BLACKFORDBY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 3.

Suggested breeding season for spring lambing,

ANIMAL PRODUCTION Compiled by: R. Phiri •June and July

SMALL RUMINANTS 4. Oestrus cycle,

•occurs every 19-21 days (3 wks)
SHEEP AND GOATS PRODUCTION
If properly managed, shoats can be a profitable farm enterprise in Zimbabwe, and 5. Length of oestrus,
demand for both sheep nd goat meat is much greater than the supply. •24-48 hrs.
Production Areas. 6. Pregnancy period (Average)
-Low rainfall areas •goats – 150 days,
-Dry areas •sheep – 155 days.
-Marginal areas
-Lowveld in Zim. 7. Weaning age,
•90 days (3 months),
Justification, •45 days – early weaning.
-Less threat from internal parasites
-Less Footrot 8. Number of females per male per season,
-Other diseases also no prevalent. •maximum of 60.
Terminology: 9. Average reproductive life of both sexes,
Ewe → A mature female sheep which has had more than one lamb. •plus/minus 6 - 8 yrs.
Doe → A mature female goat which has had more than one kid.
Ram or Tup → A mature male sheep. 10. Body temperature range,
Buck → A mature male goat. •sheep: 38 - 39°C,
Wether → A castrated male sheep or goat. •goats: 39 - 40°C
Hoggett → A young female sheep.
Lamb → These are very young sheep divided into ram lambs and ewe SHEEP BREEDS
lambs. 1. British mutton – Hampshire Down, Dorset Horn, Suffolk and Wiltshire Horn.
Kid → A very young goat. 2. Indigenous mutton – Van Rooy, Blackhead Persian, Dorper and Wiltiper.
Buckling → A young male goat. 3. Dual Purpose – Dohne Merino, South African Mutton Merino and Corriedale.
Doeling → A young female goat.
Chevon → Goat meat GOATS
1. Meat – Boer goat.
REPRODUCTIVE DATA (SHOATS) 2. Wool – Angora.
1. Puberty, 3. Milk – Saanen.
•males reach puberty at 6-10 months,
•females ------------- 5-6 months.

2. Suggested breeding age,

•males -------- 15 months,
•females ------- 18 months.

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A. BRITISH MUTTON BREEDS. breeding season more extended so can mate in spring. Pure bred or cross-bred lambs
grow quickly. Ewes are good milkers and have good mothering ability.
1. Hampshire Down. Rams: → 80-114 kg, Ewes: → 57-79 kg,
Origin:
South Central County of Hampshire, England. Uses of breed:
They have played an important part in the development of the Dorper breed: →
Description: (Dorset Horn × Blackhead Persian) and the Dormer breed: → (Dorset Horn ×
Well built, robust mutton/wool sheep with a thick white fleece, black wool on the German Merino).
edges. Adult rams weigh 100- 135 kg while, ewes weigh 70-100 kg. Ewes are good mothers but not very prolific. Used to improve other breeds.
Fleece of rams – 4 kg and ewes – 2,5 kg.
B. INDIGENOUS MUTTON BREEDS.
Uses of breed: 1. Sabi.
-Produce fat lambs of good quality. The indigenous sheep of Zim, a fat tailed type, characterized by a hairy coat and
-If fed intensively with good management → super carcass (16-18 kg) within 3 colours ranging from black thru all shades of brown to pure white.
months. It is noted for its hardness, fecundity and resistance to local diseases. It is small,
-Rams used mostly for cross-breeding, contributing early maturity and carcass slow growing and the carcass is poorly fleshed. Interesting features are their ears;
quality to offspring. these are very small & in some cases non-existent. The indigenous flock in Zim is
being continually infused with Blackhead Persian blood.
2. Suffolk.
Origin: 2. Van Rooy.
Counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex and Kent, (England). Origin:
(Norfolk horn ewe × South Down rams) → Suffolk. Mr. J.C. Van Rooy developed this breed in 1906 by crossing a glossy haired
First import after Boer war. Afrikaner ram with 80 Rambouillet ewes concentrating on fertility, hardness & good
conformation and later used a polled Wenslaydale ram to improve meat quality. The
Description: bred has suffered becoz of changes in consumer demand.
Early maturing lamb. Well built, short wooled hornless, long thin, black to pitch-
black face. Short thick, white fleece, face, legs under the neck & knee covered fine, Description:
black shiny hair. Mature adult rams weigh 100-130 kg and ewes 70-100 kg. Big, white fat-tailed mutton sheep. Fleece has kemp fibres in the wool. Chest very
Mating is seasonal → Feb – May. prominent. Brown pigmentation in eyelids. Rams weigh 90 kg and Ewes 60 kg – on
veld.
Uses of breed:
Good mutton breed can play an important role in areas which have 50mm or more Uses of breed:
rainfall. Mating is seasonal (mate autumn), one lamb crop/year, this is made up for Mutton breed: →little fat deposited on the carcass except tail.
by multiple Births (high lambing %). Used in cross-breeding with non fat-tailed breeds resulting in good slaughter lambs.
In intensive conditions – super lamb 100-120 days (16 kg) with an excellent carcass.
Rams popular for cross-breeding, (quality lamb). 3. Blackhead Persian
Origin:
3. Dorset Horn One of the oldest sheep breeds from Middle East, first arrived South Africa in 1870
Origin: → 6 ewes and a ram were rescued from a ship wrecked off Cape Agulhas. Adapted
Counties of Dorset, Somerset and Wiltshire. well to Karoo & drier parts of S.A.

Description: Description:
Both sexes horned with a white face and legs. Tends to be blocky & short in leg, A fat tailed sheep with black head, neck, under tail and white body. The coat
well fleshed. Heavy weight for frame size. Highly fertile (130-180 lambing %), consists of hair, not wool & the skin is very close-grained, which makes the breed

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very resistant to piercing types of grass seeds. It is also resistant to most local Uses of breed:
diseases. It produces a poor meat carcass & one great advantage of the breed is that Blackhead Dorper out-numbers white. Used extensively for slaughter lamb
the ewes come on heat all the year round. production. Breeders emphasize fertility, adaptability; good growth & rest of the
uses are the same as Blackhead Dorper.
Uses of breed:
Skin used in the manufacture of leather gloves. 6. Wiltiper
Cross-breeding: → Dorper developed from Blackhead Persian × Dorset Horn. Origin:
Has lost popularity but has contributed to the small stock industry due to: This is the only non-indigenous breed developed in Zim as wool less breed.
1. Fertility Wilshire Horn rams were crossed with Blackhead Persian ewes more than 40 yrs
2. Hardiness
ago.
3. Unseasonal breeding
4. Adaptability
5. Good mothering ability Description:
The cross greatly improved the mutton conformation & milk production of the
4. Blackhead Dorper Blackhead Persian. The lack of a wool coat makes this breed better suited to the
Origin: grass seed areas of Zim. The Wiltiper can be white, black or dun colour.
Development of Dorper was truly a South African project becoz there was a need
for a breed with better carcass quality than fat tail in the dry regions. There was also Uses of breed:
a need to overcome Black Persian poor resistance to cold, wet conditions. Production of lamb and mutton in dry areas of Zimbabwe.
At Grootfontein Agric. College a Dorset Horn ram × Blackhead Persian ewe the
result, the Dorper a sheep with a wide mating season, good mothering ability, C. DUAL PURPOSE BREEDS.
improved conformation & growth potential. 1. Dohne Merino
Origin:
Description: There was need for a wool/meat breed. In 1939 development started at Dohne
A big, well built mutton sheep with a black head & white body. Ewes are good Research Station, Stutterheim. S.A.M.M. rams were crossed with Merino ewes and
mothers with abundant milk .heterosis ensures good growth & a good quality lamb were selected in severe, Low nutrition sour veld for adaptability and hardness.
can be obtained at ± 4 mths. This is the major mutton breed of Zimbabwe.
Description:
Uses of breed: A well balanced polled animal, with good meat conformation & good quality fine to
Ideal for large scale-slaughter lamb production. In the extensive areas, takes 3, 5 to medium wool. Fertile non-seasonal breeders, good mothers with a lambing % of
4 mths to produce a lamb with 36 kg live mass (16 kg carcass). The Dorper ranges 100-150. Autumn & spring lambs raised easily in extensive conditions, lambs of
from extensive slaughter lamb production to intensive conditions. 28kg can be obtained in 3,5 mths and 40kg live mass in 6 mths. Rams produce →11
kg wool, maiden ewes →4, 5 kg and ewes →6 kg. Mature mass: Rams →100 kg and
5. White Dorper. Ewes →70 kg.
Origin:
While breeding Blackhead Dorper some white sheep appeared & were thrown out, Uses of breed:
but some farmers recognized their potential and bred the ewes further. Valuable dual-purpose sheep for sour grassveld. Dohne wool accepted in the
industry as pure Merino wool and gets good prices.
Description:
Large, well built white mutton sheep. 2. Corriedale
☺Rest of the description is the same as Blackhead Dorper. Origin:
This dual purpose breed started in Australia and New Zealand.
They are adapted to the climate of these countries and also the Southern Africa.

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Description: There are many types of goats, but those of most important in Zimbabwe are the
Large, polled, dual purpose animal with good conformation, long strong wool of following;
good quality→ (100-150mm long) & good flocks will average 5 kg of wool for 1. Boer goat
ewes and 10 kg for rams. The ewes are good mothers, but they have a restricted 2. Angora
breeding season and cannot be served by a ram at any time in the year. The lambs 3. Saanen.
grow and mature quickly, and both sexes live longer than do other breeds. Rams
weigh→110kg and ewes→70kg. 1. Boer goat
Origin:
Uses of breed: Breeders from Somerset East and Bedford areas (S.A.) started to aim for uniform
Dual purpose capable of producing wool and mutton in a number of different veld coat colour, good meat quality, high growth rate, high fertility, hardness and
and climatic conditions. adaptability & developed the Boer goat.

3. South African Mutton Merino (S.A.M.M) Description:

Origin: Large white goat with short hair on the body, red head, males are bearded, both
In 1932, one ram + 10 ewes, German Mutton Merino, imported by Dept. of Agric. sexes horned. The Boer goat is very docile and placid with an excellent
& were temperament. Does are good mothers, lots of milk. They are fertile→ 95-100% fall
kept at Elsenburg, more imports followed. In 1971, these then became known as pregnant. Kidding % →170-180 or higher. If management and nutrition good they
South African Mutton Merino (S.A.M.M). are capable of kidding 3 times in 2 yrs (2,5-3 kids/doe/yr). Management at kidding
is important as triplets are very weak and must drink colostrum immediately or they
Description: will die. For the first few days in extensive areas they hide their young ones
Large dual purpose animal, good conformation & meat qualities, reasonable amount (predators). Mature live mass; Bucks→ 145kg and Does→ 90kg.
of white wool also of good quality. They are well adapted to different veld and
climatic conditions. Thrives very well on maize residues. Growth rate is good as is Uses of breed:
milk production→ lambs grow fast (0,4kg/day) on good nutrition. Wool production Meat, enterprise produces maximum amount of meat of high quality.
for rams→5,5kg and ewes→3,2kg. Mature rams weigh→110kg and ewes→90kg. Parts of farm not utilized by other farm animals, goats can effectively control bush
encroachment areas. Skins make good quality leather.
Uses of breed:
Mostly used for meat and wool production. Used in the development of Dormer, 2. Angora.
Vandor and Dohne, used in cross-breeding 3 way cross with Merino ewes. Origin:
Asia, Turkey- most important producers. In 1838 first Angoras arrived in S.A.
GOATS Numbers have fluctuated over the yrs due to drought, depression and marketing.
Goats were among the earliest animals to be domesticated. Most countries of the
world have used goats as a source of meat and milk since the earliest days of Description:
recorded history. Goats play a positive role in environmental protection and The goat has a white coat, with large quantity of good mohair & hair can be 150mm
destruction by clearing away certain plant species. As well as having an important long. Both males and females are horned, does kid once per yr, seasonal breeders.
role in agriculture, goats can contribute significantly in improving the health of They are fertile but are not good mothers, possibly due to genetic reasons combined
humans, e.g., the infant suffering from allergy to mother’s or cow’s milk, and raise with stress (droughts & sudden cold). They are sensitive to cold, rainy conditions
the standard of living as the economy. Goats can stand more heat than sheep. They especially after shearing. Kidding % → 50-90, abortions high→10-50%. Mature
have a strong dislike for being in water and are reluctant to feed in the rain, so they mass; Bucks→80kg, Does→40kg.
shld have shelter for loafing & feeding. Goats are very inquisitive, restless animals
and can at times be mischievous. Uses of breed:
High quality mohair production. Makes a very good textile fibre.

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3. Saanen. 3. Internal Parasites.
Origin: Internal parasites in shoats are a worldwide problem, but they are particularly so
Europe. during the warm summer mths. Egg-counts surveys by Le Roux (1970) and others,
as well as more detailed investigations by Grant (1972) have revealed that
Description: roundworms are particularly active during the warm mths of Oct – May. Unless
The Saanen is the largest bodied of all the breeds and is nearly all white. regular dosing is undertaken to control these parasites, only the indigenous and
They produce the most milk, with probably the lowest butterfat content, about 3%. related breeds with their low production potential are likely to survive.
The breed has upright ears.
4. Availability of feed.
Uses of breed: Most intensification of shoats production in Zim is dependent on the availability of
Milk production and feta cheese. farm-produced grains principally maize and, to a lesser extent sorghum. The more
exotic breeds shld be considered only when reliable rainfall permits the regular
Factors affecting choice of breed. production of sufficient grain for stock feeding.
The breed of sheep/goat which a farmer decides to grow on his/her farm will depend
on the following factors: GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF SHOATS
Shoats are managed well when they are kept in well fenced paddocks. The
1. Climate. alternative is herding the flock out during the day and putting them back in pens or
The sheep/goats as a species is one of the most widely adapted of the domesticated kraals at night. Lambs/kids are/can be put into small paddocks/pens and fattened for
animals. It is found in many diverse forms, from cool, moist, temperate regions of slaughter.
the world to the relatively hot desert areas.
The hairy & fat-tailed breeds are well adapted to the hot dry areas. The more Management is the term used to describe all the techniques used by the farmer to
improved breeds (Dorper & Wiltiper) cannot normally be run outside these zones, manipulate the various factors that affect shoats productivity. Good management is
unless special steps are taken to adapt the environment, particularly as far as the one aspect of shoats production that can increase financial returns with a
nutrition is concerned. According to the mean annual rainfall and temperature, much minimum of expense. Since the most important single aspect of profitability is the
of Zim is theoretically suited to some form of shoats production, however the high fecundity of the flock, many aspects of management are aimed at controlling the
levels of humidity associated with fairly high temperatures during the short rainy animal’s breeding cycle so as to obtain the max. number of viable lambs/kids.
season are far from ideal for sheep.
The long, dry winter also has a marked effect on the natural grazing which declines Factors which can be controlled by management that affect the fecundity of the
seriously in quality once it has set seed towards the end of the rains. Unless flock are;
management techniques & supplementary feeding are applied to minimize these 1. Age at first breeding
2. Intervals btwn breeding
effects, only the hardy fat-tailed breeds are likely to survive and produce. 3. No of lambs/kids produced per breeding cycle
4. Length of the ewe’s/doe’s breeding life.
2. Vegetation.
Sheep prefer to graze short grass & do not like tall grasses found on the veld. It is obvious that any circumstances wch restrict the ability of the animals to
Furthermore, the wool breeds pick up grass seeds (spear grass- Heteropogon produce viable young ones, together with any circumstances wch reduce the young
contortus) in their wool, these will penetrate the skin & finally the flesh of the ones survival rate, will also decrease the overall productivity of the flock.
animal causing infections (abscesses), reduced growth rate, reduced value of the Following fecundity, the next most important aspect of flock profitability is the
wool & skin and also render the meat unfit for human consumption. growth rate of the lambs/kids. This is strongly influenced by nutrition as well as
Breeds like the blackhead Persian & Dorper do not suffer from this problem becoz genetic factors.
their skin is covered with hair & very short wool, but breeds with longer wool shld
never be grazed on the veld. Management can be considered under a number of different headings and so some
sequence of development of the subject is necessary;

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1. SELECTION AND RECORDING iii) Numbering system
For commercial lamb or mutton production, the first requirement is to have sound Before animals are marked, it is essential to decide on a planned numbering system.
fertile ewes, wch have good milk production characteristics & desirable mutton Probably the most versatile & most practical system is the one that indicates first the
conformation, any system of selection shld be founded on these requirements. year of birth, & then the number of the young one. In other words, the first lamb/kid
In most flocks, selection of replacement ewes is done on a visual basis, preferably born in 2016 would be numbered 16-001 and the 188 lamb/kid born would be
when maiden ewes are about 12 mths of age just prior to first mating. At this age the numbered 16-188. Then the first lamb/kid born in 2017 would be numbered 17-001
young animal has had full opportunity to express its growth potential without the and so on.
stress of pregnancy & lactation.
Visual selection shld take into account all those factors that affect an animal’s b) Lamb/kid record card
ability to walk, feed, and reproduce. To this end, particular notice shld be taken of Once all ewes/does are identified, all lambs/kids shld be marked in similar fashion
the soundness of the ewe’s feet & legs, her stance, the soundness of her jaws & the a.s.a.p. after birth, when their number, sex, date of birth, birth mass & dam number
fit of her incisors on the dental pad. may be recorded.
Her appearance shld also be truly feminine since this is an indicative of balanced The sire’s number may also be noted if single ram/buck flocks are run.
hormonal development & hence reproductive normality. The next recording exercise will be at weaning, lambs/kids shld be weighed &
On its own, visual selection will never be entirely satisfactory or effective, therefore weaning date recorded. When maiden ewes/bucks are selected for replacement, the
records of the performance of every breeding animal in the flock must also be record card can be referred to.
studied & used as a selection tool. Another entry into the lamb/kid record that would normally be of interest would be
details of the disposal of the lamb/kid, i.e. what it realized at slaughter, whether it
a) Identification of shoats was retained as a replacement ewe/doe and so on.
For effective recording, the first step must be the positive identification of every
animal in the flock. c) Ewe/doe record card
Hot branding of sheep is not possible. Tattoos can be used for the white-eared Each ewe/doe in the breeding flock shld have her individual production card. On
breeds, but the most common methods used are ear notching and ear tagging. this, at the time she is drafted into breeding flock, are noted details of her number,
birth date, sire & dam, and her own weaning performance extracted from the
i) Ear notching lamb/kid record card. Subsequently, the details of each lamb/kid born to her are
Can identify shoats, but the number is generally limited to 200. This restricts its use recorded by extraction from the lamb/kid record card as soon as the lamb/kid crop
in larger flocks unless used in combination with some other methods of marking. has been weaned.
A special instrument is used & numbering is done from the animal’s point of view,
that is with the tens & hundreds in the left ear & the units in the right ear. 2. REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY
a) Reproduction in the ewe
ii) Ear tagging The length of oestrus cycle is more constant & is generally 18-21 days.
A variety of ear tags are suitable for shoats, ranging from plastic tags & discs Silent Heats, can occur when the ewe/doe ovulates but does not show outward
assorted colours to light weight metal tags on wch various combinations of numbers manifestation of oestrus or a desire to mate.
& letters can be stamped according to the purpose or numbering sequence to wch The period of the year at wch oestrus occur has been evolved by natural selection so
the tags are applied. that the young are born at the time of the year that will give them their best chances
All types of tags can be shed or torn out of the ear at times, particularly when of survival. Those breeds wch have evolved in the northern latitudes tend to have a
animals are run in thorn-bush veld. Where a big flock is run, the loss of tags is a restricted breeding season wch is normally associated with declining day length in
considerable nuisance, especially where the animal concerned cannot be readily re- autumn & wch results in spring lambs.
identified. To reduce the possibility of such problems, some farmers put an identical Breeds of sheep such as the Merino, wch originated from nearer the equator have a
tag in each ear. Field experience seems to indicate that under most circumstances much more extended breeding season. Breeds indigenous to the tropics such as the
the metal tags are more satisfactory and more permanent. Black headed Persians & Dorpers have no defined breeding season.

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☻Foetal growth is slow in the first 60 days and 72% of the final birth mass is put they don’t waste their time chasing the odd individual ewe that is in oestrus. Most of
on during the last 45 days of pregnancy. the lambs will then be born at more or less the same time wch will aid management.

b) Reproduction in the ram/buck c) Fitness tests

Normally young rams/bucks are not used until at least 12 mths old & then only if Many stud breeders have their rams semen tested as routine before the start of the
they are well grown. mating season. In large farm flocks, the handling of the testes of each ram in turn &
In most flocks, they are not considered mature enough for full use until they are 18- checking that they are normal in all aspects is a matter of routine. Both testes shld
24 mths of age or two to four tooth. have descended into the scrotum; they shld be of normal size & texture→ neither
Males are far less affected by breeding season than females & most active, fertile spongy nor soft, and without any hardening of the point at the bottom of the testes
males in Zim will work effectively at any time of the year. However, high wch is sometimes a sign of Epidydimitis.
temperatures→ in excess of 32 °C may depress fertility, particularly in wool breeds. ☻To prevent Epidydimitis, all rams shld be inoculated, preferably as lambs with
Under-nutrition is usually associated with a reduced semen quality, low sperm the vaccine Rev. 1.
counts & reduced libido.
Flock males are seldom kept beyond seven yrs of age becoz as they get older, semen d) Check libido of individual rams
quality declines & there is increased proneness to scrotal abnormalities. The libido or sex drive of a ram is of great importance. It has no connection with
fertility, but without the desire to mate, even the healthiest & fertile ram is useless.
3. NUMBERS AND CARE OF RAMS The farmer can check the libido of individual rams by using a raddle or marking
a) Ratio harness with different colours. At least all new rams brought into the flock each year
Over a mating season of normal length (45 days) a mature active ram/buck can be shld be tested in this way. Observation by the herdsman is also an indication. Stud
given at least 50-60 ewes/does. This figure can be increased by making use of such breeders shld be particularly aware of the phenomenon becoz lack of libido appears
aids as → teasers, removal of mated females/, separation of mature & young to have some hereditary basis.
ewes/does.
To ensure that all ewes/does are covered, it is usually advisable to have rather more e) Summer sterility
rams/bucks than less. Daily temps in excess of 35°C can cause temporary infertility in rams. Mating in the
Maiden females and mature ones shld be mated separately, this usually ensures a hottest mths of the year (Sept-Nov) shld therefore be avoided, shade & shelter shld
higher lambing/kidding rate amongst the young ones. be available for breeding animals at all times.
Splitting the breeding flock also permits the sorting of males according to age, thus At the warmer time of the year, better lambing percentages are sometimes obtained
avoiding some of the fighting btwn old & young ones. by joining the rams with the ewes at night only.

b) Teasers f) Avoidance of unnecessary stress

A simple operation by the veterinarian can convert an active ram/buck into a teaser Shearing, where necessary, inoculation and the dosing of rams shld be completed at
wch while retaining all its masculine characteristics & libido is unable to get the least six wks before mating. Similarly, vaccinations against Blue tongue & Rift
females to conceive. Valley Fever shld be carried out at least eight wks before the start of the breeding
season.
Uses of teaser
1. Identifying those on heat so that they can be introduced to the ram/buck. g) Suitable mating practices
The teaser is often fitted with a mating harness or raddle (a crayon block attached to The rams may be divided into two sets or teams for joining with the ewes
the brisket of the ram by means of a suitable harness- wch marks the on heat ewes he alternatively at weekly intervals. The off-duty team can be fed-up in the meantime.
has mounted). Alternatively a special slow drying paint may be applied to the ram’s When spring-mating – (for autumn lambing) is practiced and where teaser rams
brisket. have not previously been used, the mating season is started with only one percent of
2. To put him with the ewe flock two wks before the mating season. The presents of a ram
rams with the ewe flock; the number of rams is gradually increased as the season
acts as a physiological stimulus to the ewes & most of them will come on heat 17 to 24 progresses. This practice avoids much unnecessary injury to rams wch would
days later. This means that when flock rams are put in, all the ewes are coming into otherwise spend a lot of their time fighting if only a few ewes are in oestrus to
oestrus together; the ram’s energies & attentions are spread to much better effect, and occupy their attention early in the season.

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4. SIZE OF THE BREEDING FLOCK g. Grass - seeds
Experience in S.A indicates that, for best results, the ewe flock shld not exceed 300 Some grass seeds are adapted to penetrate the ground by twisting under conditions
at mating time. This is not normally a problem in Zim where night kraaling is often of warmth and moisture. Unfortunately for sheep, these seeds react in the same way
practiced. Furthermore, flock size is often lower than this figure, owing to both the when caught in the fleece. To avoid the serious growth setbacks associated with
limited grazing nearby and to the ability of the shepherd. grass seeds, it may be necessary to time the lambing season so that most slaughter
lambs will have been sold by the time the main grass-seed menace is expected.
5. LAMBING SEASON
One of the major management decisions a flock owner must take is the lambing SPRING LAMBING
season he/she will adopt. This decision is affected by several factors. The young of most animal species are naturally born in spring. Although the
differences when compared with autumn lambing are relatively slight, the
Factors affecting lambing season advantages are still sufficient for spring lambing to be recommended for flocks in
a. Nutritional conditions Zim. The main advantages and disadvantages are listed below;
On poor veld, without any supplement, most ewes will take the ram during Nov- Jan
as soon as the flushing effect of improved nutritional conditions – i.e. summer Advantages of spring lambing;
grazing – permits conception. However, by making available satisfactory feed a. The ewe is able to attain its full milk potential on summer grass. Ideally, the lamb
supplies, most dry empty ewes can be induced to show heat oestrus at almost any shld be born about three to four wks before the spring grass flush.
time of the year. The cost of supplying such feed must also be considered. b. Ewes are more fertile at the time of autumn mating, and lambing percentages are
higher.
b. Natural peaks of oestrus c. Winter supplementary feeding requirement is minimal. More and larger lambs are
Where nutritional conditions are uniform among breeds from the higher latitudes - the two main Factors affecting income from sheep enterprise.
& to a lesser extent their derivatives, e.g. Dorper & Wiltiper – the association btwn
declining day length and the onset of oestrus shld be exploited to achieve high Disadvantages;
lambing rates over a restricted period. a. Parasitic challenge will be at its peak in summer.
b. Most veld grasses seed in Feb and early Mar and can affect lamb growth.
c. Other farm activities c. Ewes may be in poor condition following weaning and need a feed supplement at
Except where sheep form the main enterprise, other farm activities may take priority mating.
at certain times of the year. As the ewe flock needs particular attention during the d. Early rains may result in cool wet conditions during lambing.
lambing period, this shld be planned for a time when this attention can be readily
spared for the sheep flock. AUTUMN LAMBING
Advantages;
d. Market demands a. Grazing provides a good level of nutrition during pregnancy thus ensuring larger,
The farmer must tailor his/her production pattern to achieve the greatest profit under sturdier and hence more viable lambs.
his/her own particular circumstances. Becoz of high demands of sheep meat in the b. Parasitic challenge is less at this time of the year.
market, farmers have been able to market their slaughter lambs any time of the year c. Wool sheep may be shorn in spring without the risk of upsetting pregnant ewes.
(all year round). d. Lambs will have been weaned onto good grazing and will cut their first two
incisor teeth while on good spring grazing in the following year.
e. Climate
It is undesirable for lambs to be born when conditions are wet and cold. Generally Disadvantages;
the Highveld of Zimbabwe is equable enough to have lambing all year round. a. Mating is done when the natural oestrus peak is lower, & subsequent lambing
percentages are also lower.
f. Parasites b. Supplementary feeding for lactating ewes and their lambs is more expensive in
Parasites infestation is at its highest during summer. To avoid this Autumn lambing winter.
is preferred. c. Unless ewes are well fed, the declining milk flow results in slower lamb growth.
d. Ewe lambs attain breeding age when natural conception rates are lower.

15 16
Lambing more than once a year Inoculation against Pulpy kidney during the last fortnight will confer immunity on
For the outstanding flock manager who has achieved near peak production in the the lamb during its first few wks of life.
flock with once a year lambing, more frequent lambing will increase lamb As lambing time approaches, the early lambers shld be sorted out for special care;
production and may also increase overall profit. Nevertheless we have good the later-lambing ewes are not brought into the maternity area until their time
evidence in this country to indicate that increased profit does not necessarily follow. approaches. This permits a far closer supervision of lambing ewes than would be
possible when all are run in one flock together.
Various systems may be used to increase lambing frequency;
Signs of impending lambing
a. Continuous lambing As lambing approaches;
Ewes are exposed to the rams thru-out the year. This is not entirely satisfactory - slackening of the pelvic ligaments occurs at the base of the tail,
becoz, in addition to the two main but rather broad lambing seasons, lambs are - the vulva becomes relaxed and usually darkens
liable to be born at any time. - the udder becomes firm and hard & the teats fill at the base.
Furthermore, the stimulus of the presents of the ram among the ewes is reduced if he
is always present. Lambing
The onset of lambing commences with a relaxation and opening of the cervix,
b. Lambing every eight mths followed by gentle contractions of the womb that increase in intensity until passage
The objective is to achieve three lambs every two years per ewe. This must not be the foetal membranes rupture and the escaping fluids (the waters) act as a lubricant,
too rigid because lambing and mating at unsuitable times of the year shld be the lamb is expelled. Finally the umbilical cord breaks and the lamb is born. After a
avoided. short rest the womb contractions recommence to expel the foetal membranes and
placenta (the after birth).
6. FLUSHING EWES At least 70% of births are normal, i.e. forwards with the head resting on extended
After weaning the ewes’ condition usually drops as a result of poor grazing; the forelegs; more rarely the lamb is presented backwards with its hind legs extended.
ewes are then flushed by improving their condition thru better feeding a few wks Assistance is not needed at most births, other than a limited amount of traction wch
before mating. The purpose is to achieve a greater lamb crop in the next season. may occasionally be necessary to help a young, small or exhausted ewe, usually
There are various methods of achieving this, such as by moving the ewes to fresh when the lamb is too large. If this is the case, pull the lamb gently, firmly and
green pasture or by some additional concentrate feeding has all been used with steadily downwards in an arc towards the ewe’s hind feet.
varying success. Research work suggests that the effect of flushing is a greater Attempts at forced delivery by pulling will inevitably fail if the lamb is not correctly
release of gonadotrophic hormones into the ewe’s bloodstream, causing more eggs positioned, e.g. the head is misplaced or the legs are not fully extended or twins
to be released at ovulation and greater incidence of multiple births. Creep feeding of have got mixed up at the entrance to the passage. Correcting faulty positions must
lambs in this situation is essential. always be done after the lamb has been pushed back into the womb. The hand and
arm shld be thoroughly washed and then lubricated with soap and water before
7. LAMBING MANAGEMENT inserting. Wherever possible, veterinary or other experienced assistance shld be
Preparation sought until the farmer is himself familiar with the problem.
Lambing time has always been acknowledged as the busiest time of the sheep
farmer’s year. The actual number of lambs born is the end result of a whole year’s ☻Whenever a ewe has been assisted, a 5 cc injection of Penicillin or Tetracycline
flock management and feeding. But without adequate attention and supervision of shld be given and an antiseptic Pessary inserted into the womb as a precaution
the ewes over the six or eight wks of lambing, as many as one lamb in five may not against infection.
survive. That such losses may occur, is not characteristic of Zim alone, for similar
losses are reported from surveys in other countries. In all cases these lamb losses
can be greatly reduced by personal care and attention to the lambing flock. Problem ewes
During the mth prior to lambing, the ewes shld be under close surveillance. A number of ewes always need more intensive care and attention than the rest of the
Overgrown hooves shld be trimmed and wool ewes shld be crutched (the wool btwn flock at
the tail & the udder is trimmed away). every lambing season, these include;
a. ewes exhausted after a long difficult birth,
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b. ewes with weak lambs or one weak twin, If a foster mother is found, one technique is to wet the lamb -as well as her own
c. ewes unwilling to suckle their lambs and lamb if she still has one –all over with salt water, better still, some of the ewe’s own
d. ewes selected to foster twins and orphans. placental fluids. Once the lamb has been licked clean, she will usually accept it. In
all cases it is advisable to pen the ewe in close proximity with the lamb and to keep
For ease of supervision, it is always preferable to centralize the control of these them there until the lamb has been fully adopted. However, in the light of increasing
ewes near to hand. A series of small pens (1m by 1,3m) is necessary for the the prolificacy of sheep, renewed attention has been paid to the artificial rearing of
individual holding of each ewe and her offspring. lambs.
In all cases the lamb shld stay with its dam long enough to obtain its full share of
Attention to the lamb colostrum, i.e. until it is btwn 6 and 48 hrs old. Where the dam has died, the lamb
Investigations in Australia indicate that the greatest mortality of lambs occurs within shld be given the opportunity to suck from another newly lambed ewe.
the first three days after birth, mostly within 24 hrs. Ninety per cent of all lamb Once separated from the ewe, lambs shld be placed in clean well-ventilated
mortalities arise from; surroundings. Clean straw bedding is desirable as is the presents of up to six other
a. Starvation soon after birth lambs, particularly in cooler weather.
b. difficult births
c. small and weak lambs. Feeds used in artificial rearing of lambs
i. Milk
If the ewe is too weak or exhausted to lick her newly-born lamb, it is important to Table indicates the different compositions of the milk of sheep and three other
ensure that at least the mucus is wiped from the lamb’s nose so that it can breathe mammals, the cow, the goat and the human. Most farmers are aware that cattle milk
freely. If a lamb can’t feed becoz one or both the ewe’s teats are blocked, clean off quality can vary quite considerably from the average, and the same applies to
the waxy seal and squeeze the teat until milk is expelled. Cleaning the udders of all species. Nevertheless, the table gives a good indication of the difference btwn
ewes before lambing is a good practice. species.
The new-born lamb has sufficient reserves of energy to survive for several hrs under
normal conditions; to stay alive after this, the lamb must suck as soon as possible, Table percentage composition of different species (Hugo 1966).
before body temp starts to decline. It is important to see that the ewe and the lamb
mother-up and that the ewe will stand for suckling. Problem-ewes in this respect Sheep Goat Cow Human
shld be confined with the lamb until a normal relationship is established. Sometimes Water 83,2 87,2 87,1 87,4
a very weak lamb will have to be held up to the udder to suck for the first two or Fat 6,2 4,1 3,8 3,8
Lactose 4,3 4,2 4,8 7,0
three feeds. It is particularly important for the lamb to get the first milk (colostrum) Casein 4,3 2,9 2,9 0,9
from its dam. Colostrum has a vital two-fold function; Other proteins 1,1 0,8 0,7 0,7
1. to clear the alimentary canal and get it moving Ash 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,2
2. to pass on the mother’s immunities to the lamb.
It will be noted that sheep’s milk is considerably richer than that of other species
Exposure is also a frequent cause of lamb losses; in Zim torrential rainstorms often and this must be borne in mind when formulating milk substitutes for lambs. It is
carry out the coupe de grace on weak spring-born lambs. Cold winds as such do not necessary to fortify the substitute, particularly by increasing its fat content. Certain
appear to cause many lamb deaths in Zim. Rain can be more chilling than a cold dry key points must be born in mind if problems are to be avoided when raising lambs.
wind, and if cold rains are imminent at lambing it is advisable to keep ewes and very • keep new-born lambs warm
young lambs under a roof for two or three days after birth. • keep feeding utensils thoroughly clean
• feed new-born lambs frequently.
Orphan lambs
Orphan lambs usually cause more trouble to rear than they are worth, and unless a NB: Do not overfeed, since this can cause the lambs to scour. A useful indicator is that, once
suitable foster mother can be found at short notice; they are disposed-off as a routine the flanks are level with the hips; the lamb has had enough.
on most properties, particularly where large flocks are run.
First two days

19 20
The lamb shld be allowed to suck from its mother to obtain the colostrum. If bottle After weaning, lambs shld have access to the best possible grazing and, if a creep
feeding is, the following mixture warmed to baby bottle temp is recommended; was supplied, this shld continue. Lambs to be penned for finishing shld continue on
-740 ml cow’s milk the old concentrate ration until they have settled into their new surroundings.
-one (1) beaten egg
-5 ml cod-liver oil or castor oil 9. TAIL DOCKING
-10 g sugar The removal of a sheep’s tail is an essential practice where wooled sheep are run. In
the case of ewes in particular, the soiling of the wool in the britch area with urine
☻Four to five feeds of about 70 ml are normally given per day. and dung creates an ideal egg-laying sites for blow flies; if in addition the animal
After two days has a long tail the soiling is considerably aggravated.
Feeding can be reduced to two or three times per day the amount fed must be One school of thought still likes to see the tail completely removed, but recent
progressively increased. observations indicate that, with ewes, it is probably best toe leave just enough to
One of the following mixtures may be used; cover the tip of the vulva. In the non-wooled breeds, tail docking is intended mainly
• 600 ml cow’s milk mixed with 35 g full cream powdered milk to improve the appearance of the animal, and is a necessary requirement in certain
• 600 ml pure cow’s milk (preferably high butterfat Jersey cow milk) breed standards.
• 500 ml commercial milk substitute, but mixed 50% stronger than the mixture recommended Methods of tail docking vary, but all are equally effective if carried out efficiently
for calves. and suitable precautions are taken against disease. The use of a fly repellent is
important in this respect.
ii. Concentrates
Lambs can be introduced to concentrates after two or three wks. a. Knife method
Suitable mixtures are; A sharp straight-handled knife that can be sterilized in boiling water is used. The tail
and surrounding area of the animal shld be first washed. The skin of the tail is
For younger lambs → 2 kg wheat bran + 2 kg maize meal + 1 kg skim-milk powder. pushed up above the joint in the vertebra that has been selected as the cutting site
and the tail is cut off boldly, in one firm movement.
For older lambs (5wks and older) → 1, 5 kg wheat bran + 0, 5 kg lucerne meal + 0, 8 kg The skin is then allowed to slip back over the exposed portion. Bleeding occurs and
maize meal + 0, 2 kg skim-milk powder. soon stops if the lamb is allowed to walk away. Some farmers use a hot iron to
cauterize the wound.
☻ Some of this dry feed is placed in the lamb’s mouth immediately after it has had
its bottle. b. Hot iron
An assistant holds the lamb in such a way that its tail lies on the block of wood. The
The remainder is left in a dish or small bucket. Once the lamb is taking concentrate operator pushes the skin above the cutting point and then severs the tail at the right
readily, it can be given as much as it can eat in about an hour. place using a spade or badza blade heated to a dull red colour.
8. WEANING
c. Burdizzo & knife
Lambs in Zim are commonly weaned btwn four and five mths of age. The milk
The tail is crushed btwn the jaws of a Burdizzo, cutting off the blood supply, and
production of the ewe reaches its peak in the fourth week of lactation, followed by a
then cut off btwn the jaws with a sharp knife before the jaws are released. Wound
steady decline by the end of the fourth month; milk production is only
powder or screw-worm remedy may also be applied. This method appears fairly
approximately 25% of peak output. At this stage the ewe’s milk is only contributing
suitable for partly docking fat-tail lambs at an early age.
10 to 20 % of the lamb’s total feed intake. By five mths many ewes go dry and
self weaning follows anyway. Ewes usually benefit from a rest before the next
d. Elastrator
mating. It is good practice to wean earlier during droughts or adverse conditions and
This method must be applied before the lamb is 48 hrs old, while the bone is still
so relieve the strain on ewes.
soft. The rubber ring is put on at the desired place and left for a couple of days, after
A lamb is cheaper to maintain or pen-feed than a ewe and dry-ewe is better able to
which both the ring and tail remnant are removed with a knife & disposed of. No
survive conditions of nutritional stress.
bleeding shld occur. The practice of using elastrator rings, which are left in position

21 22
until the dead and shriveled tail falls off, is to be discouraged, not only for its catcher holds both of the lamb’s right legs in his/her right hand and both left legs in
unsightliness, but also becoz of the risk of infections. his/her left hand. The operator holds the end of the scrotum or purse in his/her free
hand & with a firm movement of the knife, cuts off the lower end of the scrotum.
10. CASTRATION Using the free hand to press against the body wall, the first testicle is grasped, the
Castration as an animal husbandry practice is probably just as old as the white outer membrane slit and then the testicle is pulled firmly from the scrotum
domestication of animals. breaking the spermatic cords and blood vessels. The same procedure is followed for
It has several effects upon an animal in addition to rendering it sexually sterile. The the second testicle, and the scrotum sac is then tugged lightly but firmly to ensure
first obvious effect is that sex drive and aggressiveness are greatly reduced or even that the remaining contents are with-drawn into the body.
terminated. Carcass characteristics are altered; the development of the forequarters The whole empty scrotum is then swabbed down and finally dusted with a suitable
is reduced and the amount of fat in the castrate is greater and more evenly wound powder.
distributed than in the intact male.
A variation of this method is to use an emasculator or ones teeth to crush and thus
When a mature male animal is slaughtered, the meat is often tougher, darker in seal off the cord of the testicle, instead of merely pulling it out. As the use of the
colour and of a stronger taste than the meat from castrates or females. knife causes bleeding, carry out the operation early in the cool of the morning, and
Marbling → (the dispersal of fat thru the muscle) declines progressively as the intact ram also to ensure that the lambs have been standing for at least half an hour before
advances in age. The age, at wch an animal is slaughtered, relative to its age at handling. The operation is best done when lambs are about three wks of age.
sexual maturity, influences the effects of castration. As the differences btwn
castrated and intact ram lambs do not show up in young sheep, intact ram lambs b. Burdizzo
have been acceptable for the top lamb grades in Zim since 1971. This method is most effective when lambs are much older, at least three mths of age,
and it involves crushing the spermatic cord thru the scrotal skin by the use of special
When growth rate and efficiency are compared, the advantages of intact ram lambs instrument. The external surface of the scrotum is not damaged, but the internal
become apparent. Up to eight mths of age the advantage may range btwn 3 and 11 blood supply is cut off with the severing of the spermatic cord, thus causing the
%. Intact male lambs also tend to show greater muscling and less fat covering than testicles to wither away.
their castrated brothers. Despite all these factors, the practice of castration is likely
to continue in most commercial flocks, purely for managerial convenience becoz The technique is to pull the testicles down to the end of the scrotum. The cord of the
well-grown ram lambs have been known to become interested in the other sex as first testicle is then drawn to the side of the scrotum and caught btwn the jaws of the
early as four mths of age. This means that if odd unplanned matings are to be Burdizzo which is then locked and held for about 20 seconds. The same procedure is
avoided, uncastrated male and female lambs must be run separately after weaning. then adopted for the second testicle, but on the other side of the scrotum.
Normally, this is practical only when lambs are intensively pen-finished or when
sheep are run on a very large scale and rams & ewes can be drafted into different Care must be taken to ensure that the bruise marks of the two separate bites of the
flocks. instrument do not merge or over-lap becoz this could cause the whole of the lower
scrotum to die and eventually drop off, and thus provide an easy entry for screw-
Where castration is to be practiced, it is best done at an early age; many flock worm or bacterial infection. The operator shld also make sure that the jaws of the
owners do this once a week during the lambing season. The following methods can instrument are not too close to the body as there is a danger of catching and injuring
be used; the animal’s penis or urethra inside the body wall. Use of the Burdizzo method of
castration ensures minimum opportunity for secondary disease infection.
a. Knife method
This is the oldest of the three methods and has the advantage that at the end of the c. Elastrator
operation, two testicles are to hand as tangible proof that the operation will be 100 This is the most favoured method, particularly where labour is scarce and expensive.
% effective. It is quick and no sterilization or disinfecting is required. An applicator is used to fit
a tight rubber ring around the top of the scrotum and above the testicles thus cutting
A very sharp sterilized knife is used. Disinfectant is necessary for washing the knife off the blood supply. The lower half of the scrotum shrivels away and, if left, will
and swabbing down the empty scrotum after the operation. The lamb is placed in a usually drop off after about 10 to 12 days. The rubber ring must be applied when the
sitting position upon an empty drum or plank set at a convenient working height, the
23 24
lamb is very young preferably 2 to 3 days old while the skin of the scrotum is still Feeding during the production year
very soft; the younger the animal, the more effectively will the wound be healed. 1. Mating time
The technique is to pull the testicles down into the lower end of the scrotum with It is a time-honoured practice to flush ewes at the time of mating, by increasing the
one hand → (They are not always easy to locate when the lamb is so young) and then to amount or quality of the grazing available to them. Where lush grazing is not
apply elastrator ring above them. available a similar effect will be achieved by supplementing them with a small
amount of concentrate. It has been demonstrated that ewes under nutrition stress
d. Short scrotum method before and after mating will often re-absorb certain of the fertilized ova and this
Testes are pushed into the body cavity, then a rubber ring is used around the reduces both twinning & overall lambing %. Therefore, except in the case of ewes
scrotum to ensure the testes remain in the body cavity. Sperm production ceases but in very good condition, flushing improves conception rate and increases the
hormonal production still evident. It is found that growth rate and F.C.R with this incidence of multiple births.
method are superior to animals that have had complete testicle removal.
2. Early Pregnancy (14 – 50 days)
e. Russian method Feed the ewe to maintain her body condition. Examples include grazing winter
Insert scalpel into body of testicles, twist and express contents. Performed from 1 – 5 range or stockpiled winter pasture, or providing moderate quality grass hay (10 –
mths of age. As in above method, hormonal function is retained. Not a popular 12% protein).
method to farmers. Tetanus infection of the testes can be a problem in some areas
and alternative methods of castration may be necessary. However, protection of the 3. Mid-Pregnancy (50 – 100 days)
lambs by anti-tetanus vaccine shld really be routine practice for both sexes in these Feed to maintain a good body condition. Check ewes for condition every 2 wks and
areas. adjust the ration accordingly. This is the period of placental development, and the
ewe will absorb multiple fetuses, leaving only one, if nutritionally stressed.
Cryptorchids or Rigs Acceptable rations are basically the same as those used during early pregnancy but
Every so often one comes across a ram lamb in which one or both testicles have may need to be supplemented depending on weather and forage conditions.
been retained and thus none of the above methods can be used. As it is futile to
operate on one testicle only, the lamb shld be marked in some way for future 4. Late Pregnancy (100 – 148 days)
attention or early slaughter. This period requires an increasing energy content in the feed becoz 75 % of fetal
growth occurs during the last six wks of pregnancy. Surveys of lamb deaths in this
11. HOOFTRIMMING country as well as overseas have shown that, the smaller lambs are always those
Very often sheep develop overgrown hooves when grazing soft pastures or when most likely to die shortly after birth and ewes on a good plane of nutrition give birth
they have soft conditions underfoot. Overgrown hooves greatly hinder a sheep’s to larger lambs as well as having a better subsequent milk flow thereby increasing
walking ability and in the case of rams can severely restrict serviceability. Under the chances of survival to the lambs.
conditions where hooves tend to grow faster than they are worn down by walking, If the flock has a history of ewes producing two or three lambs, then the energy shld
hoof trimming is essential and shld be a regular management practice. be increased
The wall of the hoof shld be trimmed level with the sole using either a sharp, stout by 50 – 100 %.
short-bladed knife or secateurs. ☻Straw is not an adequate ration for ewes in late pregnancy.

12. NUTRITION 5. Lactating

Sheep are perhaps, the most adaptable of the domestic livestock when it comes to This is the period of greatest energy requirement, except when ewes are run on the
nutrition. They are efficient users of poor quality forages and can be productive on a best quality grazing after lambing, the nutrients available to them are seldom
wide variety of feeds. However it is common knowledge that our grazing varies adequate for maximum milk production. For this reason a balanced ration shld be
considerably both on quality and bulk btwn the first spring flush & winter fed to ensure that the ewes stay in a good condition and that the lambs get enough
dormancy. At the same time the feed requirements of sheep vary according to the milk to enable them to gain a good two kgs per week (dorper) Peak milk production
stage in their reproductive cycle. The major consideration in animal nutrition is occurs three to four wks after lambing so supplementation can be tapered off
in the definition of just what productive function the animal is expected to perform. after that. Expect a moderate loss of body condition during lactating.

25 26
6. Dry Period 9. Rams
The dry period occurs between weaning of the lambs and the next breeding season. Over fat rams are lazy and less fertile than they shld be, but at the same time rams
This is the time when the ewes regain body condition lost during lactation. Their that are down in condition are not able to sire as many lambs as they shld,
requirements are not high during the dry period and can be met by grazing or eating particularly over a short period of time.
medium quality forage. It is therefore important that rams are maintained in top working condition. Rams
shld be kept in a vigorous, healthy condition thru-out the year if they are to function
7. Creep feeding efficiently during breeding season.
When grazing is insufficient, when there is a high proportion of young dams, when Good green grazing is usually quite satisfactory during the summer and a
there are lots of twins or when a disease outbreak has reduced milk production in supplement of a kg or so of good legume hay is ideal for the winter.
some way, lambs benefit to a great extent by having access to concentrate feed in a Shortly before and during the breeding season, the provision of a concentrate
creep area wch excludes the larger sheep. supplement containing both energy and protein is a sound practice. A supplement of
Creep feeding is of particular value if lambs are to be finished in the feedlot; they 1, 5 kg per day of a 1: 12 cottonseed cake, corn and cob meal mixture shld prove
will be accustomed to concentrate feeding from an early age and will show minimal satisfactory. In larger sheep enterprise, a separate ram flock can be run during the
weaning shock and growth rate continues without any set-back after weaning. It has non-breeding season. In the smaller flocks of 100 ewes or less, a small fenced
been observed that once all lambs are familiar with the creep, each lamb’s pasture near the farmstead shld be provided and as they are gregarious animals, the
consumption of concentrates is inversely proportional to the dam’s milk production. rams shld always have at least one or two other sheep for company.
This has an undoubted advantage in the production of an even lamb crop,
particularly when the ewes are of variable quality or when there are a large number ☻Young lambs, wethers or old cull ewes can all serve this purpose.
of twins. Creep feeding will completely nullify the effects of any selection for ewe
milk production based on weaning mass. 10. Pen finishing lambs
The creep shld be made available to the lambs as soon after birth as possible. For Few lambs in Zim are ready for slaughter at the usual weaning age of 4 to 5 mths.
early creep feeding, coarsely ground maize alone may be used as the ewe’s milk will This means that lambs must either be grown out and finished on grass if they are
supply ample protein, but later an inclusion 10 to 12 % cottonseed meal in the creep autumn born and weaned onto spring grazing, or they must be finished-off by a
concentrate will be desirable, especially if lambs do not have access to green period of intensive feeding in the pen.
grazing. Five % molasses added to the grain will increase palatability and enhance Pens can be simply constructed allowing btwn one and two square metres floor
intake. A change in ingredient or appetizers might be necessary shld the lambs go space per lamb and 100 to 250 mm running trough-space per head depending on the
off the creep mixture. After lambs are 5 – 6 wks old, there is little point in milling method of feeding. A supply of clean, cool water is essential. When roofing is
the maize grain. The creep shld be situated near a water point and salt licks so that provided it shld preferably cover at least half the floor area of the pen and be built
lambs will use them. high enough → (at least 2 m) to allow an unrestricted flow of air.

☻As much as four to five wks of pen-feeding can be saved if lambs are progressively Ad lib diets of high-energy type have proved satisfactory, provided they contain 13
adapted to the finishing feed in this way. to 15 % crude protein (to promote maximum feed intake) btwn 10 and 20 % roughage
and sufficient calcium to prevent the development of urinary calculi → (1 -3 %
8. Young stock retained for breeding limestone flour in the concentrate). In addition to the roughage in the feed mixture, an
Young breeding stock must not at any time suffer from neglect. They shld be kept extra supply of roughage either as deep-litter bedding or as hay in a rack/hay box
growing steadily but without the intensive fattening associated with high-energy will help minimize digestive disturbances. The provision of a salt lick can also be
feeding. Maximum ruminal development is desirable but always be remembered advantageous.
that the rumen in these animals is still small. Any roughage fed shld be of highest Carcass grading is based on a visual appraisal of the degree of fleshing and fat
possible quality, or suitable fortified with a limited amount of concentrate. cover. For our more common breeds (Dorper & Wiltiper) the best live mass at wch to
Extensively succulent roughage will restrict the animal’s intake of digestible slaughter lambs is btwn 34 and 39 kg giving a carcass of btwn 15 and 18 kg. to
nutrients below the optimum level. estimate whether a sheep is fat enough for slaughter, the hand shld be placed on the
back in the region of the loin and then over the floating ribs to feel the degree of
cover. The width of the brisket is also quite a good visual indicator.

27 28
13. TROUBLE SHOOTING -hot, humid conditions are the most favourable for the eggs to hatch into effective
The intensive method of lamb finishing is far removed from natural grazing and is larvae, and under these conditions, the cycle of egg to adult worm is completed in
not without its problems. Attention to the following points will ensure that these are three wks.
minimal; -sheep must be dosed at intervals of three wks or less in order to break the cycle in
• Vaccinate all lambs three times against Pulpy kidney (Enterotoxaemia), a month the summer months, and in the winter, they should be dosed every six wks.
before penning, two wks before and finally as they go into the pen.
• Restrict the amount of standard concentrate supplied to each lamb to a low level Brown Stomach Worms
for the first two wks until the lambs are used to it. Roughage shld be available ad -these are thin brown strands about 12 mm long.
lib. -they are not such serious killers as wireworms, but they do cause loss of condition
• If acidosis is noticed →lambs off their feed, grinding teeth, dung pellets soft and smelly and weight in sheep.
– separate the sick lambs and dose with 60ml milk of magnesia, followed by a penicillin
or tetracycline injection. Bankrupt Worms
• After 10 days in the pen, dose all lambs with a broad-spectrum roundworm -these are very small worms, 5 mm long and live in the small intestines.
remedy. Dose against tapeworm if the segments are apparent in the dung.
Nodular Worms
14. GENERAL FEEDING HINTS -these are 20 mm long with a hook at one end. They burrow into the wall of the
• Keep all stock healthy by routine dosing against internal parasites and preventive large intestine & the surrounding tissues form a nodule around the worm.
inoculations against diseases. This aspect is covered in detail in Animal Health. -infested animals have periodic bouts of diarrhea.
• Water shld be available every day, preferably piped to a water trough.
• Sheep do not like long grass and wherever possible, pastures shld be kept fairly ☻All the above worms have a similar life cycle, with eggs being passed out of the
short either by using planted runner grasses, by grazing cattle or by the use of a sheep in the dung.
mower ahead of the grazing sheep. These eggs hatch into effective larvae which crawl up the blades of grass & they are
• All changes from one feed to another shld be gradual, e.g. sheep going on to a lush taken into the grazing sheep along with the grass. Once inside the sheep, the larvae
green vlei after a Sept. burning shld be restricted to no more than an hour grazing a grow into adult worms, start laying eggs & the cycle commences all over again.
day until they are used to it. Similarly, a new ration or mixture shld be supplied in
small quantities only, or else diluted with roughage at first until it is taken by all Tapeworms
animals. -these occur in lambs, and can be as long as 5 metres, living inside the intestine of
the lamb. Segments of the worm break off and pass out in the dung of the lamb.
15. HEALTH STATUS These segments break up on the grass, releasing very small eggs which are eaten by
One of the most important aspect of sheep management is the control of diseases mites. The lambs pick up the mites when grazing & become infected.
which is carried out by vaccination and the control of parasites by dosing. -the segments of the tape worm can be seen in the dung of infected lambs, & they
look like very small grains of white rice.
1. INTERNAL PARASITES.
Large Stomach Worm or Wireworm
-this worm will kill both lambs and adult sheep unless preventive measures are ☻They can be controlled by dosing the lambs with LINTEX.
taken.
-the worm occurs in the fourth stomach or abomasums, and it is about 25 mm long. Liver Fluke
-it feeds on the blood of the sheep which is sucked from the wall of the stomach and -if sheep are allowed to graze on the top land & have access to clean water, they will
the small intestines and the sheep dies from anaemia caused by loss of blood. not become infected with liver flukes. However, if they are allowed to graze vlei or
-one female wireworm can lay 10 000 eggs a day and these pass out of the sheep in drink from dams or pools, they can pick up flukes.
the dung and infect the land where the sheep are grazing. One ewe with a moderate -the disease usually appears in late winter or early spring, with sheep dying
infestation of worms can pass 500 000 eggs each day onto the land. suddenly.
-the eggs hatch into young worms which are picked up by sheep while they are -adult flukes in the liver lay eggs which pass into the intestines & pass out in the
grazing and these mature inside the sheep and produce more eggs. dung, they hatch into larvae which swim to their next host i.e. snail where the larvae
multiply to produce cercariae.
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These leave the snail & form cysts on the leaves of grass & plants around the edge c. Orf or Pustular Dermatitis
of the water. These leaves are eaten by grazing animals which then become infested -causes the formation of the scabs around the mouth, especially in young, suckling
by liver flukes. lambs.
-when large numbers of small flukes migrate to the liver & begin feeding on blood, -affected animals should be isolated, and the sores bathed with mild antiseptic.
the animal dies from loss of blood. -prevention is by vaccinating the flock.

2. EXTERNAL PARASITES. d. Heartwater

-The external parasites of sheep are lice, ticks and scab mites and can be controlled -transmitted by the bont tick, and causes a high temperature in animals (42 0C)
by dipping the flock in a plunge dip designed specifically for sheep. Care should be together with nervous symptoms.
taken to immerse the sheep completely, & great care shld be taken to see that lambs -treatment with antibiotics can be effective in the early stages of the disease, but the
do not drawn. It is not necessary to dip sheep as often as cattle, because the dip is main control is by dipping the flock to kill off the ticks.
held on the wool so that the effect of a single dipping lasts longer than with cattle. If
sheep are grazing short pastures, they do not require dipping very often, but their 4. BACTERIAL DISEASES:
feet & legs should be inspected for ticks fairy frequently. a. Pulpy Kidney or Enterotoxaemia
-this is a very common disease which kills sheep, especially lambs in good
Nasal Worm condition.
-this parasite is the larva of the sheep nasal fly which lays its eggs on the nostrils of -infected animals are found dead, & there is no treatment.
the sheep. The eggs hatch into larvae which crawl up the nostrils of sheep causing -prevention is by vaccinating the flock, & the following programme must be
great irritation & a thick discharge of mucus from the nose. A remedy for nasal followed;
worm can be purchased from any veterinary suppliers.
Ewes and Rams → Vaccinate once a year. If the ewes are vaccinated two (2) wks
3. VIRAL DISEASES. before lambing, this will protect the young lambs after they are born.
These diseases are caused by virus infections, and can be prevented by vaccinating
animals with the appropriate vaccinations. Lambs → Vaccinate at two (2) months old and again one (1) year later. Any sheep
which may be brought onto a farm should be vaccinated before reaching the farm.
a. Blue Tongue
-this disease is transmitted by midges. b. Quarter Evil or Blackleg
-it occurs during the rainy season. -the bacteria live in the soil & will infect an animal through a cut or scratch in the
-infected animals have a high temperature (41 0 C) and the tongue, lips and gums skin, causing death and prevention is by vaccinating.
become swollen and develop ulcers.
-the feet become hot & sore and the sheep will not walk. c. Navel ill or Joint ill
-this disease is caused by the bacteria entering the body, usually of a young lamb,
☻No treatment is effective, but the disease can be prevented by vaccinating the through a cut or via the navel at birth.
flock each year in the spring, pregnant ewes should not be vaccinated. -infection causes an abscess to form on the navel, and the joints of the legs often
become stiff.
b. Rift Valley Fever -prevention is by washing the navel cord with a 20% Iodine solution just after the
-this disease occurs occasionally in Zim, and is transmitted by midges. lamb’s birth.
-it causes young lambs to die and pregnant ewes will abort.
d. Tetanus or Lockjaw
☻There is no treatment, but can be prevented by vaccinating the flock in the spring. -the bacteria live in the soil and enter the body through a wound on the sheep, such
Pregnant ewes and lambs under one month old should not be vaccinated. as a cut caused by bad shearing or by castration.
-affected animals walk stiffly, and the mouth is tightly closed.

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-prevention is by cleaning and disinfecting wounds and a tetanus vaccine can be 5. OTHER DISEASES:
given to the whole flock. This vaccine is often carried with other vaccines such as
Pulpy Kidney. 1. Acidosis
-this occurs with sheep that are being fed with a high concentrate ration, especially
e. Foot rot those being fattened in pens.
-this is caused by bacteria entering the foot through a wound, & is more prevalent -the activity of the rumen is upset; the animal refuses to eat & may suffer from
during the rainy season. diarrhoea.
-treatment is by trimming the hoof by a knife & applying an antiseptic dressing such -in acute cases, death may follow within 24hrs, and affected animals should be
as copper sulphate & Stockholm tar or an aerosol spray made for dressing foot rot dosed with any of the following;
and wounds. Affected sheep should be put in a separate paddock until they have
recovered. i. Two (2) tablespoons of Milk of Magnesia (Magnesium hydroxide).
-prevention is by keeping the sheep’s feet trimmed & running them through a ii. One (1) teaspoon of washing soda (Sodium Carbonate)
footbath containing a 5% solution of copper sulphate or a 10% solution of Formalin. iii. Three (3) teaspoons of baking soda (Sodium Bicarbonate)
Sheep should be run through the footbath once every two wks during the summer.
☻Whichever dose is chosen; it should be mixed with water in a small bottle and
f. Anthrax carefully poured into the sheep’s mouth. The treatment may be repeated.
-this is a very dangerous bacterial disease which can affect man. -this condition can be prevented by making sure that any change to a high
-it is a specified disease under the Animal Health Act, 1960, & suspected cases must concentrate diet is carried out gradually.
be reported to the nearest veterinary official.
-animals are rarely seen ill, & are usually found dead, with a blood stained discharge 2. Twin Lamb Disease
from the nose, mouth and anus. Such a carcass should be burned or buried in lime -this affects ewes that are close to lambing, and affected ewes are usually carrying
and must not be touched by anybody who is not wearing gloves and protective twin lambs. The ewes lie down, stop eating and, if not treated, will die between 2
clothing. and 5 days of becoming ill.
-prevention is by vaccination and no animals may be sold or moved off the farm.
☻Treatment is to give the ewe sugar or molasses dissolved in water by mouth.
g. Mastitis -the disease is caused by poor nutrition before lambing and feeding molasses to in-
-this is a bacterial infection of the udder, & causes loss of milk in one or both teats. lamb ewes is a preventive measure.
-it is not a common disease with sheep, and ewes which do suffer from it should be
culled from the flock. ☻There are a number of conditions caused by mineral trace elements and vitamin
deficiencies, but these should not be a problem if the sheep flock is being fed on a
h. Epidydimitis properly balanced ration.
-this is a bacterial disease which causes infertility in rams. Rams which have the
disease can infect the ewes which they serve & a clean ram will become infected by
serving a ewe with the disease.
-infected ewes and rams that have not produced a lamb should be culled from the
flock.
-ram lambs should be vaccinated against the disease at four (4) months old.
-the disease is caused by a bacterium similar to the one which causes contagious
abortion in cattle.

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 5. VACCINATION CALLENDER (SHOATS) • 5 SSU → 1LU
• 1 unweaned lamb → 0,5 SSU
DISEASE TIME OF TYPE OF VACCINE • 1 weaned lamb → 0,67 SSU
ADMINISTRATION
Lambs/kids at 2 mths, there after
PULPY KIDNEY DISEASE annually. Lambs/kids sometimes PULPY KIDNEY Mortality
(P.K.D) (Enterotoxaemia) die b4 2 mths, vaccinate at a VACCINE Allowance must also be made for ‘acceptable’ mortality levels.
younger age & boost at 2-3 mths. •Adult sheep →4%
Where diz occurs. The vaccine •Lambs (birth to weaning) → 10 %
BLUE TOUNGE DISEASE shld be given 3 wks apart. BLUE TOUNGE •Weaners (up to 2 tooth) → 2 %
Vaccinate lambs/kids at 5-6 mths VACCINE
& repeat annually. DO NOT
VACCINATE PREGNANT Weaner replacement rate
ANIMALS. A ewe is usually retained for four seasons, after this there is a marked decline in
All animals shld be vaccinated in milk production and fertility. Usually 25 % of the ewe flock has to be replaced
RIFT VALLEY FEVER Oct/Nov in endemic R.V.F areas. RIFT VALLEY FEVER every year. This implies at each lambing, the ratio of 2yrs to 3yrs to 4yrs to 5yrs is
(R.V.F) Pregnant animals shld be given VACCINE
the cattle R.V.F vaccine
1: 1: 1: 1.
(inactivated). Lambs/kids
vaccinated b4 6 mths shld be Selection pressure
revaccinated at 6 mths. Assuming 100 % lambing in a 100 ewe breeding flock and half of them are females
Vaccinate ram/buck lambs/kids
OVINE BRUCELLOSIS intended for breeding at 4 mths BRUCELLOSIS VACCINE
it means 1 in two have to be retained for selection. Up to 8 % more may be retained
of age. Lifelong immunity. until older for final selection at breeding age.
PASTEURELLOSIS Only used in problem areas.
PNEUMONIA Vaccinate lambs/kids at 2 wks & PASTEURELLOSIS Marketing and slaughter age
at 18 wks of age. Boosters given PNEUMONIA VACCINE Whether a farmer will fatten on grass or on concentrates will affect the planning.
annually.
Pregnant ewes/does vaccinated 6 For example animals being fattened in pens do not put any pressure on grazing.
wks b4 lambing/kidding & TETANUS VACCINE
TETANUS annually thereafter. Lambs/kids Rams
from unvaccinated mothers shld Although rams are bigger than ewes they are normally rated as 1 SSU becoz they
be vaccinated at 3 mths & again
1 mth later. receive supplementary feeding. If they don’t receive any supplements then
allowance must be made. In this case 1 ram is 1, 2 – 1, 3 SSU.
ANTHRAX Vaccinate all animals annually ANTHRAX VACCINE
Calculation of Flock Composition
☻SHEEP AND GOATS MUST BE VACCINATED WITH PULPY KIDNEY VACCINE BEFORE Once all the controlling factors are known, the theoretical composition of the flock
DEWORMING TO AVOID MORTALITIES. can be calculated.
16. PLANNING THE BREEDING FLOCK
Example
A planned approach to shoats production is just as important as planning for any
Assumptions:-the farm has available summer grazing for 500 SSU. It has also
other form of production. Without adequate planning a flock may outgrow the
ample winter forage provided by stover and vleis; a spring lambing percentage of
carrying capacity of the area resulting in a shortage of feed, increased disease
100 %; ewes are culled and replaced at the rate of 25% per annum; lambs are
incidence and deaths and reduced profits.
fattened after weaning on grazing & stover with supplements and are sold in Oct; 2
rams are run per 100 breeding ewes. Cull ewes are run on stover and supplements
Carrying capacity until ready for sale. Lamb mortality before weaning is 20 %.
Before any planning is done you need to establish the amount of grazing available to
sheep. The amount of grazing is usually limited to 1,5 to 2km radius from the night
holding pen.

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Stage 1: Calculation of flock of 100 breeding ewes

a) In mid-summer → all lambs at foot The expected annual sales can be calculated from the first and the final flock
b) In autumn → tupping; lambs weaned composition as follows;
•Cull ewes: → 21 × 3, 086 = 65
a) Head Class SSU •Surplus 2 tooth: → 5 × 3, 086 = 15
100 Breeding ewes 100 •Fat lamb males: → 40 × 3, 086 = 123
2 Rams 2 •Fat lamb females: → 10 × 3, 086 = 31
80 Lambs at foot 40
- Cull ewes - ☻Depending on the controlling factors used, this method of calculation can be used
30 Yearling ewes 20 to determine the flock composition and annual sales of any production system.
212 TOTAL 162 SSU

b) Head Class SSU

75 Breeding ewes 75
2 Rams 2
80 Weaners 53
21 Cull ewes 21
25 Replacement ewes 25
203 TOTAL 176 SSU

Stage 2: Calculation of Flock Composition in Example

It will be noted that there are more SSU in the flock at tupping/breeding than after
lambing, but since the summer situation is the critical one in our example summer
flock numbers will be used in the calculation. The farm can carry 500 SSU in
summer. A 100 ewe flock comprises 162 SSU.

→ Therefore, a 500 SSU flock will have;

500/162×100 ewes = 308, 6 ewes

☻In round figures then the summer flock will be made up of as follows;

Head Class SSU

308 Breeding ewes 308
6 Rams 6
*247 Lambs at foot 123
**92 Yearling ewes 62
653 TOTALS 499 SSU

*80 Lambs ×308, 6/100 = 246, 88 rounded off to 247

**30 Yearling ewes ×308, 6/100 = 92, 58 rounded off to 92

☻The SSU column proves that our calculations are correct.

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