SECTION 3:

RESISTIVE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS II

ENGR 201 – Electrical Fundamentals I
2 Resistive Network Analysis

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Circuit Analysis Methods
3

 Circuit analysis objective is to determine all:

 Node voltages
 Branch currents

 Circuit analysis tools:

 Ohm’s law
 Kirchhoff’s laws – KVL, KCL

 Circuit analysis methods:

 Nodal analysis
 Systematic application of KCL
 Mesh/loop analysis
 Systematic application of KVL
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4 Nodal Analysis

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 Nodal Analysis
5

 Nodal analysis
 Systematicapplication of KCL
 Generate a system of equations
 Node voltages are the unknown variables
 Number of equations equals number of unknown node
voltages
 Solveequations to determine node voltages
 Apply Ohm’s law to determine branch currents

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 Nodal Analysis – Step-by-Step Procedure
6

1) Identify and label all nodes in the circuit – distinguish

known from unknown node voltages
2) Assign and label polarities of currents through all
branches
3) Apply KCL at each node, using Ohm’s Law to express
branch currents in terms of node voltages
4) Solve the resulting simultaneous system of equations
using substitution, calculator, Cramer’s Rule, etc.
5) Use Ohm’s Law and node voltages to determine
branch currents

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 Nodal Analysis – Example
7

 Apply nodal analysis to determine all node voltages

and branch currents in the following circuit

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 Nodal Analysis – Step 1
8

 Step 1: Identify and

label all nodes in the
circuit – distinguish
known from
unknown node
voltages
 Vsis a known node
voltage (5 V)
 V1 and V2 are
unknown

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 Nodal Analysis – Step 2
9

 Step 2: Assign and

label polarities of
currents through all
branches
 Assumed polarities
needn’t be correct
 Correct polarity given
by the sign of the
determined quantity

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 Nodal Analysis – Step 3
10

 Step 3: Apply KCL at each node, using Ohm’s Law to

express branch currents in terms of node voltages
KCL at node 1
𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 − 𝐼𝐼3 = 0

5𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2

− − =0
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3

KCL at node 2

𝐼𝐼3 − 𝐼𝐼4 = 0

𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2

− =0
𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅4

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 Nodal Analysis – Step 4
11

 Step 4: Solve the resulting system of equations

 First, organize the equations

5𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 1 1 1 1 5𝑉𝑉

− − =0 𝑉𝑉1 − − − + 𝑉𝑉2 =−
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅1
1 1 1
𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 − − =0
− =0 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅4
𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅4

 Solve using Gaussian elimination, Cramer’s rule, or using calculator or

computer
 Put into matrix form for solution in calculator or MATLAB:
1 1 1 1
− − − 5𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅3 𝑉𝑉1 − −8𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉1 −10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= 𝑅𝑅1 =
1 1 1 𝑉𝑉2 5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −7.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉2 0
− − 0
𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅4

𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆 = 𝐈𝐈
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Nodal Analysis – Step 5
12

 Step 5: Use Ohm’s Law and node voltages to determine branch

currents
 Solution to system of equations yields node voltages:
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝑽
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑽𝑽

 Branch currents are

5𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉1 5 𝑉𝑉 − 2.14 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼1 = = = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑅𝑅1 500 Ω
𝑉𝑉1 2.14 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼2 = = = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑅𝑅2 1 𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑉2 1.43 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼3 = 𝐼𝐼4 = = = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑅𝑅4 400 Ω

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 Nodal Analysis
13

 Nodal analysis yields all node voltages and branch

currents

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14 Supernodes

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 Nodal Analysis – Floating Voltage Sources
15

 When performing nodal analysis on circuits with voltage

sources, there are two possible scenarios:
 Voltage source connected to the reference node
 As in the last example
 Voltage source is floating
 Both terminals connected to non-reference nodes

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 Nodal Analysis - Supernodes
16

 Floating voltage sources pose a problem

 Cannot use Ohm’s law to represent the current through the
source
 Ohm’s law applies only to resistors

 Solution:
 Form a supernode enclosing the source
 Formed by two non-reference nodes
 Apply KCL to the supernode
 One equation for the two unknown nodes
 Apply KVL to relate the voltages of the nodes forming the
supernode
 Providing the required additional equation

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 Supernode – Example
17

 Nodes 𝑉𝑉1 and 𝑉𝑉2 form a supernode, enclosing the floating

voltage source
 Circuit has two unknown node
voltages, 𝑉𝑉1 and 𝑉𝑉2
 System of two equations is
required
 KCL will be applied at the
supernode
 Only one equation will result

 Additional required equation obtained by applying KVL to

relate 𝑉𝑉1 to 𝑉𝑉2

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 Nodal Analysis with Supernodes – Step-by-Step
18

1) Identify and label all nodes in the circuit – distinguish

known from unknown node voltages
2) Assign and label polarities of currents through all branches
3) Generate a system of equations
a) Apply KCL at each node and each supernode, using Ohm’s Law to
express branch currents in terms of node voltages
b) Apply KVL to relate the voltages of the nodes that form the
supernodes
4) Solve the resulting simultaneous system of equations using
substitution, calculator, Cramer’s Rule, etc.
5) Use Ohm’s Law and node voltages to determine branch
currents
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 Supernode – Example
19

 Step 1: Identify and label all nodes in the circuit

 Any supernodes are identified and labeled in this step
 Step 2: Assign and label all
branch currents
 Step 3a: Apply KCL at all nodes
and all supernodes
 Here we have only the one
supernode:
𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼3 − 𝐼𝐼4 = 0

10 𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉1 10 𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2

− + − =0
2Ω 8Ω 4Ω 6Ω

1 1 1 1
𝑉𝑉1 + + 𝑉𝑉2 + = 7.5 𝐴𝐴
2Ω 8Ω 4Ω 6Ω
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Supernode – Example
20

 Step 3b: Apply KVL to relate the voltages of the nodes

that form the supernode
𝑉𝑉1 − 5𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 0
𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 = 5 𝑉𝑉
 Step 4: Solve the resulting system of equations
𝑉𝑉1 ⋅ 625 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑉𝑉2 ⋅ 416.7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 7.5 𝐴𝐴
𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 = 5 𝑉𝑉
 Putting these into matrix form:
625 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 416.7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉1 7.5 𝐴𝐴
=
1 −1 𝑉𝑉2 5 𝑉𝑉
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Supernode – Example
21

625 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 416.7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉1 7.5 𝐴𝐴

=
1 −1 𝑉𝑉2 5 𝑉𝑉

 Note that coefficient matrix on

the left-hand side is no longer a
conductance matrix
 Second-row elements are
dimensionless
 Mix of KCL and KVL equations

 Solve using your method of choice

 Here, solved using MATLAB
𝑉𝑉1 = 9.2 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉2 = 4.2 𝑉𝑉
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Supernode – Example
22

 Step 5: Use Ohm’s law and

branch currents to determine
node voltages
10 𝑉𝑉 − 9.2 𝑉𝑉 0.8 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼1 = = = 0.4 𝐴𝐴
2Ω 2Ω
9.2 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼2 = = 1.15 𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼1 = 0.4 𝐴𝐴
8Ω
10 𝑉𝑉 − 4.2 𝑉𝑉 5.8 𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼2 = 1.15 𝐴𝐴
𝐼𝐼3 = = = 1.45 𝐴𝐴
4Ω 4Ω
𝐼𝐼3 = 1.45 𝐴𝐴
4.2 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼4 = = 0.7 𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼4 = 0.7 𝐴𝐴
6Ω

K. Webb ENGR 201

23 Example Problems

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 Apply nodal analysis to
determine Vo in the
following circuit.

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 Apply nodal analysis
to determine V1 and
V2.

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 Apply nodal analysis
to determine Vo.

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 Apply nodal analysis
to determine V1, V2,
and V3.

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29 K. Webb ENGR 201
 Apply nodal analysis
to determine V1, V2,
and V3.

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32 Mesh Analysis

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 Mesh Analysis
33

 Mesh analysis
 Systematicapplication of KVL
 Generate a system of equations
 Mesh currents are the unknown variables
 Number of equations equals number of unknown mesh
currents
 Solveequations to determine mesh currents
 Determine branch currents as linear combinations of
mesh currents
 Apply Ohm’s law to determine node voltages

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Meshes
34

 What is a mesh?
A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loops

 Loop 1 and Loop 2 are meshes, Loop 3 is not

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 Mesh Currents
35

 What is a mesh current?

 Fictitious circulating current in a mesh
 Components of the branch currents
 Branch currents are linear combinations of mesh currents, e.g.:
𝑖𝑖1 = 𝐼𝐼1
𝑖𝑖3 = 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2
𝑖𝑖4 = 𝐼𝐼2

 Conventions:
 Denote mesh currents with
uppercase 𝐼𝐼
 Denote branch currents with
lowercase 𝑖𝑖
 Mesh current direction is
clockwise

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 Mesh Analysis – step-by-step procedure
36

1) Identify and label all:

 Mesh currents, 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛
 Branch currents, 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛
 Unknown node voltages
2) Apply KVL around each mesh
 Follow CW direction of the mesh current
 Use Ohm’s law to express voltage drops in terms of mesh currents
3) Solve the resulting simultaneous system of equations using
Gaussian elimination, calculator, MATLAB, etc.
4) Determine branch currents from the mesh currents
5) Use Ohm’s Law and branch currents to determine node
voltages
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Mesh Analysis – Example
37

 Use mesh analysis to

determine all
 Node voltages
 Branch currents

 Step 1: Identify and label all

mesh currents, branch
currents, and unknown node
voltages
 Two unknown mesh currents
 Three distinct branch currents
 Two unknown node voltages

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Mesh Analysis – Example
38

 Step 2: Apply KVL around each

mesh
 KVL around mesh 1:
5 𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼1 ⋅ 500 Ω − 𝐼𝐼1 ⋅ 1 𝑘𝑘Ω + 𝐼𝐼2 ⋅ 1 𝑘𝑘Ω = 0

 Note that there are two components to the voltage across

the 1 𝑘𝑘Ω resistor
 A drop due to 𝐼𝐼1
 A rise due to 𝐼𝐼2

 KVL around mesh 2:

−𝐼𝐼2 ⋅ 1 𝑘𝑘Ω + 𝐼𝐼1 ⋅ 1 𝑘𝑘Ω − 𝐼𝐼2 ⋅ 200 Ω − 𝐼𝐼2 ⋅ 400 Ω = 0
 Again, note the two voltage components across the 1 𝑘𝑘Ω
resistor
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Mesh Analysis – Example
39

 Step 3: Solve the resulting system of mesh

equations
 Cleaning up the two equations:
𝐼𝐼1 ⋅ 1.5 𝑘𝑘Ω − 𝐼𝐼2 ⋅ 1 𝑘𝑘Ω = 5 𝑉𝑉
−𝐼𝐼1 ⋅ 1 𝑘𝑘Ω + 𝐼𝐼2 ⋅ 1.6 𝑘𝑘Ω = 0
 Organizing the system of two equations into matrix
form:
1.5 𝑘𝑘Ω −1 𝑘𝑘Ω 𝐼𝐼1 5 𝑉𝑉
=
−1 𝑘𝑘Ω 1.6 𝑘𝑘Ω 𝐼𝐼2 0
𝐑𝐑 𝐈𝐈 = 𝐕𝐕

 Solving in MATLAB yields:

𝐼𝐼1 = 5.71 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝐼𝐼2 = 3.57 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

 Mesh currents, not branch currents

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Mesh Analysis – Example
40

 Step 4: Determine branch

currents from mesh currents
 Branch current, 𝑖𝑖1 , is the same as
mesh current, 𝐼𝐼1
𝑖𝑖1 = 𝐼𝐼1 = 5.71 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

 Branch current, 𝑖𝑖2 , is a combination of the two opposing

mesh currents
 In the same direction as 𝐼𝐼1
 In the opposite direction of 𝐼𝐼2

𝑖𝑖2 = 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 = 5.71 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 3.57 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 2.14 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

 Branch current, 𝑖𝑖3 , is the same as mesh current, 𝐼𝐼2
𝑖𝑖3 = 𝐼𝐼2 = 3.57 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Mesh Analysis – Example
41

𝑖𝑖1 = 5.71 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑖𝑖2 = 2.14 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑖𝑖3 = 3.57 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

 Step 5: Use Ohm’s law and branch

currents to determine node voltages
𝑉𝑉1 = 2.14 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉1 = 2.14 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ⋅ 1 𝑘𝑘Ω = 2.14 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉2 = 3.57 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ⋅ 400 Ω = 1.43 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉2 = 1.43 𝑉𝑉

 Note that these results agree with

those obtained through nodal analysis

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42 Supermeshes

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 Mesh Analysis – Current Sources
43

 Sometimes, we may want to perform mesh analysis on a circuit

containing current sources
 Two possible scenarios:
 Current source is part of only  Current source is part of two
one mesh meshes

 Here, 𝐼𝐼1 = 2 𝐴𝐴  Can’t apply KVL around

 Only one unknown mesh either mesh
current, 𝐼𝐼2  Don’t know the voltage drop
 Only one mesh equation across the current source
 Mesh analysis proceeds as
usual
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 Supermesh
44

 Current source shared by two meshes poses a problem

 Need to apply KVL around each mesh, but don’t know the
voltage across the current source

 Solution:
 Form a supermesh around the periphery of the two meshes
that share the current source
 Apply KVL around the supermesh
 One equation for the two unknown mesh currents
 Apply KCL to a node on the branch common to the two
meshes in the supermesh
 This provides the second required equation for the two unknown
mesh currents

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Supermesh – Example
45

 Meshes 1 and 2 are combined

to form a supermesh
 Circuit has two unknown
mesh currents, 𝐼𝐼1 and 𝐼𝐼2
 System of two equations is
required
 KVL will be applied around the supermesh
 Only one equation will result
 Additional required equation obtained by applying KCL to a
node on the branch common to both meshes
 If multiple supermeshes intersect, they should be joined
into a single supermesh
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Mesh Analysis with Supermeshes – Step-by-Step
46

1) Identify and label all:

 Mesh currents, 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛
 Branch currents, 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛
 Unknown node voltages
2) Generate a system of equations
a) Apply KVL around each supermesh and each mesh that is not part of a
supermesh
b) Apply KCL at a node on each branch common to two meshes in each
supermesh
3) Solve the resulting simultaneous system of equations using Gaussian
elimination, calculator, MATLAB, etc.
4) Determine branch currents from the mesh currents
5) Use Ohm’s Law and branch currents to determine node voltages

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Supermesh – Example
47

 Step 1: Identify and label all

mesh currents, branch currents,
and unknown node voltages
 Any supermeshes are identified
and labeled in this step

 Step 2a: Apply KVL around each mesh and each supermesh
 Only one supermesh, and no other meshes
−𝐼𝐼1 ⋅ 2 Ω − 𝐼𝐼1 ⋅ 8 Ω − 𝐼𝐼2 ⋅ 6Ω − 𝐼𝐼2 ⋅ 12 Ω = 0
 Step 2b: Apply KCL at a node on the branch common to the two
meshes in the supermesh
𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 + 2𝐴𝐴 = 0
 These are the two equations needed to solve for the two unknown
mesh currents, 𝐼𝐼1 and 𝐼𝐼2
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Supermesh – Example
48

 Step 3: Solve the resulting

system of equations
 Rearranging the equations:
𝐼𝐼1 ⋅ 10 Ω + 𝐼𝐼2 ⋅ 18 Ω = 0
−𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 = 2 𝐴𝐴
 In matrix form, the system of equations is
10 Ω 18 Ω 𝐼𝐼1 0
=
−1 1 𝐼𝐼2 2 𝐴𝐴
 Note that, similar to the supernode analysis, the two equations now
have different units
 Solving in MATLAB yields
𝐼𝐼1 = −1.29 𝐴𝐴
𝐼𝐼2 = 0.714 𝐴𝐴
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Supermesh – Example
49

 Step 4: Determine branch currents

from the mesh currents
 Very simple in this example
𝑖𝑖1 = 𝐼𝐼1 = −1.29 𝐴𝐴
𝑖𝑖2 = 𝐼𝐼2 = 0.714 𝐴𝐴

 Step 5: Use Ohm’s law and branch currents to determine node voltages
𝑉𝑉1 = −𝑖𝑖1 ⋅ 2 Ω = 1.29 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 2 Ω = 2.57 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑖𝑖2 ⋅ 18 Ω = 0.714 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 18 Ω = 12.86 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉3 = 𝑖𝑖2 ⋅ 12 Ω = 0.714 A ⋅ 12 Ω = 8.57 V

 Results of the mesh analysis: 𝑉𝑉1 = 2.57 𝑉𝑉

𝑖𝑖1 = −1.29 𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉2 = 12.86 𝑉𝑉

𝑖𝑖2 = 0.714 𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉3 = 8.57 𝑉𝑉
K. Webb ENGR 201
50 Example Problems

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 Apply mesh analysis to
determine V1, V2, i1, i2, and
i3 in the following circuit.

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 Apply mesh analysis to
determine the power
supplied/absorbed by each of
the sources in the following
circuit.

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 Apply mesh analysis
to determine Vx.

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58 Linearity & Superposition

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 Systems
59

 System
 Some entity – component, group of components – with inputs and
outputs
 Electrical component
 Electrical circuit
 Motor, engine, robot, aircraft, etc. …

 Can think of the system as a mathematical function that operates

on the input to provide the output
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

 A resistor is a system with voltage as the input and current as the

output (or vice versa)
1
𝑖𝑖 = 𝑣𝑣
𝑅𝑅

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Linear Systems
60

 Linear system
 A system whose constitutive relationship is linear
 Function relating input to output is an equation for a line
 An ideal resistor is an example of a linear system
 Voltage in, current out:
1
𝑖𝑖 = ⋅ 𝑣𝑣
𝑅𝑅
 A line with slope 1/𝑅𝑅

 Current in, voltage out:

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑅𝑅 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖
 A line with slope 𝑅𝑅

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Superposition
61

 Linear systems obey the principle of superposition

 Two components to the superposition principle:
 Additivity
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥2

 Homogeneity
𝑓𝑓 𝛼𝛼 ⋅ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝛼𝛼 ⋅ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Superposition
62

 Consider an 4 Ω resistor
𝑣𝑣
𝑖𝑖 =
𝑅𝑅
 𝑣𝑣1 = 2 𝑉𝑉
2 𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖1 = = 0.5 𝐴𝐴
4Ω
 𝑣𝑣2 = 6 𝑉𝑉
3 ⋅ 2 𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖2 = = 3 ⋅ 0.5 𝐴𝐴 = 1.5 𝐴𝐴
4Ω
 𝑣𝑣3 = 8 𝑉𝑉
2 𝑉𝑉 + 6 𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖3 = = 0.5 𝐴𝐴 + 1.5 𝐴𝐴 = 2 𝐴𝐴
4Ω
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Superposition – Electrical Circuits
63

 Superposition applied to electrical circuits

 Tool for analyzing networks with multiple sources
 For example:
 Output, 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 , is some linear
combination of the inputs:
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠

 𝑎𝑎1 and 𝑎𝑎2 are constants

 If we know them, we know 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
 To determine 𝑎𝑎1
 Set 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 = 0
 Analyze the circuit to determine 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
 To determine 𝑎𝑎2
 Set 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 0
 Analyze the circuit to determine 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Superposition
64

The output of a multiple-input system is the sum of the

outputs due to each independent source acting individually

 Circuit analysis using superposition:

 Set all independent sources to zero, except for one
 Determine the output component due to that source
 Repeat for all independent sources
 Sum all output components to find the total output

 Setting sources to zero:

 Voltage sources become short circuits (𝑣𝑣 = 0)
 Current sources become open circuits (𝑖𝑖 = 0)

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Superposition - Example
65

 Apply superposition to determine

the output voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

 First, set the current source to zero

 Replace it with an open circuit
 Analyze the circuit to determine the
output components due to the
voltage source acting alone:

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 �
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Superposition - Example
66

 A simple voltage-divider circuit

𝑅𝑅3
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3
2 𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � = 5 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 6 𝑘𝑘Ω

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � = 1.67 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠

 Next, set the voltage source to zero

 Replace it with a short circuit
 Analyze the circuit to determine the output
components due to the current source acting
alone:

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 �
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Superposition - Example
67

 In this case, we have a current-divider circuit

 First, determine the current, 𝐼𝐼3 ,
flowing through 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅1
𝐼𝐼3 = 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3
1 𝑘𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐼3 = 10 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
6 𝑘𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐼3 = 1.67 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

 Applying Ohm’s law to 𝑅𝑅3 gives the output voltage due to the
current source
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � = 𝐼𝐼3 𝑅𝑅3 = 1.67 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ⋅ 2 𝑘𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � = 3.33 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Superposition - Example
68

 The total output due to both sources is

the sum of the individual output
components
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � + 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 �
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 1.67 𝑉𝑉 + 3.33 𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 5 𝑉𝑉

 Comments:
 Superposition applies to circuits with any number of sources and any
mix of voltage and/or current sources
 Becomes a more useful tool as circuits get more complex
 Applies to all types of linear systems – not just electrical

K. Webb ENGR 201

69 Example Problems

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Apply superposition to
determine Vo in the
following circuit.

70 K. Webb ENGR 201

71 K. Webb ENGR 201
72 K. Webb ENGR 201
 Apply superposition
to determine Vo in the
following circuit.

73 K. Webb ENGR 201

74 K. Webb ENGR 201
 Apply superposition to
determine Vo in the
following circuit.

75 K. Webb ENGR 201

76 K. Webb ENGR 201
77 K. Webb ENGR 201
78 Thévenin & Norton Equivalents

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Thévenin Equivalent Circuits
79

 Thévenin’s theorem:
Any two-terminal linear network of resistors and
sources can be represented as single resistor in series
with a single independent voltage source

 The resistor is the Thévenin

equivalent resistance, 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡
 The voltage source is the
open-circuit voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

Léon Charles Thévenin, 1857 – 1926

K. Webb ENGR 201
 Thévenin Equivalent Circuits
80

 Simplifies the analysis of complex networks

 Quickly determine current, voltage, or power to any
load connected to the network terminals

Complex network Thévenin equivalent network

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Open-Circuit Voltage - 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
81

 Open-circuit voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

 The terminal voltage with no load attached
 Determine 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 by using most convenient method
 Ohm’s Law
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
 Voltage or current divider
 Nodal or mesh analysis

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Thévenin Resistance - 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡
82

 Thévenin equivalent resistance, 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡

 Resistance seen between the two terminals with all
independent sources set to zero
 Voltage sources → short circuits
 Current sources → open circuits

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Thévenin Equivalent – Example
83

 For a 100 Ω load connected to the following network,

determine:
 Load current, 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿
 Load voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿

 Transform to a Thévenin equivalent circuit, then

connect a 100 Ω load
 IL and VL are then easily determined using Ohm’s Law
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Thévenin Equivalent – Example
84

 Analyze the circuit using any convenient technique

 Nodal analysis would be a reasonable choice
 Two independent sources – we’ll use superposition

 First, find 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 due to 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠

 𝑅𝑅1 is in parallel with a voltage
source, so it can be neglected
 No current flows through 𝑅𝑅5
so it can be neglected
 Circuit reduces to a simple
voltage divider

500 Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑐𝑐 � = 10 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ = 5 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 1000 Ω
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Thévenin Equivalent – Example
85

 Next, find 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 due to 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠

 𝑅𝑅1 gets shorted, so it can be
neglected
 No current flows through 𝑅𝑅5 so
it can be neglected
 Circuit reduces to a simple current divider
 Find 𝐼𝐼3 to determine the terminal voltage
200 Ω
𝐼𝐼3 = 10 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
1000 Ω
 Terminal voltage is negative due to current direction
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � = −𝐼𝐼3 𝑅𝑅4 = −2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ⋅ 500 Ω = −1 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠

 Open-circuit voltage is the sum of the individual components

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � + 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � = 5 𝑉𝑉 − 1 𝑉𝑉 = 4 𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Thévenin Equivalent – Example
86

 Next, determine the Thévenin equivalent resistance, 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡

 Set independent sources to zero
 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 → short circuit (𝑉𝑉 = 0)
 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 → open circuit (𝐼𝐼 = 0)
 Determine equivalent resistance between the terminals
 𝑅𝑅1 is shorted
 In parallel with a short circuit
 Combine other series and parallel
resistors
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅5 + 𝑅𝑅4 || 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 50 Ω + 500 Ω|| 200 Ω + 300 Ω

𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 300 Ω

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Thévenin Equivalent – Example
87

 The Thévenin equivalent circuit with a

100 Ω load connected:
 Voltage division gives the load voltage
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 100 Ω
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 4 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 400 Ω

𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 1 𝑉𝑉

 Ohm’s law gives the load current

𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 1 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = =
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 100 Ω

𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = 10 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
K. Webb ENGR 201
 Norton Equivalent Circuits
88

 Norton’s theorem:
Any two-terminal linear network of resistors and
sources can be represented as single resistor in parallel
with a single independent current source

 The resistor is the Thévenin

equivalent resistance, 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡
 The current source is the
short-circuit current, 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Edward Lawry Norton, 1898 – 1983

K. Webb ENGR 201
 Norton Equivalent Circuits
89

 An extension of Thévenin’s Theorem

 Motivated by the development of vacuum tubes
 More appropriately modeled with current sources
 Same is true of the successors to tubes: transistors

Complex network Norton equivalent network

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Short-Circuit Current- 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
90

 Short-circuit current, 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

 The current that flows between the short-circuited terminals
 Determine 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑐𝑐 by using most convenient method
 Ohm’s Law
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
 Voltage or current divider
 Nodal or mesh analysis

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Thévenin Resistance - 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡
91

 Thévenin equivalent resistance, 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡 ,

 The same for a Norton equivalent circuit as for a Thévenin
equivalent circuit
 The resistance seen between the two terminals with all
independent sources set to zero

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Thévenin and Norton Equivalents
92

 Easily convert between Thévenin and Norton equivalent

circuits

Thévenin Norton

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡

K. Webb ENGR 201

93 Example Problems

K. Webb ENGR 201

 Determine both the Thévenin
and Norton equivalents for the
following circuit.

94 K. Webb ENGR 201

95 K. Webb ENGR 201
 Determine the Thévenin
equivalent for the
following circuit.

96 K. Webb ENGR 201

97 K. Webb ENGR 201
98 K. Webb ENGR 201
99 K. Webb ENGR 201