Reproduction in Plants and Animals

Reproduction In Plants - Importance Of Reproduction

Reproduction is one of the most fundamental processes carried out by living organisms.
However, there are differences in the way living organisms exhibit the process.

Modes Of Reproduction In Plants

In plants, reproduction is carried out via two modes:

· Asexual Mode – New plants are obtained without producing seeds

· Sexual Mode – New plants are obtained from seeds.

Asexual Reproduction In Plants

In asexual reproduction in plants, plants are reproduced without the formation of seeds.
Following are a few ways in which plants reproduce asexually.
Vegetative Propagation
As the name suggests, reproduction occurs through the vegetative parts of a plant such as stems,
leaves, buds, and roots. These plants take less time to grow and are exact replicas of their parents
as they are reproduced from a single parent.
Budding
Small bulb-like projections arise from yeast cells, eventually detaching itself from the parent
cell. This then matures to grow into a new yeast cell. These, in turn, produce more buds and the
chain continues forming a number of new yeast cells within a short period of time.
Fragmentation
Some organisms have the ability to break into two or more fragments, with the new fragment
becoming a new, independent individual. They multiply rapidly in a short period of time.
Spore Formation
Spores are present in the air and are covered by a hard protective coat to bear low humidity and
high-temperature conditions. Spores germinate and develop into new organisms under
favourable conditions.
Micropropagation
An explant is taken from a plant and allowed to grow in a nutrient medium under controlled
conditions in the laboratory. The cells divided rapidly and form an unorganised mass of cells.
This unorganised mass of cells is known as a callus. The callus is transferred to
another nutrient medium to facilitate the differentiation of different parts of the plant. The
plantlets are then transferred to the fields.

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction in Plants

· A large number of plants can be produced within a short period.

· The exact copies of the parent plant are produced.
 · Many seedless varieties are obtained through the vegetative method.
· Less attention is required by the plants grown through asexual means than through seeds.

Sexual Reproduction In Plants

The reproductive parts of plants are flowers, Stamen being male reproductive part and pistil
being the female reproductive part. If one of these reproductive parts are present in a flower, it is
said to be a unisexual flower. Example: papaya. If both Stamen and Pistil are present in flowers
they are called bisexual flowers. Example: rose.
Pollen grains produce male gametes. The pistil consists of style, stigma, and the Ovary. The
ovary consists of one or more ovules. Ovules are where female gametes or the egg is formed.
Female and male gametes fuse to form a zygote.
Pollination
When pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma of a flower through carriers such as
insects it is called pollination. It can be a case of self-pollination if pollen lands on the stigma of
the same flower or another flower of the same plant. If pollen grains land on the stigma of a
flower of a different plant but of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination.
Fertilization
A zygote is formed as a result of the fusion of gametes which later develops into the embryo.
Fruits and seeds are formed post-fertilization. Ripened ovary goes on to become a fruit. Ovules
give rise to seeds which contain the embryo in a protective covering.
How Animals Reproduce
What is Reproduction?
Reproduction is the process of producing individuals of the same kind. Most of the organisms
reproduce by mating that increases the genetic variability of the organism. The males and
females have separate reproductive organs known as gonads. These gonads produce gametes that
fuse together to form a single cell called the zygote.
Few animals such as earthworms, snails, slugs, etc. are hermaphrodites and possess male and
female reproductive organs in the same organism.

Modes of Reproduction
Depending on the number of parents involved, there are different modes of reproduction. In
animals is of two types of reproduction :

1. Sexual Reproduction.
2. Asexual Reproduction.

Let us go through the following reproduction notes to explore sexual and asexual reproduction in
animals.
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
The process in which the male and female gametes fuse together to form a new individual is
called sexual reproduction. Let us have a brief account of the human reproductive organs and
their role in reproduction.

Reproductive Organs
The male reproductive organs comprise of a pair of testes, sperm ducts, and a penis. The sperms
are produced by the testes. The sperms are very small in size with a head, a middle piece, and a
tail.
The female reproductive organs comprise of a pair of ovaries, oviducts, and the uterus. The eggs
(ova) are produced by the ovaries. The development of the baby takes place in the uterus. A
mature egg is released into the oviduct every month.
Process of Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Fertilization
The semen contains millions of sperms. A single sperm fuses with the ova during fertilization.
The nuclei of the egg and the sperm fuse together to form a single nucleus. Thus, a zygote is
formed.
Fertilization is of two types:

· Internal Fertilization
The fertilization that takes place inside the body of the female is known as internal fertilization.
For eg., humans, cows, dogs, etc. This method is more prevalent in terrestrial animals. However,
some aquatic animals also adopt this method. This may take place by direct introduction of
sperms by the male in the female reproductive tract, or the male deposits the sperms in the
environment which is picked up by the female and deposited in her reproductive tract.
They are three ways by which offsprings are produced by internal fertilization:
1. Oviparity– The fertilized eggs are laid outside the body of the female where they receive
nourishment from the yolk.
2. Ovoviviparity– The fertilized eggs are retained in the female’s body where they receive
nourishment from the yolk. The eggs are laid right before they are hatched.
3. Viviparity– The offsprings are born directly instead of hatching from the eggs. They
receive nutrition from the mother. This can be seen in mammals.

· External Fertilization
The fertilization that takes place outside the body of the female is called external fertilization.
For eg., frogs, fish. Most fertilization takes place during the process of spawning. The
environmental signals such as water temperature trigger spawning.
Embryo Development
The zygote divides repeatedly to form a ball of cells. This ball of cells is known as the embryo.
These cells differentiate into respective tissues and organs. The embryo gets implanted in the
wall of the uterus. This process is known as implantation.
When all the body parts of the embryo start being visible, it is called a foetus. The child is
developed after nine months.
Viviparous and Oviparous Animals
Oviparous and viviparous animals are two different groups of animals, which are classified on
the basis of fertilization. The main difference between oviparous and viviparous animals are
listed below:

Oviparous Viviparous

Meaning

Animals that lay fertilized or an unfertilized egg. Animals that give birth to the young ones

Fertilization

Fertilization can be either internal or external. Fertilization is only internal.

Nutrients to the developing embryo

The embryo receives nutrients from the egg yolk. Embryo receives nutrition from the mother.

Development of zygote

There is very little or no development of the embryo

The embryo develops entirely inside the mother.
inside the mother.

Survival chances

There are fewer chances of survival since the eggs The young one is protected inside the mother and so
are laid in an open environment. the chances of survival are more.

Examples

Insects, hens, fish, amphibians. Humans, dogs, cats, horses, etc.

Asexual Reproduction in Animals

Besides sexual reproduction, the other major type of reproduction seen in the animal kingdom is
asexual reproduction. This type of reproduction is mostly observed in lower organisms such as
single-celled microbes.
It is the process in which a new individual is formed by the involvement of a single parent with
or without the involvement of the gamete formation. The individuals produced are genetically
and morphologically similar. It occurs in unicellular organisms. The cells divide by mitotic
division and no fertilization takes place. The division occurs very rapidly.
Types Of Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction is of the following types:

Binary Fission
It is seen in amoeba and euglena. The parent cell undergoes mitosis and increases in size. The
nucleus also divides. Two identical daughter cells are obtained, each containing a nucleus.
Prokaryotes like bacteria majorly reproduce by binary fission.

Budding
In this, the offspring grows out of the body of the parent. It remains attached to the parent until it
matures. After maturation, it detached itself from the parent and lives as an individual organism.
This form of reproduction is most common in Hydras.

Fragmentation
In some organisms like Planarians, when the body of an organism breaks into several pieces each
piece grows into an individual offspring. This is known as fragmentation. It can occur through
accidental damage by predators or otherwise, or as a natural form of reproduction. In few
animals such as sea star, a broken arm grows into a complete organism.

Regeneration
It is a modified form of fragmentation and occurs mostly in Echinoderms. When a part of an
organism, like an arm, detaches from the parent body, it grows into a completely new individual.
This is known as regeneration.

Parthenogenesis
This is a form of asexual reproduction where the egg develops without fertilization. This process
occurs in bees, wasps, ants, aphids, rotifers, etc. Ants, wasps, and bees produce haploid males.
Parthenogenesis has been observed in a few vertebrates such as hammerhead sharks, Komodo
dragons, blacktop sharks when the females were isolated from the males.