Chapter 15

BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

 The common man would find it hard to believe that there are more than:
 20,000 species of ants,
 3,00,000 species of beetles,
 28,000 species of fishes and
 nearly 20,000 species of orchids.

15.1 BIODIVERSITY

In our biosphere immense diversity (or heterogeneity) exists not only at the species level but at all levels
of biological organisation ranging from macromolecules within cells to biomes.
Biodiversity is the term popularized by the sociobiologist Edward Wilson to describe the combined
diversity at all the levels of biological organisation.
The most important of them are–
(i) Genetic diversity: A single species might show high diversity at the genetic level over its distributional
range.
 The genetic variation shown by the medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria growing in different
Himalayan ranges might be in terms of the potency and concentration of the active chemical
(reserpine) that the plant produces.
 India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of rice, and 1,000 varieties of mango.

(ii) Species diversity: The diversity at the species level, for example, the Western Ghats have a greater
amphibian species diversity than the Eastern Ghats.

(iii) Ecological diversity: At the ecosystem level, India, for instance, with its deserts, rain forests,
mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity than a
Scandinavian country like Norway.

Most important points

 At the ecosystem level, India, has a greater ecosystem diversity than a Scandinavian country like
Norway.
 Western Ghats have a greater amphibian species diversity than the Eastern Ghats.
 India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of rice, and 1,000 varieties of mango.
 For many taxonomic groups, species inventories are more complete in temperate than in tropical
countries.
 Large proportion of the species waiting to be discovered are in the tropics.
 There are more species in tropical areas rather than temperate areas.

15.1.1 How Many Species are there on Earth and How Many in India?

1. According to the IUCN (2004), the total number of plant and animal species described so far is
slightly more than 1.5 million.
2. Some extreme estimates range from 20 to 50 million, but a more conservative and scientifically
sound estimate made by Robert May places the global species diversity at about 7 million (NEET
2020).
3. More than 70 per cent of all the species recorded are animals, while plants (including algae, fungi,
bryophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms) comprise no more than 22 per cent of the total.
4. Among animals, insects are the most species-rich taxonomic group, making up more than 70 per
cent of the total.
5. That means, out of every 10 animals on this planet, 7 are insects.
 6. The number of fungi species in the world is more than the combined total of the species of fishes,
amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
7. It should be noted that these estimates do not give any figures for prokaryotes.
8. Biologists are not sure about how many prokaryotic species there might be.
9. The problem is that conventional taxonomic methods are not suitable for identifying microbial
species and many species are simply not culturable under laboratory conditions.
10. If we accept biochemical or molecular criteria for delineating species for this group, then their
diversity alone might run into millions.

In Figure 15.1, biodiversity is depicted showing species number of major taxa.

Status of India:
1. Although India has only 2.4 per cent of the world’s land area, its share of the global species
diversity is an impressive 8.1 per cent.
2. That is what makes our country one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world.
3. Nearly 45,000 species of plants and twice as many of animals have been recorded from India.
4. If we accept May’s global estimates, only 22 per cent of the total species have been recorded so
far.
5. Applying this proportion to India’s diversity figures, we estimate that there are probably more than
1,00,000 plant species and more than 3,00,000 animal species yet to be discovered and
described.

15.1.2 Patterns of Biodiversity

(i) Latitudinal gradients:

1. The diversity of plants and animals is not uniform throughout the world but shows a rather uneven
distribution.
2. For many group of animals or plants, there are interesting patterns in diversity, the most well-
known being the latitudinal gradient in diversity.
3. In general, species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the poles.
4. With very few exceptions, tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5° N to 23.5° S) harbour more species
than temperate or polar areas.
5. Colombia located near the equator has nearly 1,400 species of birds while New York at 41° N
has 105 species and Greenland at 71° N only 56 species. India, with much of its land area in the
tropical latitudes, has more than 1,200 species of birds.
Equator

6. A forest in a tropical region like Equador has up to 10 times as many species of vascular plants
as a forest of equal area in a temperate region like the Midwest of the USA.
7. The largely tropical Amazonian rain forest in South America has the greatest biodiversity on
earth- it is home to more than –
 40,000 species of plants,
 3,000 of fishes,
 1,300 of birds,
 427 of mammals,
 427 of amphibians,
 378 of reptiles and
 of more than 1,25,000 invertebrates.

What is so special about tropics that might account for their greater biological diversity?
Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have proposed various hypotheses; some important ones are:-
(a) Speciation is generally a function of time, unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciations in
the past, tropical latitudes have remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years and thus, had a long
evolutionary time for species diversification,
(b) Tropical environments, unlike temperate ones, are less seasonal, relatively more constant and
predictable. Such constant environments promote niche specialisation and lead to a greater species
diversity.
(c) There is more solar energy available in the tropics, which contributes to higher productivity; this in turn
might contribute indirectly to greater diversity.
(ii) Species-Area relationships:

 During his pioneering and extensive explorations in the wilderness of South American jungles, the
great German naturalist and geographer Alexander von Humboldt observed that within a region
speciesrichness increased with increasing explored area, but only up to a limit.
 In fact, the relation between species richness and area for a wide
variety of taxa (angiosperm plants, birds, bats, freshwater fishes)
turns out to be a rectangular hyperbola (Figure15.2).
 On a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a straight line described by
the equation:

log S = log C + Z log A

where
S= Species richness A= Area
Z = slope of the line (regression coefficient)
C = Y-intercept

 Ecologists have discovered that the value of Z lies in the range of 0.1 to 0.2, regardless of the
taxonomic group or the region (whether it is the plants in Britain, birds in California or molluscs in
New York state, the slopes of the regression line are amazingly similar).
 But, if you analyse the species-area relationships among very large areas like the entire
continents, you will find that the slope of the line to be much steeper (Z values in the range of 0.6
to 1.2).
 For example, for frugivorous (fruit-eating) birds and mammals in the tropical forests of different
continents, the slope is found to be 1.15.

Questions asked in different exams from this topic

Q1. Alexander Von Humbolt described for the first time:

(1) Laws of limiting factor
(2) Species area relationships
(3) Population Growth equation
(4) Ecological Biodiversity

Q1. Which of the following is true?

(1) High altitude have higher biodiversity than low altitude
(2) Low altitude have higher biodiversity than high altitude
(3) Amphibians have high biodiversity among vertebrates
(4) Bryophytes have higher biodiversity than angiosperms

15.1.3 The importance of Species Diversity to the Ecosystem

Does the number of species in a community really matter to the functioning of the ecosystem?
This is a question for which ecologists have not been able to give a definitive answer.
For many decades, ecologists believed that communities with more species, generally, tend to be more
stable than those with less species.

What exactly is stability for a biological community?

A stable community should-
 Should not show too much variation in productivity from year to year;
 It must be either resistant or resilient to occasional disturbances (natural or man-made), and
 It must also be resistant to invasions by alien species.
David Tilman’s long-term ecosystem experiments:

1. We don’t know how these attributes are linked to species richness in a community, but David
Tilman’s long-term ecosystem experiments using outdoor
plots provide some tentative answers.
2. Tilman found that plots with more species showed less
year-to-year variation in total biomass.
3. He also showed that in his experiments, increased diversity
contributed to higher productivity.
4. Although, we may not understand completely how species
richness contributes to the well-being of an ecosystem, we
know enough to realize that rich biodiversity is not only
essential for ecosystem health but imperative for the very
survival of the human race on this planet.

Rivet popper hypothesis:

1. There are no direct answers to such näive questions but we can develop a proper perspective
through an analogy (the ‘rivet popper hypothesis’) used by Stanford ecologist Paul Ehrlich.
2. In an airplane (ecosystem) all parts are joined together using thousands of rivets (species).
3. If every passenger travelling in it starts
popping a rivet to take home (causing a
species to become extinct), it may not
affect flight safety (proper functioning of
the ecosystem) initially, but as more and
more rivets are removed, the plane
becomes dangerously weak over a period
of time.
4. Furthermore, which rivet is removed may
also be critical.
5. Loss of rivets on the wings (key species
that drive major ecosystem functions) is
obviously a more serious threat to flight
safety than loss of a few rivets on the seats
or windows inside the plane.

Key points
Airplane - ecosystem
Starts popping a rivet to take home - causing a species to become extinct
It may not affect flight safety - proper functioning of the ecosystem
Rivets on the wings - key species that drive major ecosystem functions

Questions asked in different exams from this topic

Which scientist proposed 'Rivet popper hypothesis' related to biodiversity and Ecosystems?
(1) Alexander von Humboldt
(2) Paul Ehrlich
(3) David Tilman
(4) Tansley
15.1.4 Loss of Biodiversity

1. While it is doubtful if any new species are being added (through speciation) into the earth’s
treasury of species, there is no doubt about their
continuing losses.
2. The biological wealth of our planet has been
declining rapidly and the accusing finger is clearly
pointing to human activities.
3. The colonisation of tropical Pacific Islands by
humans is said to have led to the extinction of
more than 2,000 species of native birds.
4. The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the
extinction of 784 species (including 338
vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and 87 plants) in
the last 500 years.

Some examples of recent extinctions include the

 Dodo (Mauritius),
 Quagga (Africa),
 Thylacine (Australia),
 Steller’s Sea Cow (Russia) and
 Three subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger.

1. The last twenty years alone have witnessed the disappearance of 27 species.
2. Careful analysis of records shows that extinctions across taxa are not random; some groups like
amphibians appear to be more vulnerable to extinction.
3. Adding to the grim scenario of extinctions is the fact that more than 15,500 species world-wide
are facing the threat of extinction.
4. Presently, 12 per cent of all bird species, 23 per cent of all mammal species, 32 per cent of all
amphibian species and 31per cent of all gymnosperm species in the world face the threat of
extinction.
5. Careful analysis of records shows that extinctions across taxa are not random; some groups like
amphibians appear to be more vulnerable to extinction.
6. Adding to the grim scenario of extinctions is the fact that more than 15,500 species world-wide
are facing the threat of extinction.
 Questions asked in different exams from this topic

Q1. Red list contains data or information on:

(1) threatened species
(2) marine vertebrates only
(3) all economically important plants
(4) plants whose products are in international trade

Q2. The organization which publishes the Red List of species is :-

(1) ICFRE
(2) IUCN
(3) UNEP
(4) WWF

‘Sixth Extinction’
From a study of the history of life on earth through fossil records, we
learn that large-scale loss of species like the one we are currently
witnessing have also happened earlier, even before humans
appeared on the scene.
During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and
diversification of life on earth there were five episodes of mass
extinction of species.
How is the ‘Sixth Extinction’ presently in progress different from the
previous episodes?
The difference is in the rates; the current species extinction rates are
estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times faster than in the pre-human
times and our activities are responsible for the faster rates.
Ecologists warn that if the present trends continue, nearly half of all the species on earth might be wiped
out within the next 100 years.

Impacts of Biodiversity loss

In general, loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to:
(a) Decline in plant production,
(b) Lowered resistance to environmental perturbations such as drought and
(c) Increased variability in certain ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, water use, and pest
and disease cycles.

Causes of biodiversity losses: The accelerated rates of species extinctions that the world is facing now
are largely due to human activities.
There are four major causes (‘The Evil Quartet’ is the sobriquet used to describe them).
(i) Habitat loss and fragmentation (most important reason)
(ii) Overexploitation
(iii) Alien species invasion
(iv) Coextinction

(i) Habitat loss and fragmentation:

a) This is the most important cause driving animals and plants to extinction. The most dramatic
examples of habitat loss come from tropical rain forests.
b) Once covering more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface, these rain forests now cover no
more than 6 per cent. They are being destroyed fast. By the time you finish reading this chapter,
1000 more hectares of rain forest would have been lost.
c) The Amazon rain forest (it is so huge that it is called the ‘lungs of the planet’) harbouring probably
millions of species is being cut and cleared for cultivating soya beans or for conversion to
grasslands for raising beef cattle.
d) Besides total loss, the degradation of many habitats by pollution also threatens the survival of
many species. When large habitats are broken up into small fragments due to various human
 activities, mammals and birds requiring large territories and certain animals with migratory habits
are badly affected, leading to population declines.

Questions asked in different exams from this topic

Q1. Which one of the following is known as 'Lungs of planet'?

(1) Amazon rain forest
(2) Western ghats
(3) Indo Burma rivers
(4) Eastern ghats

(ii) Over-exploitation:
a) Humans have always depended on nature for food and shelter, but when ‘need’ turns to ‘greed’, it
leads to over-exploitation of natural resources.
b) Many species extinctions in the last 500 years (Dodo, Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon) were
due to overexploitation by humans.
c) Presently many marine fish populations around the world are over harvested, endangering the
continued existence of some commercially important species.

(iii) Alien species invasions:

a) When alien species are introduced unintentionally or
deliberately for whatever purpose, some of them turn
invasive, and cause decline or extinction of indigenous
species.
b) The Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa
led eventually to the extinction of an ecologically unique
assemblage of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in the
lake.
c) You must be familiar with the environmental damage
caused and threat posed to our native species by invasive
weed species like carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and Parthenium
water hyacinth (Eicchornia).
d) The recent illegal introduction of the African catfish Clarias
gariepinus for aquaculture purposes is posing a threat to the indigenous catfishes in our rivers.

(iv) Co-extinctions:
a) When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it in an obligatory
way also become extinct.
b) When a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique assemblage of parasites also meets the
same fate.
c) Another example is the case of a coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism where extinction of one
invariably leads to the extinction of the other.

Questions asked in different exams from this topic

Q1. Which of the following is the most important cause of animals and plants being driven to extinction?
(1) Over - exploitation
(2) Alien species invasion
(3) Habitat loss and fragmentation
(4) Co-extinctions

Q1. Which of the following is not concerned with loss of biodiversity?

(1) Alien species invasion
(2) Habitat loss and fragmentation
(3) De forestation
(4) Ex-situ conservation
15.2 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

15.2.1 Why Should We Conserve Biodiversity?

There are many reasons, some obvious and others not so obvious, but all equally important.
They can be grouped into three categories: narrowly utilitarian, broadly utilitarian, and ethical.

1. The narrowly utilitarian arguments for conserving biodiversity are obvious; humans derive
countless direct economic benefits from naturefood (cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood, fibre,
construction material, industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes) and
products of medicinal importance.
2. More than 25 per cent of the drugs currently sold in the market worldwide are derived from plants
and 25,000 species of plants contribute to the traditional medicines used by native peoples
around the world.

Bioprospecting - exploring molecular, genetic and species-level diversity for products of economic
importance.

1. The broadly utilitarian argument says that biodiversity plays a major role in many ecosystem
services that nature provides.
2. The fast dwindling Amazon forest is estimated to produce, through photosynthesis, 20 per cent of
the total oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere.

What will be the costs of accomplishing pollination without help from natural pollinators?

1. The ethical argument for conserving biodiversity relates to what we owe to millions of plant,
animal and microbe species with whom we share this planet.
2. Philosophically or spiritually, we need to realise that every species has an intrinsic value, even if it
may not be of current or any economic value to us.

15.2.2 How do we conserve Biodiversity?

When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is protected - we save
the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situ (on site) conservation.
However, when there are situations where an animal or plant is endangered or threatened (organisms
facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future) and needs urgent measures to save it
from extinction, ex situ (off site) conservation is the desirable approach.
In situ conservation– Faced with the conflict between development and conservation, many nations find
it unrealistic and economically not feasible to conserve all their biological wealth.
1. Invariably, the number of species waiting to be saved from extinction far exceeds the
conservation resources available.
2. On a global basis, this problem has been addressed by eminent conservationists.
3. They identified for maximum protection certain ‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very high
levels of species richness and high degree of endemism (that is, species confined to that region
and not found anywhere else). Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were identified but subsequently
nine more have been added to the list, bringing the total number of biodiversity hotspots in the
world to 34.
4. These hotspots are also regions of accelerated habitat loss.
5. Three of these hotspots – Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and Himalaya – cover our
country’s exceptionally high biodiversity regions.
6. Although all the biodiversity hotspots put together cover less than 2 per cent of the earth’s land
area, the number of species they collectively harbour is extremely high and strict protection of
these hotspots could reduce the ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30 per cent.
7. In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected as biosphere
reserves, national parks and sanctuaries.
8. India now has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries.
9. India has also a history of religious and cultural traditions that emphasised protection of nature.
 10. In many cultures, tracts of forest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were
venerated and given total protection.
11. Such sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan,
Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas
of Madhya Pradesh.
12. In Meghalaya, the sacred groves are the last refuges for a large number of rare and threatened
plants.

Ex situ Conservation– In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural
habitat and placed in special setting where they can be protected and given special care.
1. Zoological parks, botanical gardens and wildlife safari parks serve this purpose.
2. There are many animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to be maintained in
zoological parks.
3. In recent years ex situ conservation has advanced beyond keeping threatened species in
enclosures.
4. Now gametes of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition for long
periods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilised in vitro, and plants can be
propagated using tissue culture methods.
5. Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept for long periods in
seed banks.

Questions asked in different exams from this topic

Q1. All of the following are included in 'Ex-situ conservation' except-

(1) Wildlife safari parks (2) Sacred groves
(3) Botanical gardens (4) Seed banks

Q2. Which is an ex-situ conservation?

(1) Seed bank (2) National park
(3) Biosphere reserve (4) Sanctuary

Q3. Which one of the following is related to Ex-situ conservation of threatened animals and plants ?
(1) Biodiversity hot spots
(2) Amazon rainforest
(3) Himalayan region
(4) Wildlife safari parks

Q4. An example of ex situ conservation is:-

(1) National Park (2) Seed Bank
(3) Wildlife Sanctuary (4) Sacred Grove

Summits
Biodiversity knows no political boundaries and its conservation is therefore a collective responsibility of all
nations.
The historic Convention on Biological Diversity (‘The Earth Summit’) held in Rio de Janeiro in
1992, called upon all nations to take appropriate measures for conservation of biodiversity and
sustainable utilisation of its benefits.
In a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South
Africa, 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010, a significant reduction in the current
rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local levels.

Important points:
 Ex - situ concervation - Zoological parks, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks, gamete bank,
semen bank, gene bank, seed bank and tissue culture.
 In - situ concervation - Biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries and sacred grooves.
 Biodiversity hotspots: Regions with very high levels of species richness, high degree of endemism
and regions of accelerated habitat loss.
 Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were identified but subsequently nine more have been added to
the list, bringing the total number of biodiversity hotspots in the world to 34.
 Three of these hotspots – Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and Himalaya – cover our
country’s exceptionally high biodiversity regions.

Questions asked in different exams from this topic

Q1. Biodiversity hot spot areas that covers India are:-

(1) Western ghat, Eastern ghat, Indo burma
(2) Eastern ghat, Himalaya, Indo burma
(3) Western ghat, Srilanka, Himalaya, Indo burma
(4) Himalaya, Eastern ghat, Western ghat

Q2. The region of Biosphere Reserve which is legally protected and where no human activity is
allowed
is known as:
(1) Buffer zone
(2) Transition zone
(3) Restoration zone
(4) Core zone

Q3. How many hot spots of biodiversity in the world have been identified till date by Norman Myers?
(1) 34
(2) 43
(3) 17
(4) 25

Q4. In which of the following both pairs have correct combination :-

(1) In situ conservation : Cryopreservation
Ex situ conservation : Wildlife Sanctuary
(2) In situ conservation : Seed Bank
Ex situ conservation : National Park
(3) In situ conservation : Tissue culture
Ex situ conservation : Sacred groves
(4) In situ conservation : National Park
Ex situ conservation : Botanical Garden

Q5. A species facing extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future is called :-
(1) Vulnerable (2) Endemic
(3) Critically Endangered (4) Extinct
 Biosphere reserve:

The concept of Biosphere Reserves was launched in 1971 as a, part of United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)’s ‘Man and Biosphere Programme’.
Divided into 3 zones:

Core Areas:

 Includes protected areas-these act as

reference points on the natural state of the
ecosystems represented by the biosphere
reserves
 non-destructive research and other low-
impact activities(such as ecotourism) are
generally undertaken

2. Buffer Zone:

 Surrounds or is contiguous to the core area.

 Activities are organized so they do not hinder the conservation objectives of the core area,
but rather help to protect it.
 It is used for cooperative activities compatible with sound ecological practices
 Human activities are less intensive than that in the transition zone

3. Transition Zone or Area of Cooperation:

 May contain a variety of agricultural activities, settlements and other uses and in which local
communities, management agencies, scientists, NGOs, and other stakeholders work together
to manage and sustainably develop the area’s resources.
 The term ‘area of cooperation’ underscores the role of cooperation as the main tool to
achieve the objectives of the biosphere reserve.

Some facts:

 There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India. Of these, 11 are part of the World Network of
Biosphere Reserves.
 First Biosphere Reserve: Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Est. 1986)
 Largest Biosphere Reserve: Gulf of Mannar
 Smallest Biosphere Reserve: Panna
IUCN Red list