Traction

Systems

Non-electric
Electric traction
traction
systems
systems
EXAMPLES OF TRACTION SYSTEMS

 Railway electrical locomotives

 Battery driven road vehicles
 Petrol, diesel trucks and busses
 Tramways and Tramcars
 DC electrical trains and small ships
 Diesel trains and ships
5
 Direct Steam Engine Drive
[Link] is inherently simple.
[Link] between its cylinders and the driving wheels is simple.
[Link] speed can be controlled very easily.
Disadvantages:
1. Since it is difficult to install a condenser on a locomotive, the
steam engine runs non-condensing and, therefore, has a very low
thermal efficiency of about 6-8 percent.
2. It has strictly limited overload capacity.
3. It is available for hauling work for about 60% of its working days,
the remaining 40% being spent in preparing for service, in
maintenance and overhaul.
 Diesel-electric Drive
Advantages:
[Link] modification of existing tracks is required
while converting from steam to diesel-electric
traction.
[Link] provides greater tractive effort as compared to
steam engine which results in higher starting
acceleration.
[Link] is available for hauling for about 90% of its
working days.
[Link]-electric locomotive is more efficient than a
steam locomotive (though less efficient than an
electric locomotive).
 Diesel-electric Drive
Disadvantages:
1. For same power, diesel-electric locomotive is costlier than either
the steam or electric locomotive.
2. Overload capacity is limited because diesel engine is a constant-
kW output prime mover.
3. Life of a diesel engine is comparatively shorter.
4. Diesel-electric locomotive is heavier than plain electric
locomotive because it carries the main engine, generator and
traction motors etc.
5. Regenerative braking cannot be employed though rheostatic
braking can be.
Battery-electric Drive

Battery
locomotive drive
suitable for
mines where
explosive gas
exist.
3
 Electric Traction involves utilization
of electric power for traction
systems i.e., for railways, trams,
trolleys etc.
 For traction purposes mostly 3-
Phase Induction motors and d.c
series motors are used and both
have high starting torque, prevailing
requirement for the high speed
acceleration. 4
 REQUIREMENTS OF IDEAL TRACTION SYSTEMS
 High starting tractive effort to have rapid acceleration.
 Minimum wear on the track.
 Easy speed control.
 Minimum equipment and maximum efficiency.
 Withstanding of large temporary loads.
 Self contained and compact locomotive.
 No interference with the other systems like communication
 Pollution free environment 6
 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL TRACTION SYSTEMS
It is the cheapest method of traction systems.
Pollution free and clean environment.
Maintenance and repair cost are very less compared to other
traction systems like steam engine traction.
Starting and control of the electrical traction system is very fast
and can be done without loss of time.
This traction uses AC or DC series motors which provide very high
starting torque.
Braking or stopping of this system can be done in very less time
and less energy usage. 37

Carriage of fuel (coal , oil) is not needed.

 DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL TRACTION SYSTEMS
High initial expenditure
Extra equipment is required for braking
Failure of electrical supply is a major problem
The electrified tracks are needed for running the electrical
locomotives
Interference with communication systems (telephone or telegraph) is a
problem

38
A Brief History to Electric Traction
Italian Railways were the first in the world to
introduce the electric traction.
The world's first AC locomotive in Valtelina,
northern Italy (1898–1902).
Power supply: 3-phase 15 Hz AC, 3000 V (AC
motor 70 km/h).
It was designed by a Hungary company.
The 106 km Valtellina line was opened on 4
September 1902.

7
 Electric Traction
Systems

Direct Electric power Self-contained

Locomotives Locomotives

AC Driven DC Driven Petrol Electric Driven Battery Driven

Diesel Electric Driven 8

 SYSTEMS OF TRACK
ELECTRIFICATION

Composite System AC System DC System

Single Phase System Three Phase System

Single Phase Three Phase System Single Phase DC System 9

TRACTION MOTORS
 D.C Series Motors- Develops high torque at low speeds and low torque at
high speed, exact requirement of the traction units.
 Torque is independent of the line voltage and thus unaffected by the variations in
the line voltage.
 Single phase A.C Series Motors- Starting torque is lower than dc series motor
due to poor power factor at starting
 This motor has surpassed the d.c series motor in terms of size, weight cost for
the same rating.
 Maximum operating voltage is limited to 400 Volts.
 Three Phase Induction Motors- Provides constant speed operation, developing low
starting torque drawing high starting current and complicated control networks
makes it unsuitable for electric traction work.
 Automatic regeneration is the main advantage in electric traction with this motor
10
 Diesel Multiple Unit (DMU)
A diesel multiple unit or DMU is a multiple-unit train powered by
on-board diesel engines. A DMU requires no separate locomotive,
as the engines are incorporated into one or more of the carriages.
Diesel-powered single-unit railcars are also generally classed as
DMUs. Diesel-powered units may be further classified by their
transmission type: diesel–electric (DEMU), diesel–mechanical
(DMMU) or diesel–hydraulic (DHMU).
 Diesel–Mechanical
In a diesel–mechanical multiple unit (DMMU), the rotating
energy of the engine is transmitted via a gearbox and
driveshaft directly to the wheels of the train, like a car. The
transmissions can be shifted manually by the driver, as in
the great majority of first-generation British Rail DMUs, but
in most applications, gears are changed automatically.
 Diesel–Hydraulic
In a diesel–hydraulic multiple unit (DHMU), a hydraulic
torque converter, a type of fluid coupling, acts as the
transmission medium for the motive power of the diesel
engine to turn the wheels. Some units feature a hybrid mix
of hydraulic and mechanical transmissions, usually reverting
to the latter at higher operating speeds as this decreases
engine RPM and noise.
 Diesel–Electric
In a diesel–electric multiple unit (DEMU), a diesel engine drives
an electrical generator or an alternator which produces electrical
energy. The generated current is then fed to electric traction motors
on the wheels or bogies in the same way as a conventional
diesel–electric locomotive.

In modern DEMUs, each car is entirely self-contained and has its own
engine, generator and electric motors. In older designs, some cars
within the consist may be entirely unpowered or only feature electric
motors, obtaining electric current from other cars in the consist
which have a generator and engine.
 Systems of Railway Electrification
Presently, following four types of track electrification systems are
available:
 Direct current system—600 V, 750 V, 1500 V, 3000 V
2
 Single-phase ac system—15-25 kV, 16 (or 16.7), 25 and 50 Hz
3
2
 Three-phase ac system—3000-3500 V at 16
(or 16.7) Hz
3
 Composite system—involving conversion of single-phase ac into
3-phase ac or dc.
11
 DC TRACTION
DC traction units use direct current
drawn from either a conductor rail or
an overhead line.
The most popular line voltages for
overhead wire supply systems – 1500V
DC and 3000V DC.
600V DC–750V DC volt range used for
third rail systems (a means of providing
electric power to a railway train,
through a semi- continuous rigid
conductor placed alongside or between
the rails of a railway track and that 12

additional rail is called conductor rail)

13
SUITABILITY OF D.C SERIES MOTOR FOR TRACTION
D.C series motor develops high torque at
low speeds & low torque at high speeds.
This is the exactly the requirement of
traction units.
In case of dc series motor , up to the point
of magnetic saturation, torque developed in
proportional to the square of the current.
Therefore, dc series motor requires
comparatively less increased power input
with the increase in load torque. Thus the
series motor are capable of withstanding
excessive loads.
Speed of dc series motor can be controlled
14

by various methods.
 DC ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM
 DC traction system use the DC supply
drawn from the conducting rail or
overhead supply system.
 The operating voltage is from 600 to
750 volts for tramways and for many
suburban railways and from 1500 to
3000 volts for main line railways.
 DC electric motors employed are for
getting the necessary driving power
usually from series motors.
 Compound motors are used in favour
for tramways and trolley busses
where regenerative braking is desired 15
 Disadvantages of DC
 Expensive substations are required at frequent intervals and the
overhead wire or third rail must be relatively large and heavy.
 The low-voltage, series-wound, direct-current
 Motor is well suited to railroad traction, being simple to construct and
easy to control.
 Low overall efficiency
 Bulk and size restrictions
 Undesirable requirements for periodic maintenance
inspection and replacement
16
17
AC TRACTION
 AC Traction units draw
alternating current from an
overhead line.
 Typical Voltages Used are:-
 15 kV AC, 16⅔ Hz (16.7 Hz)
 25 kV AC, 50 Hz (Currently used in
India)
 25 kV AC, 60 Hz
 Fewer substations are required
 and the lighter overhead current
supply wire can be used
 Reduced weight of support structure 18

 Reduced capital cost of electrification

COMPONENTS OF AN A.C LOCOMOTIVE

19
 AC ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM
 AC electrification can be done in different ways
 Single Phase System
 Three Phase System

20
 SINGLE PHASE SYSTEM :-
 In this distribution system is 15kV to
25kV at 6.67Hz or 25Hz and was
stepped down to 300-400V suitable
for supplying single phase motors.
 Distribution system is supplied with
substations at spacing of 50 to 80
km because of high current
requirements
 For longer economic transmission
the voltage level is extended further
and transmitted longer distances. 21
SINGLE PHASE SYSTEM :-
 Change in supply frequency is necessary because of
best performance of ac series motors at low
frequencies.
 Low frequency operation of series motor increases
communication, efficiency, power factor .
 Low frequency operation of the overhead lines reduces the
line reaction and hence the voltage drop directly.
 AC single phase system is adopted where overhead
construction is main important and where rapid acceleration and
22
retardation is not that important like sub-urban areas.
THREE PHASE SYSTEM :-
• In this system 3-phase induction motors operating at 3000 to 3600
volts and normal frequency of 6.67hz are employed.
• 3 phase induction motors have maximum efficiency and property of
automatic regenerative braking without requiring any additional
equipment.
•They have low starting
torque and need high
starting currents, absence of
speed control.
•These are implemented
in hilly areas and where 23

the
SUITABILITY OF A.C SERIES MOTOR FOR TRACTION

The construction cost of an ac series motor is much more easier

than of a dc series motor.
The starting torque of a.c single phase motor is lower than that
of dc series motor due to poor power factor at the start.
The speed of an ac series motor may be controlled efficiently by
taps on a transformer. Which is not possible in case of a dc series
motor.

24
SUITABILITY OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR FOR TRACTION
 It has simple & robust construction.
 Trouble free operation.
 Less maintenance.
 High voltage operation consequently requiring reduced amount of current.
 Automatic regeneration are the main advantages of 3-ph. Induction motor
for traction.
 But due to their flat speed- torque characteristics, constant speed operation,
developing low starting torque, drawing high starting current, complicated
speed control systems they are not suitable for electric traction work.
25
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF A.C. SYSTEM OVER D.C. SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES:-
[Link] overhead catenary
[Link] in sub-stations.
[Link] flexibility and high efficiency
[Link] equipment used & easy to maintain
[Link] as far as cost for fixed installation
DISADVANTAGES :-
[Link]-phase A.C. system imposes Unbalancing effect
[Link] Interference with telecommunication lines
26
 SYSTEM ELECTRIFICATION
• CATENARY
Circuit Breaker
• PANTOGRAPH
• CIRCUIT BREAKERS
• ON LOAD TAP CHANGER
• TRANSFORMER
• RECTIFIERS
• SMOOTHING REACTORS

Loco Transformer 27
28
Trolley wire or contact wire
suspended with minimum of sag so that contact between the trolley wire and
current collector can be maintained at higher speeds.

Trolle
y Wire
CATENARY
The trolley wire wire is supported by another wire known as catenary.
Two different types of Catenary construction can be used
Single Catenary Construction Compound Catenary Construction

 Provided for speeds upto 120kmph  Provided for speeds ranges 190-
224kmph
 Span of catenary wire 45-90 m and sag of 1-2m.
 Additional wire calledintermediate
 Relatively Cheaper wire is used to increase current
 Less Maintenance carrying capacity i.e., to h31ave
increased traffic density.
 Suitable where traffic density and operating speeds are low.
SYSTEM OF TRACK ELECTRIFICATION

Current Collector- Current from the

overhead wire is collected with the
help of sliding contact collector
mounted on the roof of the vehicle. Current
Collector
Three types of Current collector
 Trolley Collector
 Bow Collector
 Pantograph Collector
32
Trolley Collector- Used for Tramways and trolley buses, held in contact
with overhead Wire by spring. Suitable for low speed up to 32kmph
Bow Collector- It uses a light metal strip or bow about 1 m long for
current collection.
 Not suitable for railway work
 Requiring speed of 120kmph and higher.
 Requires reversing arrangement of the bow
Pantograph Collector- Main function is to maintain the link between
overhead contact wire and power circuit of the locomotive at varying
speeds in different climate and wind conditions
33

 This can be lowered or raised from cabin by air cylinders.

PANTOGRAPH DESIGN

34
35
 Conductor Rail Equipment
 The top contact rail is adopted universally for 600 V dc electrification.
 The side contact rail is used for 1200 V dc supply.
 The under contact rail has the advantage of being protected from snow,
sleet and ice.

Top contact rail

Side contact rail

 Types of Railway Services
There are three types of passenger services offered by the railways :
1. City or Urban Service. In this case, there are frequent stops, the distance
between stops being nearly 1 km or less. Hence, high acceleration and
retardation are essential to achieve moderately high schedule speed between
the stations.
2. Suburban Service. In this case, the distance between stops averages from 3 to
5 km over a distance of 25 to 30 km from the city terminus. Here, also, high
rates of acceleration and retardation are necessary.
3. Main Line Service. It involves operation over long routes where stops are
infrequent. Here, operating speed is high and accelerating and braking periods
are relatively unimportant.

On goods traffic side also, there are three types of services (i) main-line freight
service (ii) local or pick-up freight service and (iii) shunting service.
 Typical Speed/Time Curve

1. Constant Acceleration Period (0 to t1)

2. Acceleration on Speed Curve (t1 to t2)
3. Free-running Period (t2 to t3)
4. Coasting (t3 to t4)
5. Braking (t4 to t5)

Passenger Services

1. Its slope gives acceleration or retardation as the case may be.

2. Area between it and the horizontal (i.e. time) axis represents the distance
travelled.
3. Energy required for propulsion can be calculated if resistance to the motion
of train is known.
 Speed/Time Curves for Different Services

 City service where relative values of acceleration and retardation are high
in order to achieve moderately high average speed between stops.

 Due to short distances between stops, there is no possibility of free-

running period though a short coasting period is included to save on
energy consumption.
 Speed/Time Curves for Different Services

 In suburban services, again there is no free-running period but there is

comparatively longer coasting period because of longer distances between
stops. In this case also, relatively high values of acceleration and
retardation are required in order to make the service as attractive as
possible.
 Speed/Time Curves for Different Services

 For main-line service, there are long periods of free-running at high

speeds. The accelerating and retardation periods are relatively
unimportant.
 Simplified Speed/Time Curve

The actual speed/time curve is replaced by a

simplified speed/time curve which does not involve
the knowledge of motor characteristics.

The simplified speed/time curve can have either of the two shapes:
1. Trapezoidal shape OA1B1C - where speed-curve running and coasting periods
of the actual speed/time curve have been replaced by a constant speed period.
2. Quadrilateral shape OA2B2C where the same two periods are replaced by the
extensions of initial constant acceleration and coasting periods.
 Simplified Speed/Time Curve

 Trapezoidal diagram OA1B1C gives simpler relationships between the

principal quantities involved in train movement and also gives closer
approximation of actual energy consumed during main-line service on level
track.
 Quadrilateral diagram approximates more closely to the actual conditions in
city and suburban services..
 Average and Schedule Speed
While considering train movement, the following three speeds are of importance:

1. Crest Speed. It is the maximum speed (Vm) attained by a train during the run.

distance between stops

2. Average Speed =
actual time of run

In this case, only running time is considered but not the stop time.

distance between stops

3. Schedule Speed =
actual time of run+ stop time
 SI Units in Traction Mechanics
Force. It is measured in newton (N)
Mass. Its unit is kilogram (kg). Commonly used bigger units is tonne (t),
1 tonne = 1000kg
Energy. Its basic unit is joule (J). Other units often employed are watt-hour (Wh)
and kilowatthour (kWh).
J
1 Wh = 1 × 3600 s = 3600 J = 3.6 kJ
s
J
1 kWh = 1000 × 1 × 3600 s = 36 × 105 J = 3.6 MJ
s
Work. Its unit is the same as that of energy.
Power. Its unit is watt (W) which equals 1 J/s. Other units are kilowatt (kW) and
megawatt (MW).
 SI Units in Traction Mechanics
Distance. Its unit is metre. Other unit often used is kilometre (km).
Velocity. Its absolute unit is metre per second (m/s). If velocity is given in km/h
(or [Link]), it can be easily converted into the SI unit of m/s by multiplying it
with a factor of (1000/3600) = 5/18 = 0.2778.
For example, 72 [Link] = 72 × 5/18 = 72 × 0.2778 = 20 m/s.
Acceleration. Its unit is metre/second2 (m/s2). If acceleration is given in km/h/s
(or [Link]), then it can be converted into m/s2 by simply multiplying it by the
factor (1000/3600) = 5/18 = 0.2778 i.e. the same factor as for velocity.
For example, 1.8 [Link] = 1.8 × 5/18 = 1.8 × 0.2778 = 0.5 m/s2
 Confusion Regarding Weight and Mass of a Train
Mass (M). It is the quantity of matter contained in a body.
Its absolute unit is kilogram (kg). Other multiple in common use is tonne.

Weight (W). It is the force with which earth pulls a body downwards.
The weight of a body can be expressed in (i) the absolute unit of newton (N) or
(ii) the gravitational unit of kilogram-weight (kg. wt) which is often writing as
‘kgf’ in engineering literature.
Another still bigger gravitational unit commonly used in traction work is
tonne-weight (t-wt)
1 t-wt = 1000 kg-wt = 1000 × 9.8 N = 9800 N
 Quantities Involved in Traction Mechanics
Following principal quantities are involved in train movement:
D = distance between stops M = dead mass of the train
Me = effective mass of the train W = dead weight of the train
We = effective weight of the train α = acceleration during starting period
βc = retardation during coasting β = retardation during braking
Va = average speed Vm = maximum (or crest) speed.
t = total time for the run t1 = time of acceleration
t2 = time of free running = t − (t1 + t3) t3 = time of braking
Ft = tractive effort T = torque
Relationship between Principal Quantities in Trapezoidal
Diagram
As seen from figure.
α = Vm /t1 or t1 = Vm /α
β = Vm /t3 or t3 = Vm /β

As we know, total distance D between the two stops is

given by the area of trapezium OABC. ∴ D = area OABC
= area OAD + area ABED + area BCE
1 1
= 𝑉𝑚 𝑡1 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑡2 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑡3
2 2
1 1
= 𝑉𝑚 𝑡1 + 𝑉𝑚 [𝑡 − 𝑡1 + 𝑡3 ] + 𝑉𝑚 𝑡3
2 2
𝑡1 𝑡3
= 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑡 − 𝑡1 − 𝑡3 +
2 2
 Relationship between Principal Quantities in Trapezoidal
Diagram
1 Rejecting the positive sign which gives
𝐷 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 − 𝑡1 + 𝑡3
2 impracticable value, we get
𝑉𝑚 1 1 𝑡 ± 𝑡 2 − 4𝐾𝐷
= 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 − + 𝑉𝑚 =
2 α β 2𝐾
From equation (i) above, we get
1 1 1 2
𝑡 𝐷
𝐿𝑒𝑡, 𝐾 = + 𝐾𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 − 𝐷 or 𝐾= − 2
2 α β 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
Substituting this value of K in the above 𝐷 𝑡
= 2 𝑉𝑚 . − 1
equation, we get 𝑉𝑚 𝐷
𝐷 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 − 𝐾𝑉𝑚 Now,
or 𝑫
𝑽𝒂 =
𝐾𝑉𝑚2 − 𝑉𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐷 = 0 … … … … … (𝑖) 𝒕
𝑡 ± 𝑡 2 − 4𝐾𝐷 𝑫 𝑽𝒎
∴ 𝑉𝑚 = ∴ 𝑲= 𝟐 −𝟏
2𝐾 𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒂
Relationship between Principal Quantities in Quadrilateral
Diagram
Let βc represent the retardation during coasting period.
Example 1. A suburban train runs with an average speed of 36 km/h between
two stations 2 km apart. Values of acceleration and retardation are 1.8 km/h/s
and 3.6 km/h/s. Compute the maximum speed of the train assuming
trapezoidal speed/time curve.
 Tractive Effort for Propulsion of a Train
The tractive effort (Ft) is the force developed by the traction unit at the rim
of the driving wheels for moving the unit itself and its train (trailing load).
The tractive effort required for train propulsion on a level track is
Ft = Fa + Fr
If gradients are involved, the above expression becomes
Ft = Fa + Fg + Fr — for ascending gradient
= Fa − Fg + Fr — for descending gradient
where Fa = force required for giving linear acceleration to the train
Fr = force required to overcome resistance to train motion.
Fg = force required to overcome the effect of gravity
 Tractive Effort for Propulsion of a Train
Value of Fa :
If M is the dead (or stationary) mass of the train and a its linear acceleration,
then Fa = Ma
Since a train has rotating parts like wheels, axles, motor armatures and
gearing etc., its effective (or accelerating) mass Me is more (about 8 − 15%)
than its stationary mass. These parts have to be given angular acceleration at
the same time as the whole train is accelerated in the linear direction.
Hence, Fe = Mea
(i) If Me is in kg and α in m/s2, then Fa = Me a newton
(ii) If Me is in tonne and α in km/h/s, then converting them into absolute
units, we have
Fa = (1000 Me) × (1000/3600) a = 277.8 Me a newton
 Tractive Effort for Propulsion of a Train
Value of Fg :
From figure, Fg = W sinθ = Mg sinθ
In railway practice, gradient is expressed as the rise
(in metres) a track distance of 100 m and is called
percentage gradient.
𝑩𝑪 𝑩𝑪
∴ %𝑮= = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝑨𝑪/𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝑪
Substituting the value of 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 in the above equation, we get
Fg = Mg G/100 = 9.8 × 10−2 MG
(i) When M is in kg, Fg = 9.8 × 10−2 MG Newton
(ii) When M is given in tonne, then
Fg = 9.8 × 10−2 (1000 M) G = 98 MG Newton
 Tractive Effort for Propulsion of a Train
Value of Fr :
 Train resistance comprises all those forces which oppose its motion.
 It consists of mechanical resistance and wind resistance.
If r is specific resistance of the train i.e. resistance offered per unit mass of the
train, then Fr = M.r.
(i) If r is in newton per kg of train mass and M is the train mass in kg,
then Fr = M.r Newton
(ii) If r is in newton per tonne train mass (N/t) and M is in tonne (t),
then Fr = M tonne × r = Mr newton
Hence, expression for total tractive effort becomes
Ft = Fa ± Fg + Fr = (277.8 α Me ± 98 MG + Mr) Newton
Here M is in tonne, α in km/h/s, G is in metres per 100 m of track length (i.e. % G)
and r is in Newton/Tonne (N/T) of train mass.
+ for Fg is taken when motion is along an ascending gradient and
- when motion is along a descending gradient.
 Power Output from Driving Axles
If Ft is the tractive effort and v is the train velocity, then
output power = Ft × 𝒗
(i) If Ft is in newton and in m/s, then
output power = Ft × 𝒗 watt
(ii) If Ft is in newton and 𝒗 is in km/h , then converting into m/s, we have
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑭𝒕 𝒗
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑭𝒕 × 𝒗 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕 = 𝒌𝑾
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
If η is the efficiency of transmission gear, then power output of motors is
= 𝑭𝒕 . 𝒗/𝜼 — 𝒗 in m/s
𝑭𝒕 𝒗
= 𝒌𝑾 — 𝒗 in km/h
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝜼
Traction motor schematic diagram
Traction motor schematic diagram
 Energy Output from Driving Axles
Energy (like work) is given by the product of power and time.
E = (Ft × 𝒗) × t = Ft × (𝒗 × t) = Ft × D
where D is the distance travelled in the direction of tractive effort.
Total energy output from driving axles for the run is
E = Energy during acceleration + Energy during free run
From figure
𝑬 = 𝑭𝒕 × 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑶𝑨𝑫 + 𝑭′𝒕 × 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨𝑩𝑬𝑫
𝟏
𝑬 = 𝑭𝒕 × 𝑽𝒎 𝒕𝟏 + 𝑭′𝒕 × 𝑽𝒎 𝒕𝟐
𝟐
where Ft is the tractive effort during accelerating
period and F’t that during free-running period.
Incidentally, Ft will consist of all the three components (Fa, Fg, Fr ) whereas
𝑭′𝒕 will consist of (98 MG + Mr) provided there is an ascending gradient.
 Specific Energy Output
 It is the energy output of the driving wheel expressed in watt-
hour (Wh) per tonne-km (t-km) of the train.
 It can be found by first converting the energy output into Wh and
then dividing it by the mass of the train in tonne and route
distance in km.
 Hence, unit of specific energy output generally used in railway
work is : Wh/tonne-km (Wh/t-km).
 Evaluation of Specific Energy Output
First calculate the total energy output of the driving axles and then divide it
by train mass in tonne and route length in km to find the specific energy
output. It will be presumed that :
(i) there is a gradient of G throughout the run and
(ii) power remains ON upto the end of free run in the case of trapezoidal
curve and upto the accelerating period in the case of quadrilateral curve.

Now, output of the driving axles is used for the following purposes :
1. for accelerating the train 2. for overcoming the gradient
3. for overcoming train resistance.
 Evaluation of Specific Energy Output
(a) Energy required for train acceleration (Ea)
As seen from trapezoidal diagram

It will be seen that since Vm is in km/h, it has been converted into m/s by multiplying it with
the conversion factor of (1000/3600). In the case of (Vm /t), conversion factors for Vm and α
being the same, they cancel out. Since 1 Wh = 3600 J.
 Evaluation of Specific Energy Output
(b) Energy required for over coming gradient (Eg)
𝑬𝒈 = 𝑭𝒈 × 𝑫′
where D’ is the total distance over which power remains ON. Its maximum value equals the
distance represented by the area OABE. i.e. from the start to the end of free-running
period in the case of trapezoidal curve [as per assumption (i)].

Substituting the value of Fg, we get

Eg = 98 MG. (1000 D) joules = 98,000 MGD joules
It has been assumed that D is in km.

When expressed in Wh, it becomes

 Evaluation of Specific Energy Output
(c) Energy required for overcoming resistance (Er)
 Energy Consumption
 It equals the total energy input to the traction motors from the supply.
 It is usually expressed in Wh which equals 3600 J.
 It can be found by dividing the energy output of the driving wheels with the
combined efficiency of transmission gear and motor.
 Specific Energy Consumption
It is the energy consumed (in Wh) per tonne mass of the train per km length of
the run.

The specific energy consumption of a train running at a given schedule speed is

influenced by 1. Distance between stops 2. Acceleration 3. Retardation
4. Maximum speed 5. Type of train and equipment 6. Track configuration.
 Adhesive Weight
It is given by the total weight carried on the driving wheels. Its value is Wa = x W,
where W is dead weight and x is a fraction varying from 0.6 to 0.8.
Coefficient of Adhesion
Adhesion between two bodies is due to interlocking of the irregularities of their
surfaces in contact. The adhesive weight of a train is equal to the total weight to
be carried on the driving wheels. It is less than the dead weight by about 20 to
40%.
 Mechanism of Train Movement
The essentials of driving mechanism in an electric vehicle are illustrated in figure.
The armature of the driving motor has a pinion which
meshes with the gear wheel keyed to the axle of the
driving wheel. In this way, motor torque is transferred
to the wheel through the gear.

For obtaining motion of the

train without slipping,
𝐹𝑡 ≤ 𝜇𝑎 W𝑎 where 𝜇𝑎 is the
coefficient of adhesion and
W𝑎 is the adhesive weight.
Example: A 250-tonne motor coach driven by four motors takes 20 seconds to
attain a speed of 42 km/h, starting from rest on an ascending gradient of 1 in
80. The gear ratio is 3.5, gear efficiency 92%, wheel diameter 92 cm train
resistance 40 N/t and rotational inertia 10 percent of the dead weight. Find
the torque developed by each motor.
Example: A goods train weighing 500 tonne is to be hauled by a locomotive
up an ascending gradient of 2% with an acceleration of 1 km/h/s. If coefficient
of adhesion is 0.25, train resistance 40 N/t and effect of rotational inertia
10%, find the weight of locomotive and number of axles if load is not to
increase beyond 21 tonne/axle.
 General Features of Traction Motor
Electric Features
 High starting torque
 Series Speed - Torque characteristic
 Simple speed control
 Possibility of dynamic/ regenerative braking
 Good commutation under rapid fluctuations of supply voltage

Mechanical Features
 Robustness and ability to withstand continuous vibrations
 Minimum weight and overall dimensions
 Protection against dirt and dust
 General Features of Traction Motor
1. D.C. series motors
2. A.C. series motors
3. A.C. three phase motors
 No type of motor completely fulfils all these requirements.
 Motors, which have been found satisfactory, are D.C. series for D.C.
systems and A.C. series for A.C. systems.
 While using A.C. three phase motors are used.
 With the advent of Power Electronics it is very easy to convert
single phase A.C. supply drawn from pantograph to three phase A.C.
 Speed - Torque Characteristic of D.C. Motor
V = Eb + Ia R a
V . Ia = Eb . Ia + Ia2 Ra
where Eb Ia = Power input to armature
= Electrical power converted into mechanical power at the
shaft of motor.
𝟐𝝅𝑵
𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑻. 𝝎 = 𝑻 ×
𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
∴ = 𝑬𝒃 . 𝑰𝒂
𝟔𝟎
𝟔𝟎𝑬𝒃 . 𝑰𝒂 𝑬𝒃 . 𝑰𝒂
∴𝑻= = 𝟗. 𝟓𝟓
𝟐𝝅𝑵 𝑵
∅𝒁𝑵𝑷
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑬𝒃 =
𝟔𝟎𝑨
Speed - Torque Characteristic of D.C. Motor
 Control of D.C. Motor
• The starting current of motor is limited to its normal rated current by starter
during starting.
• At the instant of switching on the motor, back e.m.f. Eb = 0
• Supply voltage = V = IR + Voltage drop across Rs.
• At any other instant during starting
V = IR + Voltage across Rs + Eb
• At the end of accelerating period, when total Rs is cut-off
V = Eb + IR
 Control of D.C. Motor
If T is the time in sec. for starting and neglecting IR drop,
Total energy supplied = V.I.T. watt-sec
From figure, Energy wasted in Rs = Area of triangle ABC × I
= ½. T.V.I. watt - sec. = ½ VIT watt - sec.
But total energy supplied = V.I.T watt - sec.
∴ Half the energy is wasted in starting
∴ 𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 50%
Series - Parallel Starting
 To find ts, tp and η of starting
From figure, triangles OLE and OGH are similar
 To find ts, tp and η of starting
To calculate η of starting, neglect IR drop in armature circuit
• ‘D’ is midpoint of CE
• back e.m.f. develops along DF in parallel combination
• KC = CF
• i.e. time for series combination = time for parallel
combination
• i.e. ts = tp = t
• average starting current = I per motor.
 To find ts, tp and η of starting
Energy lost in Rs = Area under triangle OKC + Area under triangle CDF

∴ η is increased by 16.66% as compared to previous case. If

there are 4 motors then ηstarting = 73%. So there is saving of
energy lost in Rs, during starting period as compared with
starting by both motors in parallel.
 Series Parallel Control by Shunt Transition Method
• In steps 1, 2, 3, 4 the motors are in series
and are accelerated by cutting out the Rs in
steps.
• In step 4, motors are in full series.
• During transition from series to parallel, Rs is
reinserted in circuit– step 5.
• One of the motors is bypassed -step 6 and
disconnected from main circuit – step 7.
• It is then connected
• in parallel with other motor -step 8, giving 1st
parallel position. Rs is again cut-out in steps
completely and the motors are placed in full
parallel.
 Series Parallel Control by Bridge Transition Method
a) At starting, motors are in series with Rs
i.e. link P in position = AA’
b) Motors in full series with link P in position =
BB’ (No Rs in the circuit)
• The motor and Rs are connected in the form
of Wheatstone Bridge.
• Initially motors are in series with full Rs as
shown in Fig. (a). A and A’ are moved in
direction of arrow heads.
• In position BB’ motors are in full series, as
shown in Fig.(b), with no Rs present in the
circuit.
 Series Parallel Control by Bridge Transition Method
• In transition step the Rs is reinserted.
• In 1st parallel step, link P is removed and
motors are connected in parallel with full Rs
as shown in Fig.(c).
• Advantage of this method is that the normal
acceleration torque is available from both
the motors, through - out starting period.
• Therefore acceleration is smoother, without
any jerks, which is very much desirable for
traction motors.
 Series Parallel Control by Transition Methods
• The main difficulty with series parallel control is to obtain a satisfactory
method of transition
• from series to parallel without interrupting the torque or allowing any heavy
rushes of current.
• In shunt transition method, one motor is short circuited and the total torque is
reduced by about 50% during transition period, causing a noticeable jerk in the
motion of vehicle.

• The Bridge transition is more complicated, but the resistances which are
connected in parallel with or ‘bridged’ across the motors are of such a value
that current through the motors is not altered in magnitude and the total
torque is therefore held constant and hence it is normally used for railways.
• So in this method it is seen that, both motors remain in circuit through-out the
transition. Thus the jerks will not be experienced if this method is employed.
The first letter (gauge)
• W – Indian gauge (the "W" Stands for Wide Gauge) – 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm)
• Y – metre gauge (the "Y" stands for Yard Gauge) – 3 ft 3 3⁄8 in (1,000 mm)
• Z – narrow gauge – 2 ft 6 in (762 mm)
• N – narrow gauge (toy gauge) – 2 ft (610 mm)

The second letter (motive power)

• D – diesel
• C – DC electric (can run under DC overhead line only)
• A – AC electric (can run under AC overhead line only)
• CA – both DC and AC (can run under both AC and DC overhead line); 'CA' is considered a
single letter
• B – Battery electric locomotive (rare)
The third letter (job type)
• G – goods
• P – passenger
• M – mixed; both goods and passenger
• S – shunting (also known as switching engines or switchers in the USA and some other
countries)
• U – multiple units (EMU/DMU)
• R – Railcars
For example, in "WDM 3A":
• "W" means broad gauge
• "D" means diesel motive power
• "M" means suitable for both goods and passenger service
• "3A" means the locomotive's power is 3,100 hp ('3' stands for 3000 hp, 'A' denotes
100 hp more)

Or, in "WAP 5":

• "W" means broad gauge
• "A" mean AC electric traction motive power
• "P" means suitable for Passenger service
• "5" denotes that this locomotive is chronologically the fifth electric locomotive model
used by the railways for passenger service.
AC Traction Equipment
 OVERHEAD Through the roof bars via
TRANSMISSION LINE (25
kV) pantograph

AC supply is fed to the

transformer which in
turn steps down the
voltage and feds it to

Rectifier changes AC to DC
and is fed to SR

pulsating DC to smooth DC
(DC-DC)and feds it to
PANTOGRAPH
RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMER

LOCO MOVES TRACTION MOTORS SOOTHING REACTORS

 AC Traction Equipment
• Catenary - This is the overhead wire of special cross-section
• Pantograph - This is a device used for collecting current from the catenary i.e.
the over head lines
• Circuit Breakers - The function of circuit breaker is to disconnect the engine
from the line side in case of some fault
• On Load Tap Changer - On load tap changer is used for varying the output
voltage for controlling the speed of motor
• Transformer - A tap changing transformer is installed in the locomotive for
stepping down the voltage according to the requirement of traction motors
• Rectifiers - Semiconductor rectifiers are used for conversion of A.C power into
D.C power
• Smoothing Reactors - Any ripples found on the output side of the rectifier are
eliminated by the smoothing reactor fitted after the rectifier.
 Braking in Traction
• To avoid danger to the worker or damage to the products quick stopping of
motor is mandatory.
• Due to inertia, even after disconnecting the electric supply to the
running motor, it will continue to run for some time.
• In many cases it is essential to stop the running motor quickly than quick
starting.
• Delay in starting up a motor causes only the machinery to stand idle.
• But a delay in stopping a motor may result in heavy damage to equipment
and even the loss of human life.
 Braking in Traction
There are two types of braking used in the electrical drives namely
1. Mechanical braking 2. Electrical braking
Mechanical Braking:
• In this method, the stored energy is dissipated as heat by a brake shoe or
brake lining which rubs against a brake drum.
Electrical Braking:
• In this method of braking, the stored energy of rotating part is converted into
electrical energy and dissipated by the resistance in the form of heat or
returned to the supply.
• The motors used for electric braking should have suitable braking
characteristics.
The three types of electric braking are
1. Plugging 2. Rheostat or dynamic braking 3. Regenerative braking
 Advantages of Electrical Braking
• Electric braking is fast and cheap.
• In electric braking there is no maintenance cost like replaced brake shoes
periodically.
• By using electric braking the capacity of the system( like higher speeds,
heavy loads) can be increased.
• A part of energy is returned to the supply consequently the running cost is
reduced.
• In electric braking negligible amount of heat is generated whereas in
mechanical braking enormous heat is produced at brake shoes which leads
to failure of brakes.
 Disadvantages, Limitations Electrical Braking
• Electric braking cannot be used for holding the machine after coming to the
rest.
• So a mechanical braking is required additionally.
• For example in the case of the train going uphill, after the train has been
stopped using electric braking, it has to be prevented from moving downhill.
In such cases mechanical brakes also should be provided for holding.
• During the braking period, the motor has to function as generator. So it must
have suitable braking characteristics. ie, the choice of motor is limited.
 Requirements of Braking System
• Braking should be simple, robust and easy to operate.
• It should require less maintenance
• It should be fast and reliable.
• The braking force must be capable of being controlled.
• The braking should be inexhaustible. ie repeated quick application of brake
be possible without needing any relaxation.
• In case of emergency, it should make unfailing halt in the minimum possible
distance.
• Application of brakes should be very gradual and smooth to avoid damage to
the goods and discomfort to passengers.
• The system should apply brakes simultaneously overall the vehicles.
 Types of Braking System
Types of Braking System:
1. Electrical Braking
• Plugging
• Dynamic (or) Rheostatic braking
• Regenerative braking

2. Mechanical Braking
• Compressed air brake (Pneumatic brake)
• Magnetic brake
• Vacuum brake
 Plugging
• This is the simplest type electric braking.
• In this method, the torque of the motor is reversed.
• It makes the motor and the driven machine to standstill condition.
• A special device is required to cut off the supply as soon as the motor comes
to rest.
• The Plugging braking method can be applied to AC and DC motors..
 Dynamic Braking
• In this method of braking, the motor is disconnected from the supply
• Then operated as a generator driven by the kinetic energy of the rotor and
the load.
• Thus the kinetic energy of rotation is converted into electrical energy
• This electrical energy is dissipated in the external resistance connected
across the motor at the braking instant.
• The advantage of dynamic braking is that no energy is required from the
supply to brake the motor.
• The Dynamic braking method can be applied to brake DC motors, induction
motors and synchronous motors.
 Regenerative Braking
• In the Regenerative braking method the motor is not disconnected from the
supply.
• It remains connected to it and feeds back the braking energy or its kinetic
energy to the system.
• As no energy is wasted in this method and it is supplied back to the system,
overall energy is saved.
• Thus the Regenerative braking is better than Plugging and Dynamic braking.
• This type of braking is used in traction whenever the train runs on down.
• The regenerative braking is applied to DC shunt motor, series motor and
3-phase induction motors.
 Regenerative Braking of D.C. Motors
(i) the voltage generated by the machine should exceed the supply voltage and
(ii) the voltage should be kept at this value, irrespective of machine speed.
 Regenerative Braking of Induction Motors
Pin = 3VIscosφs
• Now, for motoring operation φs < 90o and for braking operation φs > 90o.
• When the speed of the motor is more than the synchronous speed, relative
speed between the motor conductors and air gap rotating field reverses, as a
result the phase angle becomes greater than 90o and the power flow reverse
and thus regenerative braking takes place.
 Regenerative Braking
Energy regained due to acceleration (Ea) = 0.01072 Vm2Me Wh

= 0.01072 (V1-V2)2Me Wh

Tractive effort required during retardation(Ftr) = - 98.1MG + Mr Newton

= M (r-98.1G) N

Distance travelled by train during retardation period (d)

𝑉1 +𝑉2
= area ABED = × 𝑡2 meters
2
Energy available during train movement(Etm) =Ftr x d N-m
= Ftr x d (1000/3600) kWh

Net energy returned to the supply = ɳ x (Ea+ Etm)

 A.C. Series (Universal) Motors
• A universal motor is a special type of motor which is designed to run on
either DC or single phase AC supply.
• These motors are generally series wound (armature and field winding are in
series), and hence produce high starting torque
• Most of the universal motors are designed to operate at higher speeds,
exceeding 3500 RPM.
• They run at lower speed on AC supply than they run on DC supply of same
voltage, due to the reactance voltage drop which is present in AC and not in
DC.
There are two basic types of universal motor:
(i) compensated type and (ii) uncompensated type.
A.C. Series (Universal) Motors
 Speed/Load Characteristics
• Speed/load characteristics of a universal motor are similar to that of DC
series motor.
• The speed of a universal motor is low at full load and very high at no load.
• Usually, gears trains are used to get the required speed on required load.
• The speed/load characteristics are (for both AC as well as DC supply) are
shown in the figure.
 Applications of Universal Motors
• Universal motors find their use in various home appliances like vacuum
cleaners, drink and food mixers, domestic sewing machine etc.

• The higher rating universal motors are used in portable drills, blenders
etc.
 Linear Induction Motors
WHAT ARE LINEAR MOTORS?
 Linear motors are electric induction motors that produce motion in a
straight line rather than rotational motion.
 In a traditional electric motor, the rotor (rotating part) spins inside the
stator (static part)
 In a linear motor, the stator is unwrapped and laid out flat and the
"rotor" moves past it in a straight line.
 Construction of a Linear Induction Motor

If the stator of the poly phase

induction motor is cut along the
section and laid on a flat surface,
then it forms the primary of the
LIM housing the field system, and
consequently the rotor forms the
secondary consisting of flat
aluminium conductors with
ferromagnetic core for effective
flux linkage.
Construction of a Linear Induction Motor
 WORKING OF A LINEAR INDUCTION MOTOR

• Primary of an LIM is excited by a balanced three phase power

supply
• A traveling flux is induced in the primary instead of rotating 3 φ flux
• Electric current is induced into the secondary due to the relative
motion between the traveling flux and the conductors
• This induced current interacts with the traveling flux wave to produce
linear force or thrust F.
• If the secondary is fixed and the primary is free to move, the force
will move the primary in the direction of the force, resulting in the
required rectilinear motion.
 Linear Induction Motors
SPEED

 Synchronous speed of the field

 Where,
fs = supply frequency in Hz, p = number of
poles
 Linear Induction Motors
 The developed field will results in a linear traveling field
 The velocity of which is given by the equation

Vs=2tfs
Vs = velocity of the linear traveling field, t = pole
pitch

For a slip of s, the speed of the LIM is given by

Vr=(1-s)vs
 Linear Induction Motors
ADVANTAGES
 There are no moving parts to go wrong
 As the platform rides above the track on a cushion of air, there is no loss of
energy to friction or vibration
 As both acceleration and braking are achieved through electromagnetism,
linear motors are much quieter than ordinary motors.

DISADVANTAGES
Because the air-gap is greater
 more power is required
 efficiency is lower
 APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR INDUCTION MOTORS
 Automatic sliding doors in electric trains.

 Mechanical handling equipment, such as

propulsion of a train of tubs along a certain
route.

 Metallic conveyor belts.