POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

John Locke (1632-1704) Adam Smith (1723–90)

An English philosopher and politician, Locke A Scottish economist and philosopher,
was a consistent opponent of absolutism Smith is usually seen as the founder of the
and is often portrayed as the philosopher 'dismal science'. In The Theory of Moral
of the 1688 'Glorious Revolution' (which Sentiments (1759), he developed a theory
established a constitutional monarchy in of motivation that tried to reconcile human
England). Using social contract theory and self-interestedness with unregulated social
accepting that, by nature, humans are free order. Smith's most famous work, The
and equal, Locke upheld constitutionalism, Wealth of Nations (1776), was the first
limited government and the right of systematic attempt to explain the workings
revolution, but the stress he placed on of the economy in market terms. Although
property rights prevented him from he is sometimes portrayed as a freemarket
endorsing political equality or democracy in theorist, Smith was nevertheless aware of
the modern sense. Locke's foremost the limitations of laissez-faire.
political work is Two Treatises of
Government (1690).
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James Madison (1751-1836) John Stuart Mill (1806–73)

A US statesman and political theorist, A British philosopher, economist and
Madison played a major role in writing politician, Mill's varied and complex
the US Constitution and served as the work straddles the divide between
fourth president of the USA (1809–17). classical and modern forms of
Madison was a leading proponent of liberalism. His opposition to collectivist
pluralism and divided government, tendencies and traditions was firmly
urging the adoption of federalism, rooted in nineteenth-century princip
bicameralism and the separation of les, but his emphasis on the quality of
powers as the basis of US government. individual life, reflected in a commitment
Madisonianism thus implies a strong to individuality, as well as his sympathy
emphasis on checks and balances as for causes such as female suffrage and
the principal means of resisting tyranny. workers' cooperatives, looked forward
His best-known political writings are his to later developments. Mill's major
contributions to The Federalist (1787– writings include On Liberty (1859),
8). Utilitarianism (1861) and Conside
rations on Representative Govern
ment (1861).
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T. H. (Thomas Hill) John Rawls (1921-2002)

Green (1836-82) A British philosopher A US political philosopher, Rawls used
and social theorist, Green highlighted a form of social contract theory to
the limitations of early liberal doctrines reconcile liberal individualism with the
and in particular laissez-faire. principles of redistribution and social
Influenced by Aristotle and Hegel, justice. In his major work, A Theory of
Green argued that humans are by Justice (1970), he developed the
nature social creatures, a position that notion of 'justice as fairness', based
helped liberalism to reach an on the belief that behind a 'veil of
accommodation with welfarism and ignorance' most people would accept
social justice. His idea of 'positive' that the liberty of each should be
freedom had a major influence on the compatible with a like liberty for all, and
emergence of socalled 'new liberalism' that social inequality is only justified if it
in the UK. His chief works include works to the benefit of the poorest in
Lectures on the Principles of Political society.
Obligation (1879–80) and
Prolegomena to Ethics (1883).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)

A German philosopher, Kant's 'criti A US political philosopher and
cal philosophy holds that knowledge is statesman, Jefferson was the principal
not merely an aggregate of sense author of the Declaration of
impressions; it depends on the Independence (1776) and later served
conceptual apparatus of human as the third president of the USA
understanding. Kant's political thought (1801–09). Jefferson advocated a
was shaped by the central importance democratic form of agrarianism that
of morality. He believed that the law of sought to blend a belief in rule by a
reason dictates categorical imperatives, natural aristocracy with a commitment
the most important of which is the to limited government and laissez-faire,
obligation to treat others as 'ends', and though he also exhibited sympathy for
never only as 'means'. Kant's most social reform. In the USA, 'Jefferson
important works include Critique of ianism' stands for resistance to strong
Pure Reason (1781) and Metaphysics central government and a stress on
of Morals (1785). individual freedom and responsibility,
and states' rights.
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Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

A British philosopher, legal reformer An English political philosopher,
and founder of utilitarianism, Bentham Hobbes, in his classic work Leviathan
developed a moral and philosophical (1651), used social contact theory to
system based on the belief that human defend absolute government as the only
beings are rationally self-interested alternative to anarchy and disorder, and
creatures, or utility maximizers. Using proposed that citizens have an
the principle of general utility – 'the unqualified obligation towards their
greatest happiness for the greatest state. Though his view of human nature
number' – he advanced a justification and his defence of authoritarian order
for laissez-faire economics, have a conservative character, Hobbes'
constitutional reform and, in later life, rationalist and individualist methodol
political democracy. Bentham's key ogy prefigured early liberalism. His
works include A Fragment on emphasis on powerseeking as the
Government (1776) and An primary human urge has also been
Introduction to the Principles of used to explain the behaviour of states
Morals and Legislation (1789). in the international system.
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Edmund Burke (1729-97) Friedrich von Hayek (1899–1992)
A Dublin-born British statesman and An Austrian economist and political
political theorist, Burke was the father of philosopher, Hayek was a firm believer
the Anglo-American conservative in individualism and market order, and
political tradition. In his major work, an implacable critic of socialism. His
Reflections on the Revolution in Fran pioneering work, The Road to Serfdom
ce (1790), Burke deeply opposed the (1944) developed a then deeply
attempt to recast French politics in unfashionable defence of laissez-faire
accordance with abstract principles and attacked economic intervention as
such as the universal rights of man', implicitly totalitarian. In later works,
arguing that wisdom resides largely in such as The Constitution of Liberty
experience, tradition and history. Burke (1960) and Law, Legislation and Libe
is associated with a pragmatic rty (1979), Hayek supported a modified
willingness to 'change in order to form of traditionalism and upheld an
conserve', reflected, in his view, in the Anglo- American version of constituti
'Glorious Revolution of 1688. onalism that emphasized limited
government.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Michael Oakeshott (1901-90) Irving Kristol (1920-2009)

A British political philosopher, A US journalist and social critic, Kristol
Oakeshott advanced a powerful was one of the leading exponents of
defence of a non-ideologica style of American neoconservatism. He
politics that supported a cautious and abandoned liberalism in the 1970s and
piecemeal approach to change. became increasingly critical of the
Distrusting rationalism, he argued in spread of welfarism and the
favour of traditional values and 'counterculture'. While accepting the
established customs on the grounds need for a predominantly market-based
that the conservative disposition is to economy and fiercely rejecting
prefer the familiar to the unknown, to socialism, Kristol criticized libertarian
prefer the tried to the untried, fact to ism in the marketplace as well as in
mystery, the actual to the possible'. morality. His best-known writings
Oakeshott's best-known works include Two Cheers for Capitalism
include Rationalism in Politics (1962) (1978) and Reflections of a Neo-
and On Human Conduct (1975). Conservative (1983).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF
Robert Nozick (1938-2002) Robert Owen (1771-1858)
A US political philosopher, Nozick A British socialist, industrialist and
developed a form of rights-based pioneer of the cooperative movement,
libertarianism in response to the ideas Owen's A New View of Society (1816)
of John Rawls (see p. 53). Drawing on envisaged a transformation in human
Locke (see p. 52) and nineteenth- nature consequent on a change in its
century US individualists, he argued environment, suggesting that progress
that property rights should be strictly requires the construction of a 'rational
upheld, provided that property was system of society'. Owen advanced a
justly purchased or justly transferred moral indictment of market capitalism,
from one person to another. His major which he proposed should be replaced
work, Anarchy, State and Utopia with a society based on small-scale
(1974), rejects welfare and cooperative communities in which
redistribution, and advances the case property would be commu-nally owned
for minimal government and minimal and essential goods freely distributed.
taxation. In later life, Nozick modified
his extreme libertarianism.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Karl Marx (1818–83) Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932)

A German philosopher, economist and A German socialist politician and
lifelong revolutionary, Marx is usually theorist, Bernstein attempted to revise
portrayed as the father of twentieth- and modernize orthodox Marxism in the
century communism. The centrepiece light of changing circumstances. In
of Marx's thought is a 'scientific' Evolutionary Socialism (1898),
critique of capitalism that highlights, in
Bernstein argued that economic crises
keeping with previous class society,
systemic inequality and therefore were becoming less, not more, acute,
fundamental instability. Marx's materia and drew attention to the 'steady
list theory of history holds that social advance of the working class'. On
development will inevitably culminate in this basis, he drew attention to the
the establishment of a classless possibility of a gradual and peaceful
communist society. His vast works transition to socialism, and questioned
include the Communist Manife sto
the distinction between liberalism and
(1848) (written with Friedrich Engels
(1820–95) and the three-volume socialism, later abandoning all
Capital (1867, 1885 and 1894). semblance of Marxism.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Vladimir llich Lenin (1870- Leon Trotsky (1879-1940)

1924) A Russian Marxist revolutionary and
A Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist. Trotsky joined forces with
theorist, Lenin was the first leader of the Lenin in 1917 but after Lenin's death
Soviet state (1917–21). In What Is to was driven from power and eventually
Be Done? (1902), he emphasized the murdered by Stalin. Trotsky's chief
central importance of a tightly organized theoretical contribution to Marxism was
'vanguard' party to lead and guide the the theory of permanent revolution,
proletarian class. In Imperialism, the which suggested that socialism could
Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916), be established in Russia without the
he developed an economic analysis of need for the bourgeois stage of
colonialism, highlighting the possibility development. Trotskyism is usually
of turning world war into class war. The associated with an unwavering
State and Revolution (1917) outlined commitment to internationalism and an
Lenin's firm commitment to the anti-Stalinism that highlights the
'insurrectionary road' and rejected dangers of bureaucratization, as
'bourgeois parliamentarianism'. outlined in The Revolution Betrayed
(1937).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Richard Henry Tawney (1880– Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937)

1962) An Italian Marxist and revolutionary,
A British social philosopher and Gramsci tried to redress the emphasis
historian, Tawney championed a form within orthodox Marxism on economic
of socialism that emphasizes (moral) and material factors. In his major work,
equality, a common humanity and Prison Notebooks (1929–35), Gramsci
service, firmly rooted in a Christian rejected any form of 'scientific'
social moralism that is unconnected determinism by stressing, through the
with Marx's class analysis. Stressing
theory of 'hegemony' (the dominance
the basic value of fellowship and a
sense of community, Tawney argued of bourgeois ideas and beliefs), the
that the disorders of capitalism derived importance of political and intellectual
from the absence of a 'moral ideal', struggle. While he did not ignore the
leading to unchecked acquisitiveness economic nucleus', he argued that
and widespread material inequality. bourgeois assumptions and values
Tawney's major works include The needed to be overthrown by the
Acquisitive Society (1921) and Equa
lity (1931). establishment of a rival 'proletarian
hegemony'.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979) William Godwin (1756-1836)

A German political philosopher and
A British philosopher and novelist,
social theorist, Marcuse portrayed
Godwin developed a thorough-going
advanced industrial society as an all-
critique of authoritarianism that
encompassing system of repression
amounted to the first full exposition of
that subdues argument and debate, and
anarchist beliefs. Adopting an optimism
absorbs all forms of opposition. Drawing
based on the Enlightenment view of
on Marxist, Hegelian and Freudian
human nature as rational and
ideas, Marcuse held up the
perfectible, based on education and
unashamedly utopian prospect of
social conditioning, Godwin argued
personal and sexual liberation,
that humanity would become
looking not to the conventional working
increasingly capable of self-
class as a revolutionary force but to
government, meaning that the need for
groups such as students, ethnic
government (and, with it, war, poverty,
minorities, women and workers in the
crime and violence) would disappear.
developing world. His key works include
Godwin's chief political work is Enquiry
Eros and Civilization (1958) and
Concerning Political Justice (1793).
OneDimensional Man (1964).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Josiah Warren (1798-1874) Max Stirner (1806-56)

A US individualist anarchist, inventor A German philosopher, Stirner
and musician, Warren was a founding developed an extreme form of
member of the New Harmony experim individualism, based on egoism, which
ental community in Indiana. Drawing on condemned all checks on personal
the fundamental principle of the 'sovere autonomy. In contrast to other
ignty of the individual', Warren anarchists' stress on moral principles
advocated a system of 'equita ble such as justice, reason and community,
commerce', which recogni zed labour Stirner emphasized solely the 'ownne
as the only legitimate capital and ss' of the human individual, thereby
promised to banish both poverty and placing the individual self at the centre
excessive luxury. His Cincinnati Time of the moral universe. Such thinking
Store is sometimes seen as the first influenced Nietzsche and later provided
experiment in mutualism. Warren's key a basis for existentialism. Stirner's most
writings include Equitable Comme rce important political work is The Ego and
(1852) and True Civilization (1863). His Own (1845).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon Mikhail Bakunin (1814–76)
(1809-65) A Russian political agitator and
A French social theorist. political activist revolutionary, Bakunin was one of the
and largely self-educated printer, key proponents of collectivist anarchism
Proudhon's writings influenced many and a leading figure within the
nineteenth-century anarchists, socialists nineteenthcentury anarchist movement.
and communists. His best-known work, Arguing that political power is
What Is Property? (1840), attacked intrinsically oppressive and placing his
both traditional property rights and faith in human sociability, Bakunin
collective ownership, and argued proposed that freedom could only be
instead for mutualism, a cooperative achieved through 'collectivism', by
productive system geared towards need which he meant self-governing
rather than profit and organized within communities based on voluntary
self-governing communities. In The cooperation, the absence of private
Federal Principle (1863), Proudhon property, and with rewards reflecting
proposed that such communities should contributions. Bakunin extolled the
interact on the basis of 'federal 'sacred instinct of revolt' and was
compacts, although this federal state ferociously anti-theological.
would have minimal functions.
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Henry David Thoreau (1817- Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921)

62) A Russian geographer and anarchist
A US author, poet and philosopher, theorist, Kropotkin's work was imbued
Thoreau's writings had a significant with a scientific spirit, based on a theory
impact on individualist anarchism and, of evolution that he proposed as an
later, on the environmental movement. alternative to Darwin's. By seeing
A follower of transcendentalism, 'mutual aid' as the principal means of
Thoreau's major work. Walden (1854), human and animal development, he
described his two-year experiment in claimed to provide an empirical basis
simple living, which emphasized the for both anarchism and communism,
virtues of self-reliance, contemplation looking to reconstruct Society on the
and a closeness to nature. In 'Civil basis of self-management and
Disobedience' (1849), he defended the decentralization. Kropotkin's major
validity of conscientious objection to works include Mutual Aid (1902), The
unjust laws, emphasizing that Conquest of Bread (1892) and Fields,
government should never conflict with Factories and Workshops (1898).
individual conscience, but he stopped
short of explicitly advocating anarchy.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Murray Rothbard (1926–95) Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A US economist and libertarian thinker, (1712–78)
Rothbard advocated 'anarcho- A Geneva-born French moral and
capitalism' based on combining an political philosopher, Rousseau is
extreme form of Lockean liberalism with commonly viewed as the architect of
Austrian School free-market economics. political nationalism, but also influenced
Taking the right of total selfownership to liberal, socialist, anarchist and, some
be a 'universal ethic', he argued that claim, fascist thought. In The Social
economic freedom is incompatible with Contract (1762), Rousseau argued that
the power of government and became a 'natural man' could only throw off the
fierce enemy of the 'welfare-warfare' corruption, exploitation and domination
state, championing non-intervention in imposed by society and regain the
both domestic and foreign affairs. capacity for moral choice through a
Rothbard's key writings include Man, radical form of democracy, based on
Economy and State (1962), For a New the 'general will'. This subordinates the
Liberty (1978) and The Ethics of individual to the collective and promises
Liberty (1982). political liberty and equality for all.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Johann Gottfried Herder Guiseppe Mazzini (1805–72)

(1744-1803) An Italian nationalist, often portrayed
as the 'prophet' of Italian unification.
A German poet, critic and philosopher, Mazzini practised a form of liberal
Herder is often portrayed as the 'father' nationalism that fused a belief in the
of cultural nationalism. A leading nation as a distinctive language and
intellectual opponent of the Enlighten cultural community with the principles of
ment, Herder's emphasis on the nation liberal republicanism. In this view,
as an organic group characterized by nations are effectively sublimated
a distinctive language, culture and individuals endowed with the right to
'spirit' helped both to found cultural self-government, a right to which all
history and to give rise to a form of nations are equally entitled. Mazzini
nationalism that emphasizes the was also one of the earliest thinkers to
intrinsic value of the national culture. link nationalism to the prospect of
Herder's major work was Reflections perpetual peace.
on the Philosophy of the History of
Mankind (1784–91).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) Charles Maurras (1868–1952)

A US historian and political scientist and A French political thinker and leading
later politician, Wilson was the 28th figure within the political movement
president of the USA (1913–2s1). His Action Française, Maurras was a key
'Fourteen Points', laid down in 1918 as exponent of right-wing nationalism and
the basis for peace after World War I, an influence on fascism. His idea of
proposed to reconstruct Europe 'integral nationalism emphasized the
according to the principle of national organic unity of the nation, fusing a
self-determination, and to ban secret clearly illiberal rejection of individualism
diplomacy, expand trade and achieve with a stress on hierarchy and
security through a general association traditional institutions in his case, the
of nations'. Wilsonian liberalism is French monarchy and the Roman
usually associated with the idea that Catholic Church). His insular and
constructing a world of democratic exclusionary nationalism articulated
nation-states (modelled on the USA) is hostility towards, among others,
the surest way of preventing war. Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and
foreigners in general.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF
Mohandas Karamchand Marcus Garvey (1887-1940)
Gandhi (1869-1948) A Jamaican political thinker and activist,
An Indian spiritual and political leader and founder of the Universal Negro
(called Mahatma, 'Great Soul), Gandhi Improvement Association, Garvey was
campaigned tirelessly for Indian an early advocate of black nationalism.
independence, which was finally Placing a particular emphasis on
achieved in 1947. His ethic of non- establishing black pride, Garvey's
violent resistance, satyagraha, vision of Africa as a 'homeland'
reinforced by his ascetic lifestyle, gave provided the basis for a pan-African
the movement for Indian independence philosophy and an associated political
enormous moral authority. Derived from movement. Although his call for a return
Hinduism, Gandhi's political philosophy to Africa to 'redeem' it from European
was based on the assumption that the colonialism was largely ignored, his
universe is regulated by the primacy of views provided the basis for the later
truth, or satya, and that humankind is Black Power movement and helped to
'ultimately one'. Gandhi was a inspire Rastafarianism.
trenchant opponent of both Hindu and
Muslim sectarianism.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Frantz Fanon (1925–61) Joseph Arthur Gobineau

A Martinique-born French revolutionary (1816-82)
theorist, Fanon is best known for his A French social theorist, Gobineau is
views on the anti-colonial struggle. In widely viewed as the architect of
his classic work on decolonization, The modern racial theory. In his major work,
Wretched of the Earth (1965), he drew Essay on the Inequality of the Human
on psychiatry, politics, sociology and Races (1853–55] 1970), Gobineau
the existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre in advanced a 'science of history' in
arguing that only total revolution and which the strength of civilizations was
absolute violence can help black or seen to be determined by their racial
colonized people to liberate themselves composition. In this, 'white' people –
from the social and psychological scars and particularly the 'Aryans' (the
of imperialism. Fanon's other works Germanic peoples) – were superior to
include Black Skin, White Masks 'black', 'brown' and 'yellow people,
(1952) and Towards the African and miscegenation (racial mixing) was
Revolution (1964). viewed as a source of corruption and
civilizational decline.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844– Houston Stewart Chamberlain

1900) (1855-1929)
A German philosopher, Nietzsche's A Britishborn German writer,
complex and ambitious work stressed Chamberlain played a major role in
the importance of will, especially the popularizing racial theories, having a
'will to power', and influenced
major impact on Hitler and the Nazis. In
anarchism and feminism, as well as
fascism. Anticipating modern Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
existentialism, he emphasized that ([1899] 1913), largely based on the
people create their own world and make writings of Gobineau, Chamberlain used
their own values, expressed in the idea the term 'Aryan race' to describe
that 'God is dead'. In Thus Spoke almost all the peoples of Europe, but
Zarathustra ([1884] 1961), Neitzche portrayed the 'Nordic' or 'Teutonic'
emphasized the role of the
peoples (by which he meant the
Ubermensch, crudely translated as the
'supermen', who alone are unrestrained Germans) as its supreme element, with
by conventional morality. His other the Jewish people being their
works include Beyond Good and Evil implacable enemy.
(1886).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Giovanni Gentile (1875-1944) Benito Mussolini (1883–1945)

An Italian idealist philosopher, Gentile An Italian politician, Mussolini founded
was a leading figure in the Fascist the Fascist Party in 1919 and was the
government, 1922–9, and is sometimes leader of Italy from 1922 to 1943.
called the 'philosopher of fascism'. Claiming to be the founder of fascism,
Strongly influenced by the ideas of Mussolini's political philosophy drew on
Hegel, Gentile advanced a radical the work of Plato, Sorel, Nietzsche and
critique of individualism, based on an Vilfredo Pareto, and stressed that
'internal' dialectic in which distinctions human existence is only meaningful if it
between subject and object, and is sustained and determined by the
between theory and practice, are community. This required the
transcended. In political terms, this construction of a 'totalitarian' state,
implied the establishment of an all- based on the principle that no human or
encompassing state that would abolish spiritual values exist or have meaning
the division between public and private outside the state.
life once and for all.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) Alfred Rosenberg (1895-1946)

A German politician and wartime Nazi
An Austrian-born German politician,
leader, Rosenberg was a major
Hitler became leader of the Nazi Party
intellectual influence on Hitler and the
(German National Socialist Workers'
Nazi Party. In The Myth of the
Party) in 1921 and was the German
Twentieth Century (1930), Rosenberg
leader from 1933 to 1945. Largely
developed the idea of the 'race-soul',
expressed in Mein Kampf [My
arguing that race is the key to a
Struggle] (1925), Hitler's world-view
people's destiny. His hierarchy of racial
drew expansionist German nationalism,
attributes allowed him to justify both
racial anti-Semitism and a belief in
Nazi expansionism (by emphasizing the
relentless struggle together in a theory
superiority of the 'Aryan' race) and
of history that highlighted the endless
Hitler's genocidal policies (by portraying
battle between the Germans and the
Jews as fundamentally 'degenerate',
Jews. Under Hitler, the Nazis sought
along with 'sub-human' Slavs, Poles
German world domination and, after
and Czechs).
1941, the wholesale extermination of
the Jewish people.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–97) Simone de Beauvoir (1906–86)

A British social theorist, Wollstonecraft A French novelist, playwright and social
was a pioneer feminist thinker, drawn critic, de Beauvoir's work reopened the
into radical politics by the French issue of gender politics and
Revolution. Her A Vindication of the foreshadowed the ideas of later radical
Rights of Woman (1792) stressed the feminists. In The Second Sex (1949),
equal rights of women, especially in she developed a complex critique of
education, on the basis of the notion of patriarchal culture, in which the
'personhood'. Wollstonecraft's work masculine is represented as the positive
drew on an Enlightenment liberal belief or the norm, while the feminine is
in reason, but developed a more portrayed as the 'other'- fundamentally
complex analysis of women as the limiting women's freedom and denying
objects and subjects of desire; it also them their full humanity. De Beauvoir
presented the domestic sphere as a placed her faith in rationality and critical
model of community and social order. analysis as the means of exposing this
process.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Betty Friedan (1921-2006) Kate Millett (born 1934)

A US political activist, Friedan is A US feminist writer, political activist
sometimes seen as the 'mother' of and artist, Millett developed a
women's liberation. In The Feminine comprehensive critique of patriarchy in
Mystique (1963) (often credited with western society and culture that had a
having stimulated the emergence of profound impact on radical feminism. In
second-wave feminism), Friedan Sexual Politics (1970), Millett analysed
attacked the cultural myths that the work of male writers, from D. H.
sustained domesticity, highlighting the Lawrence to Norman Mailer,
sense of frustration and despair that highlighting their use of sex to degrade
afflicted suburban American women and undermine women. In her view,
confined to the roles of housewife and such literature reflects deeply
mother. In The Second Stage (1983), patriarchal attitudes that pervade
she nevertheless warned that the quest culture and society at large, providing
for 'personhood' should not encourage evidence that patriarchy is a historical
women to deny the importance of and social constant.
children, the home and the family.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Germaine Greer (born 1939) Jean Bethke Elshtain (1941-

An Australian writer, academic and 2013)
journalist, Greer's The Female Eunuch A US political philosopher and social
(1970) helped to stimulate radical critic, Elshtain has made a major
feminist theorizing. Its principal theme, contribution to feminist scholar-ship and
the extent to which male domination is wider political debates. In Public Man,
upheld by a systematic process of Private Woman (1993), she examined
sexual repression, was accompanied by the role of gender in forming the division
a call for women to reengage with their between the public and private spheres
libido, their faculty of desire and their in political theory. Her Women and War
sexuality. In Sex and Destiny (1985), (1987) discussed the perceptual lenses
Greer celebrated the importance of that determine the roles of men and
childbearing and motherhood, while women in war, highlighting the myths
The Whole Woman (1999) criticized that men are ‘just warriors' and
'lifestyle feminists' and the alleged women are ‘beautiful souls' to be
right to ‘have it all'. saved.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Andrea Dworkin (1946–2005) Bell hooks (born 1952)

A feminist writer and activist, Dworkin A cultural critic, feminist and writer,
was a trenchant critic of patriarchal Gloria Jean Watkins (better known by
culture and an advocate of radical her pen name bell hooks) has
lesbianism. In Woman Hating (1976) emphasized that feminism must be
and (with Catharine MacKinnon) approached through the lenses of
Pornography and Civil Rights (1988), gender, race and class. In her classic
Dworkin argued that pornography is the Ain't I a Woman (1985), hooks exam
tool by which men control, objectify and ined the history of black women in the
subjugate women. With MacKinnon, USA. Arguing that in the USA racism
she drafted a Minnesota ordinance that took (and takes) precedence over sexi
proposed that victims of rape and other sm, she advanced a powerful critique of
sex crimes should be able to sue the implicit racism of the white women's
pornographers for damage, based on movement. Her other books include
the belief that pornography supports Feminism is for Everyone (2000) and
sexual violence against women. Outlaw Culture (2006).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Ernst Friedrich (‘Fritz') Arne Naess (1912–2008)

Schumacher (1911-77) A Norwegian philosopher, writer and
A German-born UK economist and mountaineer, Naess has been
environmental theorist, Schumacher described as the 'father' of deep
championed the cause of human-scale ecology. His philosophy, Ecosophy T
production and advocated 'Buddhist (the 'T' is for the Tvergastein hut in
economics', or 'economics as if which he lived in solitude high on a
people mattered'. In his seminal work Norwegian mountain), which was
Small Is Beautiful (1973), Schumacher influenced by the ideas of Spinoza,
attacked conventional economic Gandhi's ethic of non-violence and
thinking for its obsession with growth for Taoist thought, was based on the
growth's sake, and condemned the assertion that 'the Earth does not
value system on which it is based, belong to human beings', as all
particularly the fact that it is divorced creatures have an equal right to live and
from nature. In contrast, he stressed the bloom.
importance of morality and 'right
livelihood'.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

James Lovelock (born 1919) Murray Bookchin (1921-2006)

A UK atmospheric chemist, inventor A US anarchist social philosopher and
and environmental thinker, Lovelock is environmentalist, Bookchin was a
best known as the inventor of the 'Gaia leading proponent of the idea of 'social
hypothesis'. This proposes that the ecology'. As an anarchist, Bookchin
Earth is best understood as a complex, emphasized the potential for non-
self-regulating, living being', implying hierarchic cooperation within conditions
that the prospects for humankind are of post-scarcity and radical decent
closely linked to whether the species ralization. Arguing that ecological
helps to sustain, or threaten, the principles should be applied to social
planetary ecosystem. Lovelock was organization, he linked the environm
also the first person to alert the world to ental crisis to the breakdown of the
the global presence of CFCs in the organic fabric of both society and
atmosphere, and he is, controversially, nature. His major works in this field incl
a supporter of nuclear power. ude The Ecology of Freedom (1982)
and Reenchanting Humanity (1995).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Caroline Merchant (born 1936) Rudolf Bahro (1936-98)

AUS ecofeminist philosopher and A German writer and green activist,
historian of science, Merchant's work Bahro is best known for his attempts to
has highlighted links between gender reconcile socialism with ecological
oppression and the death of nature'. theories. In Socialism and Survival
Merchant developed a feminist critique (1982), Bahro presented capitalism as
of a scientific revolution that explained the root cause of the environmental
environmental degradation ultimately in crisis, and socialism as its solution,
terms of the application by men of a thereby linking the issues of social
mechanistic view of nature. On this justice and ecological sustainability.
basis, she argued that a global However, Bahro subsequently moved
ecological revolution requires a radical beyond conventional ecosocialism,
restructuring of gender relations. arguing, in From Red to Green (1984),
Merchant's chief works include The that the ecological crisis had become so
Death of Nature (1983) and Radical pressing that it must take precedence
Ecology (1992). over the class struggle.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Isaiah Berlin (1909–97) Edward Said (1935-2003)

A Riga-born UK historian of ideas and a A Jerusalem-born US academic and
philosopher, Berlin developed a form of literary critic, Said was a prominent
liberal pluralism that was grounded in a advocate of the Palestinian cause and a
lifelong commitment to empiricism. founding figure of postcolonial theory.
Basic to Berlin's philosophical stance He developed, from the 1970s onwards,
was the idea that conflicts of values are a humanist critique of the western
intrinsic to human life, a position that Enlightenment that uncovered its link to
has influenced 'postliberal thinking colonialism and highlighted 'narratives
about multiculturalism. A fierce critic of of oppression', cultural and ideological
totalitarianism, Berlin's best-known biases that disempower colonized
political work is Four Essays on peoples. He thereby condemned
Liberty ([1958] 1969), in which he Eurocentrism's attempt to remake the
extolled the virtues of 'negative' world in its own image. Said's key
freedom over 'positive' freedom. works include Orientalism (1978) and
Culture and Imperialism (1993).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Charles Taylor (born 1931) Bhikhu Parekh (born 1935)

A Canadian academic and political An Indian political theorist, Parekh has
philosopher, Taylor drew on developed an influential defence of
communitarian thinking to construct a cultural diversity from a pluralist
theory of multiculturalism as ‘the perspective. In Rethinking
politics of recognition'. Emphasizing Multiculturalism (2005) he rejected
the twin ideas of equal dignity (rooted in universalist liberalism on the grounds
an appeal to people's humanity) and that what is reasonable and moral is
equal respect (reflecting difference and embedded in and mediated by culture,
the extent to which personal identity is which, in turn, helps people to make
culturally situated), Taylor's sense of their lives and the world
multiculturalism goes beyond classical around them. 'Variegated treatment,
liberalism, while also rejecting including affirmative action, is therefore
particularism and moral relativism. His required to put ethnic, cultural or
most influential work in this area is religious minorities on an equal footing
Multiculturalism and 'The Politics of with the majority community.
Recognition' (1994).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

James Tully (born 1946) Jeremy Waldron (born 1953)

A Canadian political theorist, Tully has A New Zealand legal and political
championed a plural form of political theorist, Waldron has developed a
society that accommodates the needs 'cosmopolitan' understanding of
and interests of indigenous peoples. He multiculturalism that stresses the rise of
portrayed modern constitutionalism, 'hybridity'. Waldron's emphasis on the
which stresses sovereignty and fluid, multifarious and often fractured
uniformity, as a form of imperialism that nature of the human self provided the
denies indigenous modes of self- basis for the development of
government and land appropriation. In cosmopolitanism as a normative
its place, he advocated 'ancient philosophy that challenges both
constitutionalism', which respects liberalism and communitarianism. It
diversity and pluralism, and allows rejects the 'rigid' liberal perception of
traditional values and practices to be what it means to lead an autonomous
accepted as legitimate. Tully's key work life, as well as the tendency within
in this area is Strange Multiplicity communitarianism to confine people
(1995). within a single 'authentic' culture.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Will Kymlicka (born 1962) Rudhollah Khomeini (1902–89)

A Canadian political philosopher, An Iranian cleric and political leader,
Kymlicka is often seen as the leading Khomeini was the architect of the
theorist of liberal multiculturalism. In Iranian Revolution' and leader of Iran
Multicultural Citizenship ([1995] from 1979 to 1989. Khomeini's world-
2000), he argued that certain 'collec view was rooted in a clear division
tive rights’ of minority cultures are between the oppressed (understood
consistent with liberal-democratic princ largely as the poor and excluded of the
iples, but acknowledged that no single developing world) and the oppressors
formula can be applied to all minority (seen as the 'twin Satans': the USA and
groups, particularly as the needs and the Soviet Union, capitalism and
aspirations of immigrants differ from communism). In Khomeini's Shia
those of indigenous peoples. For Kym Islamism, Islam is a theo-political
licka, cultural identity and minority rights project aimed at regenerating the
are closely linked to personal autonomy Islamic world by ridding it of occupation
His other works in this area include and corruption from outside.
Multicultural Odysseys (2007).
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Abul Ala Maududi (1903–79) Sayyid Qutb (1906-66)

An Indian-Pakistani scholar, An Egyptian writer and religious leader,
philosopher, jurist and early exponent of
Qutb is sometimes seen as the 'father'
Islamism, Maududi founded in 1941)
Jamaat-e Islami (the Islamic Party), of modern politicalIslam. A leading
which has developed into the most member of the Muslim Brotherhood,
influential Islamist organization in Qutb recoiled from what he saw as the
modern Pakistan and Bangladesh. moral and sexual corruption of the
Committed to the spread of Islamic West, but, influenced by Maududi,
values in the subcontinent, Maududi highlighted the condition of jihiliyyah
viewed Islam as a 'revolutionary
('ignorance of divine guidance') into
ideology and programme which seeks
to alter the social order of the whole which the Muslim world had fallen. In
world and rebuild it in conformity with its the face of this, Qutb advocated Islam
own tenets and ideals'. Maududi as a comprehensive political and social
rejected any identification of Islam with system that would both ensure social
modern creeds, such as capitalism, justice and sweep away corruption,
communism and democracy. oppression and luxury.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF
Yusuf al-Qaradawi (born 1926) Abdallah Azzam (1941–89)
An Egyptian Islamic theologian based in A Palestinian Sunni theologian, scholar
Doha, Qatar, Qaradawi is a leading and founding member of al-Qaeda,
exponent of 'new' or 'moderate' Azzam played a leading role in
Islamism. While aiming to demonstrate developing, during the 1980s, a more
Islamist support for such things as radical ideological movement within
Islamism dedicated to global jihad.
democracy, pluralism and human rights,
Azzam implored Muslims to rally in
Qaradawi has opposed the assimilation defence of Muslim victims of
of 'western values' and insisted that aggression, to liberate Muslim lands
Islam should be treated as a ‘complete from foreign domination, and to uphold
code of life'. Qaradawi supports the Muslim faith. Azzam was the mentor
military jihad in its defensive form, of Osama bin Laden (1957-2011),
especially in relation to the Palestinian under whose leadership al-Qaeda
extended Azzam's thinking by
cause, but argues that offensive jihad is
sanctioning struggle by 'all means' and
best pursued through the use of non- in 'all places', justifying attacks against
military means. the USA and its allies.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF
Muhammad abd-al-Salam Daniel Bell (1919–2011)
Faraj (1954–82) A US academic and essayist, Bell drew
An Egyptian radical Islamist, Faraj was attention, in The End of Ideology
the leader of the Cairo branch of the (1960), to the exhaustion of rationalist
Islamist group al-Jihad. Building on approaches to social and political
Qutb's belief that jihad is an individual issues, also warning, in the afterword to
duty incumbent on all Muslims, Faraj the 1988 edition, against the tyranny of
emphasized the role of armed combat utopian end-states. He helped to
and portrayed jihad as the sixth, popularize the idea of 'postindustriali
'forgotten' or 'neglected' pillar of sm ', highlighting the emergence of
Islam. Although for Faraj the primary information societies' dominated by a
target of the struggle was apostate new 'knowledge class'. In The Cultu
Muslim rulers (the 'near enemy'), in ral Contradictions of Capitalism
The Neglected Duty, probably written (1976), Bell analysed the tension
in 1979, he maintained that jihad would between capitalism's productivist and
enable Muslims to rule the world and to consumerist values and tendencies.
re-establish the caliphate.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Samuel P. Huntington (1927– Anthony Giddens (born 1938)

2008) AUK social theorist, Giddens was an
A US academic and political adviser to Tony Blair in the early years
commentator, Huntington's most widely of 'new' Labour. His theory of
discussed work, The Clash of 'structuration' reinvigorated social
Civilizations and the Remaking of theory by setting out to transcend the
World Order (1996), advanced the conventional dualism of structure and
controversial thesis that, in the twenty- agency. In works including Beyond
first century, conflict between the world's
Left and Right (1994), The Third
major civilizations would lead to warfare
and international disorder. In Who Are Way (1998) and The Runaway World
We? (2004), Huntington discussed the (1999), Giddens sought to remodel
challenges posed to the USA's national social democracy in the light of the
identity by large-scale Latino immigration advent of late modernity, taking into
and the unwillingness of Latino account developments such as
communities to assimilate into the globalization, de-traditionalization and
language and culture of majority
societies. increased social reflexivity.
POLITICAL SCIENCE UGE/NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Francis Fukuyama (born 1952)

SA US social analyst and political commentator, Fukuyama's essay, 'The
End of History?' (1989), argued that the eastern European revolutions indicated
that the history of ideas had ended with the recognition of liberal democracy as the
'final form of human government'. In Trust (1996) and The Great Disruption
(1999), he discussed the relationship between economic development and social
cohesion, highlighting contrasting forms of capitalist development. In After the
Neocons (2006), Fukuyama developed a post-9/11 critique of US foreign policy.