Geological and Economic

Significance of Supergene
Metal Deposits
Martin Reich1,2 and Paulo M. Vasconcelos3

1811-5209/15/0011-0305$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.11.5.305

S
upergene metal deposits form when common rock types or deeply accessible and colorful supergene
buried primary ore bodies are exposed at or near the Earth’s surface metal ores (modern examples in
FIGS. 2A-C) for the production of
and undergo oxidation, dissolution and reconcentration of the metals. goods, jewelry and weaponry (Dill
Supergene metal deposits are economically interesting because of their acces- 2015 this issue).
sibility for extraction and increased grades. Scientifically they are attractive Apart from being hosts for
because of their mineralogical diversity and what they reveal about surficial economically important metals,
history. Apart from supplying mankind’s need for metals, supergene metal supergene ores are of great environ-
mental interest due to the signifi-
deposits provide clues about our past climate and offer an unparalleled oppor- cant isotopic fractionation of the
tunity to explore the long-term corrosion behavior of natural and man-made metals from their primary sources
materials and their environmental impact. to their later secondary, distal,
sinks (Mathur and Fantle 2015
KEYWORDS : weathering, supergene processes, critical metals, this issue). The metal fraction-
strategic minerals, corrosion ation processes provide natural
analogues for the dissolution,
INTRODUCTION transport, and subsequent deposi-
Weathering and erosion are the Earth’s primary natural tion of metals in man-made environments. For example,
mechanisms for redistributing mass on its surface, and mining and mineral processing generates large volumes
these processes are driven bynatural agents such as gravity, of waste material, including waste rock, mill tailings, and
climate, animals, plants, and surface and ground waters. It mineral refi nery slags. Through the process known as acid
is in this Critical Zone, i.e. Earth’s complex outer layer of rock drainage (or mine drainage), the oxidative dissolution
air, water, biota, organic matter and minerals, where combi- of sulfides from ores and from mine wastes can release
nations of geological, chemical, physical, and biological significant amounts of toxic heavy metals (e.g. Pb and
processes operate together on preexisting metal-bearing Hg) and metalloids (e.g. As and Se) into the environment.
rocks to form supergene metal deposits. When rocks and Both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms can actively
ore deposits that were formed at high temperatures and contribute to supergene oxidation and leaching of ore
high pressures are exposed at the Earth’s surface (average deposits and mine wastes. They have a profound effect on
Tatm ~15 °C; Patm ~1 bar; and pO2 ~0.2 bar), their equilib- the geochemistry of mineral dissolution and precipitation,
rium is disturbed. This causes their mineral constituents which ultimately promotes changes in metal speciation,
to react and undergo transformations so as to adjust to mobility and even toxicity (Zammit et al 2015 this issue).
the new lower temperatures, pressures, and higher oxygen The weathering processes that lead to ore formation are
concentrations and moisture conditions. Near-surface complex, and they occur over a variety of timescales
oxidation and leaching of originally deeply formed rocks (tens of years to millions of years) to produce enrichment
and ore deposits are major ore-enriching (or ore-forming) patterns from mineral grain (micron to centimeter) right
processes. These processes may result in a two- to ten-fold up to deposit (meter) and even district (kilometer) scales.
increase in metal grades for such commodities as Cu, Al, The formation of supergene enrichment profi les involves
Fe, Ni, Mn, U, Au and Zn. The resultant highly enriched dissolution of rock material, transport of soluble elements,
supergene zone or “blanket” that forms above ore deposits and precipitation of new ore minerals. These processes are
(FIG. 1, LEFT PANEL) is usually accessible during the early highly sensitive to tectonic, climatic, and biological forcing.
stages of surface mining and contributes significantly to the This sensitivity is a boon to geochronologic studies. For
overall viability of the mine. This has been the case since example, one could investigate multiple weathering events
the dawn of civilization, when humans exploited the easily using ore deposits and thereby determine long-term rates
of geochemical, geomorphological and paleoclimatic
processes (Vasconcelos et al. 2015 this issue). Constraining
such rates is relevant not only to quantify the magnitude
of geological processes or climatic events but also helps in
1 Department of Geology, FCFM, Universidad de Chile assessing the long-term behavior of man-made materials.
Plaza Ercilla 803, Santiago, Chile
For example, supergene deposits are natural analogues for
E-mail: mreich@[Link]
corrosive processes and so can provide information that
2 Andean Geothermal Center of Excellence (CEGA), FCFM can enable us to build better repositories for nuclear fuel
Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
waste and to predict how such repositories will behave over
3 School of Earth Sciences, The University of Queensland long timescales and under different climatic and geologic
Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
scenarios (Renock and Shuller-Nickles 2015 this issue).
E-mail: [Link]@[Link]

E LEMENTS , V OL . 11, PP. 305–310 305 O C TOBER 2015

SUPERGENE ENRICHMENT Copper is concentrated within the subjacent oxide zone,
which forms laterally extensive deposits composed of
The phenomenon known as supergene enrichment refers
assemblages called “green oxides” or “copper oxides”
to the secondary, in situ, accumulation of metals (e.g.
(FIG. 1, LEFT PICTURE ). This mineralogically and composi-
Cu, Zn, Ag, Au, Ni, or U) as a result of three essential
tionally complex layer is composed of copper minerals
processes: (1) the electrochemical oxidation of primary
including oxides, sulfates, hydroxy-chlorides, carbon-
sulfides, oxides or native metals (e.g. native copper Cu(0)
ates, silicates, and native copper. Among the copper
to Cu(II)) (2) the transport of the released metals as soluble
minerals that may be encountered are cuprite (Cu 2O),
metal species (e.g. CuSO40, AuCl4 – ); and (3) the reprecip-
tenorite (CuO), brochantite [Cu4SO4 (OH) 6 ], chalcanthite
itation of the metals by reduction (e.g. Cu(II) to native
[CuSO 4 ·5H 2 O], antlerite [Cu 3 SO 4 (OH) 4 ], malachite
copper Cu(0)), by supersaturation (e.g. Mg2+ in magne-
[Cu 2 CO3 (OH) 2 ] (F IG . 2A), azurite [Cu 3 (CO3 ) 2 (OH) 2 ]
site deposits), or by cation-exchange (e.g. Ni2+ exchange
(FIG. 2A), atacamite [Cu 2 Cl(OH) 3 ] (FIG. 2C), turquoise
for Mg2+ in smectite- or serpentine-group minerals). In
[CuAl6 (PO4)4 (OH) 8 ·4H2O], native copper (Cu0 ) and chryso-
particular, oxidation processes leading to mineral leaching
colla (Cu2−x Alx)H2−xSi2O5(OH)4 ·nH2O, among many others.
are commonly catalyzed by specialized Fe- and S-oxidizing
bacteria; oxidation processes are also active in the surficial The precipitation of “green oxide” mineral assemblages in
vadose zone and the capillary fringe above the water table. the vadose zone is largely controlled by the enclosing rock
Leaching processes also respond to changes in physico- type and pH (FIG. 3), forming thick (<200–300 m) layers
chemical properties, such as the partial pressure of oxygen containing ore with >1 wt% Cu grade. Furthermore, Cu
(pO2 )—and its effect on the redox potential (Eh)—and the and other metals dissolved in groundwater can migrate
activity of H + of descending aqueous solutions (Sillitoe laterally when hydraulic conditions are favorable and form
2005; Reich et al. 2009; Taylor 2011). large “exotic-type” Cu-oxide deposits in gravel sequences
that are far (distal) from the source.
In F IGURE 1, the process of supergene enrichment of
metals is exemplified by the Santa Rita (Chino) porphyry Under more reducing conditions, the remaining Cu in
Cu deposit in New Mexico (USA). In most porphyry ore the descending metal- and sulfate-rich solutions will form
bodies, the stepwise hydrolysis and oxidation of primary secondary sulfides in the saturated zone below the water
pyrite-bearing assemblages leads to a decrease in the pH table where free oxygen is almost absent (pO2 ~ below 10 −40
of descending groundwaters and the liberation of oxidized atm) (FIGS. 1 AND 3). Formation of secondary sulfides occurs
sulfur as SO42− anions. There is a simultaneous breakdown by replacement of Fe by Cu in the hypogene sulfides (pyrite
of chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), which produces soluble Cu2+ ions (FeS2 ), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2 ), and bornite (Cu5FeS 4). The
that are transported downwards, encountering progres- secondary chalcocite (Cu 2 S) occurs on top, where Cu 2+/
sively greater reducing conditions deep into the profi le. HS − is high, while covellite (CuS) precipitates below, where
This process is accompanied by “capping,” the precipitation Cu 2+/HS − is lower (FIG. 3). Enriched Cu sulfide zones in
of iron oxyhydroxides in the leached zone from which porphyry Cu deposits are usually tens to hundreds of
Cu is removed. The thickness of the leached cap is highly meters thick and can contain more than 1.5 gigatons of
variable but can reach several hundred meters in porphyry ore with 0.4–1.7 wt% Cu, invariably reaching higher Cu
Cu deposits, particularly when the water table was deep grades than those found in the primary (hypogene) ore
enough during the supergene oxidation and enrichment body (John et al. 2010).
phase (Taylor 2011).

Schematic representation of supergene oxidation and MATHUR. ( RIGHT) Diagram showing representative Cu oxidation and
FIGURE 1
enrichment processes for Cu. ( LEFT) Photo showing a enrichment reactions as relevant to the zones in the adjacent photo.
supergene profile in the south pit of the Chino (Santa Rita) copper ( BOTTOM LEFT) Schematic plot showing the increase in ore grade that
mine, New Mexico. There is a ferricrete channel in the center (deep results from multiple cycles of supergene metal enrichment.
red zone) with “green oxide” development below. PHOTO BY R YAN

E LEMENTS 306 O C TOBER 2015

 Supergene Ores as Sources of Strategic Metals
Supergene metal deposits are advantageous for exploitation
A B due to their proximity to the surface and their increased
metal grades. But they also provide valuable clues to the
possible location, and the primary assemblages of, hidden
ore bodies at depth. Supergene deposits, apart from their
major metal components, can contain economic or near-
economic concentrations of trace elements, making these
deposits attractive targets for the exploration and exploita-
tion of “critical metals”—those metals that are both essen-
tial for modern societies and subject to the risk of supply
C restriction (GSA 2013). In FIGURE 4, the price in US dollars
per kilogram of metal commodities are plotted against the
crustal abundance in parts per million (ppm). FIGURE 4
shows, in a broad sense, that the less abundant or less avail-
able elements are generally more expensive (Price 2013).
This is the case for the “critical” REEs of dysprosium (Dy)
and neodymium (Nd) and the noble metals of palladium
(Pd) and platinum (Pt), among others.

Base and Structural Metals

Supergene metal deposits contribute significantly to the
FIGURE 2 Examples of supergene mineral assemblages. world’s supply of selected base metals (Cu, Zn, Ni, Co) and
(A) Supergene copper minerals from the Milpillas
porphyry deposit in Mexico (northern Sonora). The green and blue structural metals (Al, Fe, Ni, V). Giant porphyry Cu deposits
minerals are the copper carbonates malachite [Cu2CO3 (OH) 2] and contribute about 70% of the total global Cu inventory and
azurite [Cu3 (CO3) 2 (OH) 2], respectively; the grey bands in the have median grades at ~0.4 wt% Cu (with hypogene and
middle are cuprite (Cu2O). (B) Supergene alteration products of supergene Cu grades often being reported together; Sillitoe
black uraninite (UO2) sample from Congo: lemon yellow schoepite
[(UO2) 8O2 (OH)12·12H2O]; amber-colored becquerelite 2013). Supergene grades in most deposits are higher than
[Ca(UO2) 6O 4 (OH) 6 ·8H2O]; orange curite hypogene grades, and in the world-class northern Chile
{Pb3+x [(UO2) 4O 4+x (OH)3−x] 2·2H2O}. IMAGE FROM HAZEN ET AL. (2009).
(C) Dark-green atacamite [Cu2Cl(OH)3] and orange copper iodide
marshite (CuI) from Mina Sur (Chuquicamata, Chile).

The presence of enriched supergene blankets often

enhances the economic viability of metal mining opera-
tions, especially considering the fact that metal grades of
the enriched sulfide zones can be up to 3–4 times higher
than the primary sulfide grades (Sillitoe 2005, 2013).
However, the often-complex mineralogy of supergene
ores poses serious challenges to extractive metallurgy (or
mineral processing), and many supergene enrichment
blankets will remain unmined or unprocessed until such
time as viable metallurgical processes can be developed.
However, harvesting microorganisms from the supergene
zone and using them in bioleaching (Zammit et al. 2015)
is a promising avenue for a more efficient use of supergene
deposits and their enriched blankets.

SUPERGENE METALS AS COMMODITIES

Demands for Metals in a Sustainable World
Mineral resources have been extracted and used by mankind
since the Stone Age and are vital to modern civilization.
Therefore, a thorough understanding of their distribu-
tion, consequences of their use, and the potential effects
of mineral supply disruption is important for sound public
policy (e.g. GSA 2013). Apart from the increasing demand
for staples such as copper, gold, nickel and iron, demand
has increased significantly for ores containing elements
such as the rare earth elements (REEs), the platinum group
elements (PGEs), as well as cobalt, beryllium, lithium,
iodine, tellurium, gallium and rhenium, among others. Graph of redox (Eh) and partial oxygen pressure (pO2)
This increased demand is due to these elements’ use in FIGURE 3
versus pH showing the stability of dissolved copper
a variety of manufacturing, high-tech, and energy appli- species and copper minerals in the supergene environment. The
cations, such as renewable energy devices, high-power diagram maps out possible occurrence of stable phases under
particular redox and pH conditions along a supergene profile.
magnets, and liquid crystal displays (LCDs). The minerals Conditions shift vertically from the more reducing, saturated zone
in which these strategic elements occur have been defi ned in grey at the bottom (below the water table), to the more
as “critical minerals” by the National Research Council oxidizing conditions towards the top of the profile (vadose zone,
(NRC 2008) because they are essential to modern society where the soil and rock pores contains air as well as water).
MODIFIED AFTER SILLITOE (2005).
and yet subject to the risk of supply restriction.

E LEMENTS 307 O C TOBER 2015

 Laterites, also called “lateritic profi les” (Anand
and Paine 2002), are another type of supergene
metal deposit, and these can contain exploitable
reserves of metals such as Fe, Al, Mn, Au, Ni and
Co. Lateritic profi les are chemically stratified
weathering zones, ranging from 30 m to 500 m
in thickness, that develop through intensive rock
weathering under humid tropical to subtropical
conditions, under present and/or past climatic
regimes (Vasconcelos 1999). Bauxites, the well-
known highly aluminous variety of laterite, form
on granites, basalts, volcanic ash, or shales and
yield most of the global Al production; world
production is presently dominated by Australia,
Brazil, China and India. These highly alumi-
nous varieties of laterites are made of mixtures
of Al hydroxides—gibbsite (Al(OH) 3), boehmite
(γ-AlO(OH)) and diaspore (α-AlO(OH)) —and
certain by-products of bauxite formation, e.g.
vanadium and gallium. Similarly, nickel-rich
laterites dominate the global supply of Ni (over
60%, as produced by Australia, New Caledonia,
FIGURE 4 Price (in US dollars per kilogram) versus the crustal
abundance (in parts per million) for selected elements.
Brazil, Cuba, Indonesia, the Philippines). The Ni-laterites
Supergene deposits are increasingly being explored and exploited develop from the intense weathering of serpentinites or
for “critical metals,” which have high price/abundance ratios. unserpentinized ultramafic rocks. They tend to contain one
MODIFIED FROM PRICE (2013). or more horizons of exploitable reserves of Ni and other
elements, such as Co (Butt and Cluzel 2013), and their
supergene grades (1–7 wt% Ni) exceed those of magmatic
copper district, protracted weathering has been a principal Ni deposits (0.5–5 wt% Ni) (Arndt and Ganino 2012).
factor in this region becoming the greatest producer of Cu
in the world (Sillitoe 2005; Reich et al. 2008, 2009). Precious Metals and Metalloids
Over the past decade, economic interest in supergene Zn Many precious metal (Au, Ag, PGEs) deposits occur in later-
deposits has increased significantly because Zn concen- itic profi les or supergene enrichment zones within deeply
trations are of higher grade (up to >30 wt% Zn) than in weathered terrains. For example, gold-bearing laterites of
hypogene sulfide ores and can be extracted easily by open-pit economic interest are found in Western Australia, Africa,
methods (Hitzman 2003). These “non sulfide” Zn ores are Brazil, the Guyanas, and India, and they usually overlie, or
mixtures of Zn-bearing silicates (e.g. willemite, Zn2SiO4 and occur immediately adjacent to, primary (hypogene) lodes.
hemimorphite, Zn4( Si2O7)(OH) 2 ·H2O and carbonates (e.g. These secondary supergene deposits contain free particles
smithsonite, ZnCO3). Non sulfide Zn ores have been known of high-purity Au (>99 wt% Au), making them amenable
from Roman times up to the 18th century as “calamine” or to low-cost open-pit mining. The occurrence of Au grains
“zinc oxides” and were used for the production of brass, a in supergene environments, such as soils, sediments, and
Zn–Cu ± Sn alloy widely used throughout Europe and the placers, is controlled by the chemical and physical processes
Mediterranean (Boni et al. 2003). Supergene nonsulfide Zn that redistribute the primary Au. However, recent evidence
deposits are predominantly carbonate-hosted, and their shows that high-purity and fi nely crystalline secondary
formation is primarily controlled by the combined effect Au may also result from biogeochemical transformations
of climate, bedrock, topography, time and biota. (Reith et al. 2012; Zammit et al. 2015).
Some of the world’s most economically important supergene Some precious metals and metalloids are produced entirely
ore deposits occur in Australia. In the Hamersley province as by-products of the refining of major metals. For example,
of Western Australia, there are channel iron deposits Te is produced from Cu refi ning, Re from Mo, In and Ge
(CIDs), which are aggraded paleoriver channels containing from Zn, Ga from Al, and Co from Ni. Although most
such large concentrations of ferruginized sediments that critical metals and metalloids rarely form primary ores,
they constitute a high-grade iron-ore deposit. CIDs are geological processes such as supergene enrichment can
Fe-rich detrital accumulations comprising coarse sand to concentrate them efficiently to economic grades, which
fi ne gravel-size granules—iron oxyhydroxide pelletoids in some cases can outweigh the main commodity in
(ooids and pisoids) and ferruginized wood—and a porous revenue. Significant attention is now being paid to alter-
goethitic matrix that envelops the granules. These deposits native sources of critical metals and metalloids for the new
are strongly tied to the tectonic and climatic evolution types of energy technologies, including Te, Ga, In, and
of Western Australia during the Miocene, where Fe-rich Ge for solar cell applications and the REEs (Nd, Dy, Pr,
sediments sourced from upstream outcrops of banded iron Sm, Tb, Eu, and La) for high-performance magnets used
formations (BIFs) were deposited into river channels. During in wind turbines and electric cars. Geological sources
a later stage, the supergene Fe ores formed by precipitation include bauxite and laterite deposits, where Ga and the
from ferriferous alluvial groundwater, either directly or by REEs can reach economic grades and so make the cost of
replacement of clastic particles (Heim et al. 2006). This mining low (Cocker 2014). In fact, an important part of
style of supergene mineralization supplies 40–50% of the the world supply of Ga metal for GaAs and GaN semicon-
iron currently mined in Australia, and making Austalia one ductors comes from the mining of bauxite. And REEs in
of the leading Fe-producing countries in the world, along previously subeconomic lateritic horizons are becoming
with China and Brazil. increasingly viable to mine.

E LEMENTS 308 O C TOBER 2015

SUPERGENE DEPOSITS AS NATURAL A
ANALOGUES FOR CORROSION
One of the more unusual reasons, certainly as far as most
people are concerned, to study supergene deposits is
because they can act as models for corrosion. The oxida-
tion and leaching processes that affect the primary rocks,
and that lead to the formation of supergene metal deposits,
are actually analogous to corrosive process that occur
in man-made materials. For example, the green-colored
atacamite (Cu 2Cl(OH) 3 ; FIG. 2C) was massively formed as
a “natural” corrosion product of hypogene Cu deposits in
the Atacama Desert of northern Chile (Reich et al. 2008).
Atacamite is rare in similar deposits elsewhere, with the
exception of saltwater alteration assemblages of seafloor
Cu sulfides and as the green corrosion patina that covers
bronze monuments in coastal cities, such as the Statue of
Liberty (New York, USA) (FIG. 5A). Therefore, considering
that atacamite only forms from seawater-like fluids and
dissolves rapidly or undergoes phase changes when exposed B
to fresh, meteoric water, its study can provide insights
about, for example, the long-term corrosion behavior of
Cu-bearing pipes or archeological artifacts (FIG. 5B) in dry,
saline environments and coastal localities.
The study of natural analogues is often used to support
long-term predictions on how corrosion will affect
man-made products in geologic environments (Renock
and Shuller-Nickles 2015 this issue). Because many ore
deposits have been subjected to multiple cycles of weath-
ering and enrichment, supergene metal blankets can help
to bridge the extrapolation gap for the way that materials
and systems behave (experimentally) over the short-term,
typically about one year, to what might happen over
comparatively long periods. For example, studies of the
famous ~2 billion-year-old Oklo uranium deposit (Gabon), C
considered a natural fission reactor, have provided evidence
of uranium migration over geologic timescales and, thus,
help to answer specific questions related to underground
repositories for nuclear waste and “cruds,” or radioactive
corrosion products (Evins et al. 2005) (FIG. 5C). In another
example, the study of supergene deposits shows that noble
metals (Au, Pd, Pt), presumed inert under most surface
conditions, undergo effective dissolution–reprecipitation
as the result of metal–microbe interactions. This fi nding
may one day be used to efficiently extract metals from
industrial waste.

WHY ARE SUPERGENE METALS

IMPORTANT?
The fact that the formation of supergene ores is strongly
tied to local and global changes in the atmosphere and Corrosion products of man-made objects. (A) Copper
FIGURE 5
hydrosphere is one of the reasons why supergene metal sulfate and chloride patinas give the Statue of Liberty
deposits have attracted significant attention (e.g. Alpers (New York City, USA) its characteristic green color. (B) 100-year-
old, atacamite-coated, miners’ boots recovered from a deep gallery
and Brimhall 1987). Furthermore, the fact that metals can in a copper mine around Sierra Gorda in the Atacama Desert
undergo large fractionation in supergene settings offers an (Chile) (PHOTO FROM R EICH ET AL. 2008). (C) Yellow-colored “crud” that
unparalleled opportunity to explore the rates of oxidation has formed on the cladding (or outer coating) of nuclear fuel rods.
of Earth materials over long geologic timescales. Supergene IMAGE TAKEN FROM [Link] /COLLEGE /ABOUT/NEWS /STORIES /2012/
NOVEMBER / NUCLEAR - CRUD
metal deposits provide critical evidence for reconstructing
Earth’s past climatic history, and they can constrain when
there were favorable geological periods for the development Al), their extraction may disturb large tracks of pristine
of weathering profi les and metal enrichment on a global environment (e.g. bauxite mining in the Amazon), and
scale (Vasconcelos et al. 2015). Given present concerns over processing such deposits comes with significant environ-
metal supplies, supergene metal deposits should provide mental risks in its potential for spreading toxic components
far-reaching opportunities to expand the mineral resource and polluting water resources. Thus, the study of supergene
potential of new and historic mining districts through processes is highly relevant to understand the dispersion
innovative exploration. However, global exploitation of of heavy metals (Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cd) and metalloids
supergene metal deposits faces significant challenges, (As, Se, Sb) from their primary ore bodies into local and
largely because ore bodies are found near the surface and regional surroundings. Thus, supergene metal deposits hold
must be mined by open-pit operations. Whilst supergene huge interest both geologically and for the well-being of
ore deposits are the only viable sources for some metals (e.g. a modern society, but there are associated dangers to be

E LEMENTS 309 O C TOBER 2015

 navigated between the need to secure resources for societal which benefited from helpful reviews by Larry Meinert
development and the impact that mining can have on and Steve Kesler. Martin Reich thanks support from ICM
Earth’s environment, climate, and local communities. grant #130065 “Millenium Nucleus for Metal Tracing along
Subduction”, and CONICYT funding through Fondecyt
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS and Fondap grants. Our special thanks go to Fernando
The authors thank John Valley and Bernard Wood for Barra for providing mineral samples, and Cristián Prado
their editorial handling and revision of this manuscript, for assistance with photo shots of mineral specimens.

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microbes: geomicrobiology and biore- Southam G (2015) The geomicrobiology
waters in copper deposits from the
mediation. Microbiology 156: 609-643 of supergene metal deposits. Elements
Atacama Desert, Chile: evidence from
11: 337-342

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Footprints: Hydrothermal Alteration and
Geochemical Dispersion Around Porphyry Copper Deposits
Scott Halley, Mineral Mapping Pty Ltd., 24 Webb Street, Rossmoyne,
WA 6148, Australia, John H. Dilles, Oregon State

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University, College of Earth, Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences,104
CEOAS Administrative Building, Corvallis, OR 97331,
United States, and Richard M. Tosdal,† PicachoEx LLC, 21 Quince
Mill Court, North Potomac, MD 20878, United States

ABSTRACT
a.) Hydrothermal alteration assemblages
Whole-rock lithogeochemical analyses combined

scientific maps
with short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectroscopy Illite-chl ADVANCED
provide a rapid and cost-effective method for pros- Illite-chl-smect -relic fspar ARGILLIC
pyroph-alun SERICITIC
PHYLLIC INTERMEDIATE
-relic fspar
pecting for porphyry-type hydrothermal systems. ±topaz
te
spec. hemat i
Lithogeochemistry detects trace metals to average musc
ARGILLIC
crustal abundance levels and allows vectoring via
Py±Cp±
gradients of chalcophile and lithophile elements Sl±Ga
phengitic PROPYLITIC
transported by magmatic-hydrothermal ore and musc-chl-
no

³ Student research grants and graduate student

relic fspar chl-fspar
external circulating fluids that are dispersed and
n
-ma

±calc/epid-hem
trapped in altered rocks. Of particular use are alka-
gma

lis in sericite and metals such as Mo, W, Se, Te, Bi,

tic flu

As, and Sb, which form stable oxides that remain epid-chl Cp-Py
Wavelength of white -act-fspar
in weathered rocks and soils. SWIR mapping of
ids

mica SWIR (2200)

shifts in the 2,200-nm Al-OH absorption feature 2210 nm
Cp±Bn

fellowship programs
in sericite define paleofluid pH gradients useful for 2205 nm
vectoring toward the center of the buoyant metal- 2200 nm
bearing magmatic-hydrothermal plume.
SODIC-
CALCIC
granite plag-act±epid
INTRODUCTION POTASSIC porphyry
dikes
biot±Kspar
Porphyry and related epithermal Au-Ag ores are LATE INTERMEDIATE
the world’s most important ore deposits outside of ARGILLIC
magmatic
iron and aluminum mines, produce most of the fluids
smect±Illite±kaol±chl
& relic feldspar

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Cu and Mo, and are the largest producers of Au
and Ag globally. It has been known for over a cen- Cu > 0.2wt% (±Mo±Au)
tury that metals in porphyry Cu
deposits are zoned, with a central to page 12 . . . FIGURE 1. a.) Vertical cross section of a typical porphyry Cu deposit
showing distribution
of hydrothermal alteration and sulfide minerals. Also shown are generalized
†
Corresponding author: e-mail, rtosdal@[Link] contours of
the 2,200-nm peak measured in SWIR instruments.

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