the
audience. 1, 4 21 22

16. The music teacher, ___ ______, suggests Bartolo 23

defame the Count’s good name with slander. 1
18. In Act II Bartolo convinces _______ that her lover
has been deceiving her. 1
20. Figaro and the Count can only rescue Rosina after 24
a _______ has subsided. 1
21. The Barber of Seville is classified as a(n) _____ ____
because of its comic nature. 1 25

22. In Act I, the Count pretends to have a ______

26 27 28
order, allowing him to stay in Bartolo’s house. 1
27. While Figaro prepares to _______ Bartolo, he
steals the key to Rosina’s window. 1
28. Rosina sings a _____ for Bartolo during her music 29 30
lesson. 1
across 31

3. Last name of the librettist for The Barber of Seville

(with 11 down). 1 24. The opera premiered at the Teatro ________. 2
7. Count _________ poses as the poor student, 25. During the confusion at the end of Act I, Rosina substitutes
Lindoro. 1 the Count’s letter for a ______ ____. 1
8. ________ is Bartolo’s male servant. 1 26. The Count relies on a number of _______ in order to fool
10. The Barber of Seville premiered in this city. 3 Bartolo. 1
13. First name of the impresario who hired Rossini in 29. In Act II, Figaro breaks quite of bit of Bartolo’s fine ______. 1
Naples. 2, 4 30. The Count and Figaro must climb through a ________ in
14. The setting of the opera is in this city. 1 order to rescue Rosina. 1
17. ______ is Bartolo’s female servant. 1 31. In order to keep the police _______ at bay, the Count secretly
19. The Barber of Seville is divided into two ______. 1 reveals his true identity at the end of Act I. 1
23. At the beginning of Act I ________ helps the Answers can be found in the following articles:
Count organize musicians for his serenade. 1 1
Synopsis and musical excerpts
2 Rossini biography
3 About the writing of The Barber of Seville
4 Opera in Rossini’s day

crossword puzzle 99
ANSWERS

G N
S T E R B I N I O S
Q C T E U D I R E C T O R R A N

B O T B O
P U N L I T O R O N E T S S A B

A A L M A V I V A A L
N M A I A N M N B A R I T O N E
R C R R D A E R R A J D U O C A V A L R Y
B H Y T I P Z E R T U E I S H N R E V P I
A M B R O G I O R O M E L Z P A C E N U C I T O X A G M
J O N C F L R
A S D O M E N I C O
E O O T U I T R N S C S R U O N

S S G
S P O C R G A P E E I I Z A E A

S E V I L L E A A
O R I A S M U H E U S M A P C R
N R R A T E S E U A C S O L A S M N D B
I E O R R E R A R R I L T N I Y E P S L
I C N E N O R E F A I L S H O H O
D B E R T A A C T S
O O O B T
T B T T H W E R T O N R S L E C

N P S F I O R E L L O
R E T T C A I D E M M O C I E T
B E I L R
I I E I S A B E L L A E C C E D
A R N L M O F L E L L I E V E L N T E E R
S A A R G E N T I N A
I B T
L A U N D R Y L I S T
I F N
O F D I S G U I S E S
A H O
C H I N A W I N D O W
V G
S E R G E A N T

w o r d s e a r c h a n sw e r s
1. Isabella Colbran 10. commedia
2. Pierre Augustin 11. Paris
Caron de 12. Olympe Pélissier
Beaumarchais 13. opera
3. fiasco 14. letter
4. Naples 15. aria, duet, trio,
5. chorus, police, quartet
musicians 16. cavalry
6. soprano, mezzo, 17. conductor,
tenor, baritone, bass orchestra
7. Cesarini 18. director
8. L’Éveillé, La Jeunesse
9. Louis xv

answers 100
O pera Box Teacher’s Guide Evaluat i o n
The Barber of Seville

1 I teach this subject and grade level(s):

2 I found the Opera Box useful:
YES NO
3 These are the items I used: (check all that apply)

_____ FULL SCORE The Barber of Seville (Dover)

_____ VOCAL SCORE The Barber of Seville (G. Schirmer)

_____ LIBRETTO The Barber of Seville (G. Schirmer)

_____ CD The Barber of Seville [CHANDOS; Ford, Jones, Bellini (conductor)]

_____ CD The Barber of Seville [DEUTSCHE GRAMMOPHON; Alva, Berganza, Abbado (conductor)]
_____ dvd The Barber of Seville [ART HOUSE; Kuebler, Bartoli, Ferro (conductor)]

_____ dvd The Barber of Seville [DECCA; Flórez, Bayo, Gelmetti (conductor)]

_____ BOOK The Cambridge Guide to Rossini edited by Emanuele Senici

_____ BOOK The Barber of Seville Opera Journey’s Mini Guide Series by Burton Fisher

_____ BOOK Opera Composers: Works, Performers by András Batta

_____ Teacher’s Guide

4 I wish I had the Opera Box for a longer period of time:

YES NO
4a If you said YES, how much more time would you like to have?
5 Rental cost for the Opera Box was:
LOW ACCEPTABLE HIGH
6 I used the material in this Opera Box to: (circle all that apply)
Introduce my students to opera Continue my students’ study of opera
Prepare students prior to a performance Meet a Minnesota High Standard
7 Would you like to receive some training related to the content in the Opera Box?
YES NO
8 Items I would like to see in future Opera Boxes:
9 I would attend a summer workshop about how to teach opera (with graduate credit available):
YES NO
10 I used, or directed my students to, [Link] website.
YES NO
11 Please offer any further comments or suggestions on the back of this form.

evaluation 101
A cknowledg ments

We would like to gratefully acknowledge the generous help received in creating this Teacher Guide from these very
busy and talented individuals. Without their comments and ideas, this project would never have gotten off the ground.
Marcia Aubineau (University of St. Thomas, St. Paul)
Sandy Kaslow (Forest Lake Public Schools)
Jane Kolp-Andrews (Valley View Middle School, Edina)
Dr. Doug Orzolek (University of St. Thomas, St. Paul)
David Sander (Dramaturg, Minnesota Opera)
Dan Weinstein (Intern, Minnesota Opera)
The Minnesota Opera’s Education Department is supported through the generous contributions from the following
sponsors:

Gifts of $20,000+
3M
Ameriprise Financial
Comcast
Medtronic Foundation
Travelers
UnitedHealth Group

Gifts of $10,000–$19,999

Anna M. Heilmaier Charitable Foundation

Education Minnesota Foundation
Fred C. and Katherine B. Andersen Foundation
Twin Cities Opera Guild

Gifts of $1,000–$9,999
Allianz Life Insurance of North America
Bobby and Steve’s Auto World Youth Foundation
The Lillian Wright & C. Emil Berglund Foundation
Cleveland Foundation
Enterprise Rent-a-Car
Harian Boss Foundation for the Arts
The Pentair Foundation
RBC Foundation – USA
Sewell Family Foundation
Target
Xcel Energy Foundation

acknowlegements 102