Inquiry and Research

 Two terms that are almost the same in meaning

 Both of them involved investigative work and any process that has the aim of
augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem
Inquiry Research
 investigate>solution>problem
 starts with a problem

Inquiry
 is a learning process that motivates you to obtain knowledge or information about
people, things, places, or events.
Research
 a way of life
 the basis for many of the important decisions in our lives

a)Informal Experiential Research

 helps us decipher the flood of information we encounter daily
b)Formal Academic Research
 more investigative in nature
 it may require us to learn about an area in which we have little knowledge or
inclination to learn
 it may be library-oriented or field-oriented, depending on the nature of the research

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

 Your goal in conducting a quantitative research study is to determine the relationship
between one thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome
variable) within a population.
 Observes objectivity(objective)

descriptive experimental

 subjects usually measured once  subjects measured before and

after treatment
 IV is changed/altered to arrive
with the desired outcome
Quantitative research
 deals with numbers, logic, and an objective stance.
 focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather
than divergent reasoning (i.e., the generation of a variety of ideas about a research
problem in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner).
It’s Main Characteristics Are:
1. The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
 Ex: likert scale
2. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
 sample size  representative of “population”
example: population1000
sample size200

3. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
 requires proper citation
 tests reliability
4. Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are
sought.
 R topic- SOP(Standard Operating Procedures)-Questionnaire
5. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
6. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures,
or
other non-textual forms.
7. Projects can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or
investigate causal relationships.
8. Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical
data.

Strength and Weaknesses

Quantitative Method
a) Quantitative data
 are pieces of information that can be counted, and which are usually gathered by
surveys from large numbers of respondents randomly selected for inclusion.
 Secondary data such as census data, government statistics, health system metrics,
etc. are often included in quantitative research.
 is analyzed using statistical methods.
 b) Quantitative approaches
 are best used to answer what, when and who questions and are not well suited to
how and why questions.
Strengths Weaknesses
Findings can be generalized if the Related secondary data is sometimes
selection process is well-designed, not available or accessing available
and the sample is representative of data is difficult/impossible
the study population
Relatively easy to analyze Difficult to understand the context of
a phenomenon
Data can be very consistent, precise, Data may not be robust enough to
and reliable explain complex issues

Importance of Quantitative Research

1. More reliable and objective
2. Can use statistics to generalize a finding
3. Often reduces and restructures a complex problem to a limited number of variables
4. Looks at relationships between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly
controlled circumstances
5. Tests theories or hypotheses
6. Assumes sample is representative of the population
7. Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognized less
8. Less detailed than qualitative data and may miss a desired response from the participant

Lesson 2
The Nature of Variables
-All experiments examine some kind of variable(s).
Variable
 is not only something that we measure but also something that we can manipulate
and something we can control for.
 To understand the characteristics of variables and how we use them in research, this
guide is divided into three main sections.
1) illustrate the role of dependent and independent variables
2) discuss the difference between experimental and non-experimental research
3) explain how variables can be characterized as either categorical or continuous
Variable
 is a label of name that represents a concept or characteristic that varies
 (e.g., gender, weight, achievement, attitudes toward inclusion, etc.)
  Conceptual and operational definitions of variables.

 Conceptual and operational definitions of variables

a) Conceptual (i.e., constitutive) definition

 the use of words or concepts to define a variable
 Achievement: what one has learned from formal instruction
 Aptitude: one‘s capability for performing a particular task or skill

b) Operational definition
 an indication of the meaning of a variable through the specification of the manner
by which it is measured, categorized, or controlled
 A test score
 Income levels above and below $45,000 per year
 The use of holistic or phonetic language instruction
Types of Variable
Independent Variables
 sometimes called an experimental or predictor variable.
 is a variable that is being manipulated in an experiment in order to observe the effect
on a dependent variable.
Dependent Variables
 sometimes called an outcome variable.
 a variable that is dependent on an independent variable(s).

3 types of variables defined by the context within which the variable is discussed:
 Independent and dependent variables
 Extraneous and confounding variables
 Continuous and categorical variables
Independent and dependent (i.e., cause and effect)
– Independent variables act as the ―cause‖ in that they precede, influence, and predict
the dependent variable
– Dependent variables act as the effect in that they change as a result of being influenced
by an independent variable
– Examples
The effect of two instructional approaches (independent variable) on student
achievement (dependent variable)
The use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict freshman grade point
averages (dependent variable)
1) Extraneous and confounding variables
– Extraneous variables are those that affect the dependent variable but are not
controlled adequately by the researcher
Not controlling for the key-boarding skills of students in a study of computer-assisted
instruction
– Confounding variables are those that vary systematically with the independent
variable and exert influence of the dependent variable
Not using counselors with similar levels of experience in a study comparing
the effectiveness of two counseling approaches
2) Continuous and categorical variables
– Continuous variables are measured on a scale that theoretically can take on an infinite
number of values
Test scores range from a low of 0 to a high of 100
Attitude scales that range from very negative at 0 to very positive at 5
Students‘ages
– Categorical variables are measured and assigned to groups on the basis of specific
characteristics
Examples
▪ Gender: male and female
▪ Socio-economic status: low middle, and high
The term level is used to discuss the groups or categories
▪ Gender has two levels - male and female
▪ Socio-economic status has three levels - low, middle, and high.
– Continuous variables can be converted to categorical variables, but categorical
variables cannot be converted to continuous variables
IQ is a continuous variable, but the researcher can choose to group students
into three levels based on IQ scores - low is below a score of 84, middle is
between 85 and 115, and high is above 116
Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign letter grades on a ten-point scale
(i.e., at or below 59 is an F, 60 to 69 is a D, 70 to 79 is a C, 80-89 is a B, and 90 to 100 is
an A
Categorical variables are also known as discrete or qualitative variables; can be further
categorized as nominal, ordinal or dichotomous.
1. Nominal variables are variables that have two or more categories, but which do not have
an intrinsic order.
-For example, a real estate agent could classify their types of property into distinct
categories such as houses, condos, co-ops or bungalows. So "type of property" is a nominal
variable with 4 categories called houses, condos, co-ops and bungalows.
2. Dichotomous variables are nominal variables which have only two categories or levels.
-Example, if we were looking at gender, we would most probably categorize somebody as
either "male" or "female". This is an example of a dichotomous variable (and also a nominal
variable).
3. Ordinal variables are variables that have two or more categories just like nominal
variables only the categories can also be ordered or ranked.
-So, if you asked someone if they liked the policies of the Democratic Party and they could
answer either "Not very much", "They are OK" or "Yes, a lot" then you have an ordinal
variable. Why? Because you have 3 categories, namely "Not very much", "They are OK" and
"Yes, a lot.”
Continuous variables are also known as quantitative variables; can be further categorized
as either interval or ratio variables.
-Interval variables are variables for which their central characteristic is that they can be
measured along a continuum and they have a numerical value.
 for example, temperature measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit). So, the
difference between 20C and 30C is the same as 30C to 40C. However, temperature
measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit is NOT a ratio variable.
-Ratio variables are interval variables, but with the added condition that 0 (zero) of the
measurement indicates that there is none of that variable.
 So, temperature measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable
because 0C does not mean there is no temperature. However, temperature measured
in Kelvin is a ratio variable as 0 Kelvin (often called absolute zero) indicates that
there is no temperature whatsoever.
 Other examples of ratio variables include height, mass, distance and many more. The
name "ratio" reflects the fact that you can use the ratio of measurements. So, for
example, a distance of ten meters is twice the distance of 5 meters.
LESSON 3
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Guidelines in making a Research Problems:
1. One or more sentences indicating the goal, purpose, or overall direction of the study.
2. General characteristics – Implies the possibility of empirical investigation. – Identifies a
need for the research. – Provides focus. – Provides a concise overview of the research.
3. Two ways of stating the problem- typically a rather general overview of the problem with
just enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial
understanding of the research.
 Research statements and/or questions: more specific, focused statements and
questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the study.
4. A general research problem.
5. Specific statements and questions.
6. Researchable and non-researchable problems.
 Researchable problems imply the possibility of empirical investigation.
 Non-researchable problems include explanations of how to do something, vague
propositions, and value-based concerns.

Quantitative problems Qualitative problems

-Specific -General
-Closed -Open
-Static -Evolving
-Outcome oriented -Process oriented
-Use of specific variables

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

– Personal interests and experiences
– Deductions from theory
– Replication of studies

Quantitative Research Problems

Identifies three specific elements;
–The type of research design
– The variables of interest and the relationships between or among these variables
– The subjects involved in the study
Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic
1. Interest in the Subject Matter
2. Availability of information
3. Timeliness and relevance of the topic
4. Limitation on the subject
5. Personal resources
Research Topics to be avoided:
1. Controversial topics 5. Too narrow subjects
2. Highly technical subjects 6. Vague subjects
3. Hard-to-investigate subjects
4. Too broad subjects
WRITING A RESEARCH TITLE
-When writing a research paper title, authors should realize that despite being repeatedly
warned against it, most people do indeed fall prey to ―judging a book by its cover.
-Although seeking the professional assistance of a research paper writing service could help
the cause, the author of the paper stands as the best judge for setting the right tone of
his/her research paper.
-The title of your paper is the most important determinant of how many people will read it.
A good research paper title:

✓ Condenses the paper‘s content in a few words

✓ Captures the readers‘ attention

✓ Differentiates the paper from other papers of the same subject area
Three basic tips to keep in mind while writing a title:
 Keep it simple, brief and attractive- provide a precise summary of the paper‘s
content.
So, keep the title brief and clear. Use active verbs instead of complex. A good title for
a research paper is typically around 10 to 12 words long.

 Use appropriate descriptive words- should contain key words used in the manuscript
and should define the nature of the study.

 Avoid abbreviations and jargon- specific abbreviations and jargon that would not be
immediately familiar to the readers should be left out.

*Always write down the hypothesis and then take into consideration these simple tips. This
would help you in composing the best title for your research paper.
SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS
-It is important to narrow down your thesis topic and limit the scope of your study.
-The researcher should inform the reader about limits or coverage of the study.
The scope identifies the boundaries of the study in term of subjects, objectives, facilities,
area, time frame, and the issues to which the research is focused.
The delimitation of the study is delimiting a study by geographic location, age, sex,
population traits, population size, or other similar considerations.
-Delimitation is used to make study better and more feasible and not just for the interest of
the researcher. It also identifies the constraints or weaknesses of your study which are not
within the control of the researcher.

LESSON 4
HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than
theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study.
2 HYPOTHESIS:
Alternative hypothesis- hypothesis that you support (your prediction); we use a notation
like HA or H1 to represent this.
Null hypothesis- hypothesis that describes the remaining possible outcomes; HO or H0 to
represent the null case.
One-tailed hypothesis- If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the
no difference prediction and the prediction of the opposite direction.
Two-tailed hypothesis- When your prediction does not specify a direction.

LESSON 5
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE (RRL)
-A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the literature related to
your selected area of study. The review should describe, summarize, evaluate and clarify
this literature.
-It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author) determine the
nature of your research.
*In identifying and defining the research problem, the researcher must be able to show
evidences that the problem really exists and is worth investigating.
*Theories which the researchers use to explain the existence of a research problem and
used as bases in analyzing relationships between variables can be generated from reference
books on theories or from related studies.
Purpose of Review of Related Literature (RRL)
1. It helps the researcher identify and define a research problem
2. It helps justify the need for studying a problem.
3. It prevents unnecessary duplication of a study
4. It can be a source of a theoretical basis for the study
5. It enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research problem and properly
identify and operationally define study variables
6. It helps formulate and refine research instruments
7. It provides lesson for data analysis and interpretation.

LESSON 6
REFERENCING
Referencing is important:
1. It shows where you got information from (you are not making up).
2. It acknowledges the contribution of other people.
3. It helps other people find source you found if they want more detail.
4. It stops you being accused of plagiarism.
5. It allows people to check the accuracy of your interpretation of other people‘s work.