Lithium-Ion battery maintenance
Lithium-Ion battery maintenance
Lithium-ion (or Li-ion) batteries are a family Cylindrical: This type of lithium-ion battery
is constructed using multiple individual cy-
of batteries that consist of different types lindrical cells. These can be connected in
of chemistries, each with their own unique different series – parallel configurations.
This allows the battery to meet different
characteristics and configurations. voltage and capacity requirements. Cy-
lindrical cells can be produced easily and
quickly, often resulting in a lower cost per
kWh. These types of battery packs tend to
be larger and heavier than other configu-
rations, such as prismatic. However, due to
their larger mass, they carry the benefit of
radiating heat and controlling temperature
more easily.
Prismatic: Prismatic cells are made up of
many flat, positive and negative electrodes
layered together. The main advantage
of this lithium-ion type battery is its thin
profile, light weight, and effective use of
space. These batteries are typically used
in mobile phones. Prismatic cells can be
designed to be larger than cylindrical cells
and hence contain more energy per cell.
Because prismatic cells can be larger than
cylindrical cells, fewer cells can be used to
achieve the same amount of energy, mean-
ing fewer electrical connections and fewer
opportunities for manufacturing defects.
Also, since prismatic cells can be larger than
General types:
cylindrical cells, they can store more ener-
gy. However, cylindrical cells will tend to be
As there are both lithium batteries and lithium-ion batteries, it may able to supply more power.
be easy to assume that they are the same, but these battery types
are, in fact, fundamentally different. In general, cylindrical cells are better for high-performance
applications because they can dissipate heat better, whereas
Lithium batteries are primary batteries, meaning they are not prismatic cells are better for optimized energy efficiency.
rechargeable. Because lithium batteries use metallic lithium as the
anode, these types of batteries are also referred to as lithium-metal
Lithium-ion battery chemistries:
batteries.
The characteristics of different chemistry lithium-ion batteries are
Lithium-ion batteries, on the other hand, are secondary batteries
distinct due to the unique materials used in each composition.
or rechargeable batteries. Lithium-ion batteries are constructed
with rechargeable cells that can be built in several different The following table allows a basic comparison of battery attributes
configurations. for different chemistries.
Attribute lithium nickel- lithium nickel-cobalt- lithium manganese oxide lithium iron
manganese-cobalt oxide aluminium oxide (NCA)] (LMO) phosphate (LFP)
(NMC)
Calendar life (20 °C – 25 °C) 3 4 2 3
Calendar life (> 40 °C) 3 4 1 2
Low temperature capacity 3 3 3 2
availability
Safety 2 2 3 4
Energy density 4 4 3 3
Power density 4 4 4 4
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Lithium-Ion battery maintenance
Although the Li-ion battery In general, an increase in temperature of 10 ◦C will reduce the life
can come in a wide range of of the battery by half. The voltage level affects the thermodynamic
chemistries, they all tend to operate
in the same general manner. They
stability of the positive material. Calendar aging occurs during both
consist of a negative electrode battery storage and battery service.
(anode). This is typically a layered
carbon. They also contain a positive
electrode (cathode). This is typically Cyclic aging
a metal oxide or metal phosphate.
The anode and cathode will be Cyclic aging affects both the positive and negative electrodes. The
contained within an electrolyte that rate of this aging process is dependent not only on the frequency of
is comprised of a lithium salt in an
organic solvent. the cycling, but also the depth of the cycling and the rate of charge.
Some materials will experience stress during very deep discharges,
with a corresponding increase in internal resistance. How the rate
of charge impacts aging is better understood through a brief review
of the physical processes taking place during the charging period.
During discharge, lithium ions flow
from the carbon layers in the anode On the anode, there
to the oxide layers in the cathode. is a limit to the rate at
which lithium ions can
be accepted during
charging. Lithium ions
must pass through the
Solid Electrolyte Interface
(SEI) during charging. The
faster the rate of charging,
the more lithium ions
will be deposited on the
outside of the SEI. These
will react to form lithium
carbonate. This causes a
loss of capacity and an
During charging, the process increase in the thickness
reverses. The lithium ions flow from of the SEI layer, which
the cathode to the anode. This leads to a higher internal
process is known as intercalation. resistance.
The maximum rate
of intercalation of
lithium ions into the
anode decreases as the
temperature decreases.
This means that charge
rates must be decreased
to avoid excessive SEI
build up. This can lead to
lithium plating that can
Lithium-ion battery aging and failures: lead to a thermal runway
condition.
Aging of lithium-based batteries is due to both calendar aging and
battery cycling. The overall rate of aging will be a combination of For most lithium-ion chemistries, therefore, the maximum rate of
both the battery cycling and the calendar aging. charge will be lower than the maximum rate of discharge.
As lithium-ion batteries age, there will be a reduction of available
Failure modes:
capacity (fading) and an increase in internal battery impedance.
For many Li-ion technologies, the aging will proceed at a relatively Beyond the normal aging modes, there are various failure modes
linear rate up to a certain point, typically 60 or 70 of rated capacity. associated with lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion battery packs
At this point the rate of aging will accelerate. generally have a built-in battery management system (BMS). This
will monitor parameters such as voltage, temperature, rate of
Calendar aging discharge, and rate of recharge. The BMS electronics are intended
Calendar aging is influenced by the type of positive electrode to maintain battery safety. This will reduce the likelihood of a
material, temperature, and operating voltage. catastrophic failure. However, cells can still fail within the pack.
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Lithium-Ion battery maintenance
Short circuits Safety:
Short circuits can occur within an individual cell or within the battery.
When working with lithium-Ion batteries, proper PPE should be
Shorts within the battery can result from abuse, component failure
worn based on electrical hazards such as voltage and arc flash.
or manufacturing defects. Shorts in the cell can also be caused by
dendrite formations that occur due to excessive charge rates. These
short circuits create heat which can lead to thermal runaway.
Overdischarge
Overdischarge of a lithium-ion battery occurs when a cell voltage
falls below a critical minimum. At this point, material from the
anode will dissolve into the electrolyte. When recharged, the
material comes out of solution to form micro-shorts. The battery
management system (BMS) typically includes a device that will
open when a minimum battery voltage is reached. However, if the
battery is not recharged for an extended period, it is possible that
ongoing self-discharge could lead to an overdischarge condition.
Prolonged storage can lead to overdischarge.
The electrolyte used in lithium-ion batteries is flammable and will
Overcharge
ignite if it gets hot enough. Different chemistries have different
Charging rates should be controlled by the BMS. However, control ignition temperatures.
failures or improper system setup can result in excessive charge
rates. Excessive charge rates will increase the battery aging, or If one cell within a lithium-ion battery pack goes into thermal
depending on the rate of charge, it can cause lithium plating on runaway, it will ignite and produce a large amount of heat. This
the anode, causing short circuits. will cause the cell next to it to heat up to the point of ignition.
This creates a chain reaction leading to a catastrophic failure. If the
Thermal runaway battery packs are too close together, then this can lead to a chain
Heat from an external source or from short circuits can cause reaction throughout the string. For this reason, the proper battery
the SEI to become unstable and to react uncontrollably with the rack needs to be used. These racks will minimise any thermal
electrolyte. This will lead to a thermal runaway. The temperature runaway between battery packs. Contact the manufacturer for the
at which a thermal runaway will take place is design dependent. It proper containment racks.
is generally in excess of 100 °C. Batteries that have higher safety
If racks are not used, then there must be adequate spacing between
marks typically will require higher temperatures to elicit a thermal
the batteries to minimise any chain reactions due to thermal
runaway.
runaway. Reference local safety standards.
Electronic failures Fires involving lithium batteries cannot be extinguished with dry-
Lithium-ion batteries are normally equipped with battery chemical or oxygen-depleting extinguishers. Extinguishers that
management systems (BMS). Electronic failures should be provide cooling are recommended.
expected. Failures of the BMS will generally result in a battery string
being taken off-line. So, in critical applications, parallel strings are Maintenance recommendations:
recommended.
Cyclic Applications
Cyclic applications are those in which the battery string discharges
and recharges on a regular cycle. These will include energy storage
applications such as solar and wind energy storage.
In these types of applications, maintenance is minimal. The lithium-
ion battery string does require a BMS. The BMS will provide
continuous monitoring of the cell voltage, the cell balance, the cell
temperature, the charge, and the discharge.
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Lithium-Ion battery maintenance
In a cyclic application, the batteries are charging and discharging In stationary applications, the battery is backing up the key asset. In
on a daily schedule. This is akin to having a daily discharge test these applications, it is preferable to lose the battery instead of the
performed. asset. Therefore, the battery needs to be configured to only open
in the case of potential battery failure.
The general battery maintenance in these uses should include:
NOTE: This can still lead to an open battery string and a loss of
Visual inspections backup. In critical applications that utilise lithium-ion batteries, a
parallel string configuration is needed to provide redundancy.
Cleaning or replacement of air filters in cabinets
In stationary applications, the batteries are not being discharged
Fire-suppression systems evaluations and charged on a regular basis. The batteries remain on float for
extended periods of time.
Failures can occur in lithium-ion strings in cyclic applications. These
can be due to electronics failures, poor connections, or bad cells. In these applications, periodic testing is recommended along with
visual inspection.
In these cases, troubleshooting may be needed.
The battery voltage and impedance should be measured on a
Measurements of each battery’s voltage and impedance can
periodic basis. Trending test results over time will identify SEI build
identify batteries that are dissimilar to the rest of the string. This
up.
can help isolate where there may be potential problems.
For some materials, the internal resistance increase that occurs with
The Megger BITE5 will
measure the voltage and age can be relatively small, and for others, a doubling or tripling of
the impedance of lithium- internal resistance is not unusual. Check with the manufacturer for
ion cells up to 200 V DC.
your particular battery.
The BITE5 can perform the voltage and impedance measurements
on all lithium-ion batteries. It will store the results and allow you to
trend them over time for each cell. You can also transfer the data
to the Power DB PC-based software. This will allow for automated
A thermal imager can be useful for identifying hot spots that may analysis and custom report generation.
be due to poor connections.
Thermal imaging is also useful to identify hot spots that may exist.
The Megger TC3231 This can identify potential connection issues. The Megger TC3231
thermal imager is ideal for
this application. thermal imager can identify hot spots. The images can be saved
and downloaded and then can be included in the Power DB report.
Periodic discharge
testing every quarter of
the battery life is also
recommended. This is a
direct measurement of
available cell capacity at a
given discharge rate.
Stationary applications
The Megger Torkel 900
can provide a constant
When lithium-ion batteries are used in stationary applications, they
current load, a constant
must be configured differently than those in cyclic applications. resistance load, or it can
be programmed to provide
In cyclic applications, the lithium-ion battery BMS systems is a specific discharge profile.
The BITE5 can be used
designed to open the cell when any ‘out of range’ is detected. This to record the discharge
is done to protect the cell. In cyclic applications, the battery is the voltage of each cell
throughout the discharge
key asset. process.
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